3.

History - The study of the past after the

Prehistoric Age in India
invention of writing and the study of literate
Prehistoric Age refers to the time when there
societies based on written records and
was no writing and development. It consists of
archaeological sources constitute history.
five periods.

- Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Chalcolithic &

Iron Age. CONSTRUCTION OF ANCIENT INDIAN
HISTORY

PREHISTORIC INDIA
The sources which help in reconstructing
history are:
History
1. Non-literary sources
History (from the Greek word - Historia,
meaning “inquiry”, knowledge acquired by 2. Literary sources - which include religious

investigation) is the study of the past. History is literature & secular literature

an umbrella term that relates to past events as Non-Literary Sources

well as the discovery, collection, organisation,
presentation and interpretation of information • Coins: Ancient Indian currency was not issued

about these events. in the form of paper but as coins. The earliest
coins found in India contained only a few
It is divided into pre-history, proto-history, and symbols, punch-marked coins made of silver &
history. copper, but later coins mentioned the names of
1. Pre-history - Events that occurred before the the kings, gods, dates, etc. The areas where
invention of writing are considered pre-history. they were found indicate the region of their
Pre-history is represented by the three stone circulation. This enabled to reconstruct the
ages. history of several ruling dynasties, especially
Indo- Greeks who came to India from Northern
2. Proto-history - It refers to the period between
Afghanistan and ruled India in 2nd and 1st BCE.
pre-history and history, during which a culture
Coins throw light on the economic history of
or organisation had not developed yet but has
different dynasties and also provide input on
its mention in the written records of a
different parameters involved such as the
contemporary literate civilisation. For example,
script, art, religion of that time. It also helps in
the scripts of the Harappan civilization remains
understanding the progress made in terms of
undeciphered, however since its existence is
metallurgy and science and technology. (The
noted in Mesopotamian writing, it is considered
study of coins is called Numismatics).
part of proto-history. Similarly, Vedic civilisation
from 1500-600 BCE is considered part of proto- • Archaeology/Material remains: The science
history as well. Neolithic and Chalcolithic which deals with the digging of the old mounds
cultures are also considered part of proto- in a systematic manner, in successive layers
history by archaeologists. and enables to form an idea of the material life

1|QCR Contact : 7006356779, 7006442202

of the people is called Archaeology. Material and commodities of trade between India
remains recovered as a result of excavation and the Roman empire.
and exploration are subjected to various kinds o Fa-Hein, a Buddhist traveller, left a vivid
of examinations. Their dates are fixed account of the age of the Guptas.
according to radiocarbon dating. For example, o Hsuan-Tsang, a Buddhist pilgrim, visited
excavated sites belonging to the Harappan India and gave details of India under the
period help us to know about the life of the reign of King Harshavardhana and the glory
people who lived in that era. Similarly, the of the Nalanda University.
Megaliths (graves in south India) throw light on
the life of the people living in the Deccan and
south India before 300 BCE. The history of Literary Sources
climate and vegetation is known through an
• Religious Literature: The religious literature
examination of plant residues, especially
throws light on the social, economic as well
through pollen analysis.
as cultural conditions of the ancient Indian
• Inscriptions/Prashastis - (The study and period. Some of the sources are:
interpretation of ancient inscriptions is called o The Four Vedas - The Vedas may be
epigraphy). Writings engraved on hard assigned to c.1500 - 500 BCE. The
surfaces such as stone and metals like copper Rigveda mainly contains prayers while
which usually record some achievements, the later Vedic texts (Samaveda,
ideas, royal orders and decisions help in Yajurveda, Atharvaveda) comprise not
understanding different religions, and only prayers but rituals, magic and
administrative policies of that era. For example, mythological stories.
inscriptions detailing state policy issued by o Upanishads - The Upanishads (Vedanta)
Ashoka and inscriptions recording the land contain philosophical discussions on
grants by Satavahanas, kings of the Deccan. “Atma” and “Paramatma”.
o Epics of Mahabharata and Ramayana -
• Foreign accounts: Indigenous literature can
Of the two epics, the Mahabharata is
be supplemented by foreign accounts. To India
older in age and possibly reflects the
came the Greek, Chinese and Roman visitors,
state of affairs from the 10th century BCE
either as travellers or religious converts, and left
to the 4th century CE. Originally it
behind a rich account of our historical past.
consisted of 8800 verses (called Jaya
Some of the notables among them were:
Samhita). The final compilation brought
o Greek Ambassador Megasthenes wrote the verses to 1,00,000 which came to be
“Indica” and provided valuable information known as the Mahabharata or
about the Mauryan society and Satasahasri Samhita. It contains
administration. narrative, descriptive and didactic
o “The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea” and material. The Ramayana originally
“Ptolemy's Geography” both written in Greek consisted of 12000 verses which were
give valuable information about the ports later raised to 24000. This epic also has

2|QCR Contact : 7006356779, 7006442202

 its didactic portions which were added o Literary work of Kalidasa - The works of
later. the great poet Kalidasa comprises
o Sutras - Sutras contain ritual literature kavyas and dramas, the most important
such as Shrautasutras (which include being Abhijnanasakuntalam. Besides
sacrifices, royal coronation) and Grihya being creative composition, they give an
Sutras (which include domestic rituals insight into the social and cultural life of
like birth, naming, marriage, funeral, etc.) northern and central India in the age of
o Buddhist religious texts - The early the Guptas.
Buddhist texts were written in Pali o Rajatarangini - This is the famous book
language and are commonly known as written by Kalhana and depicts the
Tripitaka (three baskets) - Sutta Pitaka, social and political life of 12th century CE
Vinaya Pitaka, and Abhidhamma Pitaka. Kashmir.
These texts throw invaluable light on the o Charitas/Biographies - Charitas are the
social and economic conditions of that biographies written by court poets in
era. They also make references to admiration of their rulers such as
political events in the age of the Buddha. Harshacharita written by Banabhatta in
o Jaina’s religious texts - The Jaina texts praise of King Harshavardhana.
commonly called “angas”, were written o Sangam literature - This is the earliest
in the Prakrit language, and contain south Indian literature, produced by
philosophical concepts of the Jainas. poets who assembled together
They contain many texts which help to (Sangam), and provides valuable
reconstruct the political history of information about the social, economic
eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar in the and political life of the people living in
age of Mahavira. The Jaina texts refer deltaic Tamil Nadu. This Tamil literature
repeatedly to trade and traders. contains literary gems such as
‘Silappadikaram’ and ‘Manimekalai’.

• Secular Literature: There is also a large body

of secular literature such as: PREHISTORIC PERIODS IN INDIA
o Dharmashastras/Law books - These lay
ACCORDING TO TOOLS
down the duties for different varnas as
Ancient history can be divided into different
well as for the kings and their officials.
periods according to the tools used by people
They prescribe the rules according to
then.
which property is to be held, sold and
inherited. They also prescribe 1. Paleolithic Period (Old Stone Age): 500,000
punishments for persons guilty of theft, BCE – 10,000 BCE
murder, etc. 2. Mesolithic Period (Late Stone Age): 10,000
o Arthashastra - Arthashastra of Kautilya BCE – 6000 BCE
reflects the state of society and 3. Neolithic Period (New Stone Age): 6000 BCE
economy in the age of the Mauryas. – 1000 BCE

3|QCR Contact : 7006356779, 7006442202

4. Chalcolithic Period (Stone Copper Age): 1. The Indian people are believed to have
3000 BCE – 500 BCE belonged to the ‘Negrito’ race, and lived in
5. Iron Age: 1500 BCE – 200 BCE the open air, river valleys, caves and rock
shelters.
2. They were food gatherers, ate wild fruits and
STONE AGE vegetables, and lived on hunting.
The stone age is the prehistoric period, i.e., the 3. There was no knowledge of houses, pottery,
period before the development of the script, agriculture. It was only in later stages they
therefore the main source of information for discovered fire.
this period is the archaeological excavations. 4. In the upper palaeolithic age, there is
Robert Bruce Foote is the archaeologist who evidence of art in the form of paintings.
discovered the first palaeolithic tool in India, the 5. Humans used unpolished, rough stones like
Pallavaram handaxe. hand axes, choppers, blades, burins and
On the basis of geological age, the type and scrapers.
technology of stone tools, and subsistence Palaeolithic men are also called ‘Quartzite’ men
base, the Indian stone age is classified in India as the stone tools were made of a hard
primarily into three types- rock called quartzite.
• Palaeolithic age (old stone age): Period - The old stone age or palaeolithic age in India is
500,000 - 10,000 BCE divided into three phases according to the
• Mesolithic age (late stone age): Period - nature of the stone tools used by the people
10,000 - 6000 BCE and also according to the nature of the change
• Neolithic age (new stone age): Period - of climate.
6000 - 1000 BCE
1. Lower Palaeolithic Age: up to 100,000 BC
Palaeolithic Age (Old Stone Age) 2. Middle Palaeolithic Age: 100,000 BC –
The term ‘Palaeolithic’ is derived from the Greek 40,000 BC
word ‘palaeo’ which means old and ‘lithic’ 3. Upper Palaeolithic Age: 40,000 BC – 10,000
meaning stone. Therefore, the term Palaeolithic BC
age refers to the old stone age. The old stone Lower Palaeolithic Age (Early Palaeolithic
age or palaeolithic culture of India developed Age)
in the Pleistocene period or the Ice Age, which
is a geological period of the age when the
earth was covered with ice and weather was so • It covers the greater part of the Ice Age.
cold that human or plant life could not survive. • Hunters and food gatherers; tools used were
But in the tropical region, where ice melted, the hand axes, choppers and cleavers. Tools
earliest species of men could exist. were rough and heavy.
• One of the earliest lower Palaeolithic sites is
Bori in Maharashtra.
Main characteristics of the Palaeolithic age - • Limestone was also used to make tools.

4|QCR Contact : 7006356779, 7006442202

• Major sites of lower Palaeolithic age • Emergence of Homo sapiens.
o Soan valley (in present Pakistan) • The period is marked by innovation in tools
o Sites in the Thar Desert and technology. A lot of bone tools,
o Kashmir including needles, harpoons, parallel-sided
o Mewar plains blades, fishing tools and burin tools.
o Saurashtra • Major sites of Upper Palaeolithic age
o Gujarat o Bhimbhetka (South of Bhopal) - hand
o Central India axes and cleavers, blades, scrapers and
o Deccan Plateau a few burins have been found here.
o Chotanagpur plateau o Belan
o North of the Cauvery River o Son
o Belan valley in UP o Chota Nagpur plateau (Bihar)
• There are habitation sites including caves o Maharashtra
and rock shelters. o Orissa and
• An important place is Bhimbetka in Madhya o The Eastern Ghats in Andhra Pradesh
Pradesh. o Bone tools have been found only at cave
sites of Kurnool and Muchchatla
Middle Palaeolithic age
Chintamani Gavi in Andhra Pradesh.
• Tools used were flakes, blades, pointers,
scrapers and borers.
Mesolithic Period (Middle Stone Age)
• The tools were smaller, lighter and thinner.
• There was a decrease in the use of hand
axes with respect to other tools.
The term Mesolithic is derived from two Greek
• Important middle Palaeolithic age sites
words - ‘meso’ and ‘lithic’. In Greek ‘meso’
o Belan valley in UP
means middle and ‘lithic’ means stone. Hence,
o Luni valley (Rajasthan)
the Mesolithic stage of prehistory is also known
o Son and Narmada rivers
as the ‘Middle Stone Age’.
o Bhimbetka
o Tungabhadra river valleys
o Potwar Plateau (between Indus &
Both Mesolithic and Neolithic phases belong to
Jhelum)
the Holocene era. In this era, there was a rise in
o Sanghao cave (near Peshawar,
temperature, the climate became warm which
Pakistan)
resulted in melting of ice and also brought
changes in flora and fauna.

Upper Palaeolithic age

• The upper palaeolithic age coincided with Characteristic Features of the Mesolithic
the last phase of the ice age when the Era
climate became comparatively warmer
and less humid.
5|QCR Contact : 7006356779, 7006442202
• The people of this age lived on hunting, • The first human colonization of the Ganga
fishing and food gathering initially but later Plains happened during this period.
on they also domesticated animals and
cultivated plants, thereby paving the way
for agriculture. Important Mesolithic Sites
• The first animal to be domesticated was the
• Bagor in Rajasthan is one of the biggest and
wild ancestor of the dog. Sheep and goats
best-documented Mesolithic sites in India.
were the most common domesticated
Bagor is on river Kothari where microliths
animals.
along with animal bones and shells have
• The Mesolithic people lived in semi-
been excavated.
permanent settlements along with
• Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh provides the
occupying caves and open grounds.
earliest evidence for the domestication of
• The people of this era believed in life after
animals.
death and hence they buried the dead with
• There are about 150 Mesolithic rock art sites
food items and other goods.
across India, with a rich concentration in
• The characteristic tools of this era were
Central India such as Bhimbetka caves
microliths - the miniature stone tools
(Madhya Pradesh), Kharwar, Jaora and
usually made of crypto- crystalline silica,
Kathotia (M.P), Sundargarh and Sambalpur
chalcedony or chert, both of geometrical
(Odisha), Ezhuthu Guha (Kerala).
and non-geometrical shapes. They were
• Microliths have also been found in some
not only used as tools but were also used to
valleys of river Tapi, Sabarmati, Narmada,
make composite tools, spearheads,
and Mahi.
arrowheads, and sickles after
• Langhnaj in Gujarat and Biharanpur in West
Bengal are also important Mesolithic sites.
Bones of wild animals (rhinoceros,
hafting them on wooden or bone handles.
blackbuck, etc.) have been excavated from
These microliths enabled the Mesolithic man to
Langhnaj. Several human skeletons and a
hunt smaller animals and birds.
large number of microliths have been
• The Mesolithic men started to wear clothes recovered from these places.
made of animal skin. • Though pottery is absent at most Mesolithic
• The Mesolithic people were art lovers and sites, they have been found in Langhnaj
initiated rock art. The subject matter of (Gujarat) and in the Kaimur region of
these paintings was mostly wild animals Mirzapur (U.P).
and hunting scenes, dancing and food
collection were also depicted in such
paintings. These rock paintings give an idea Neolithic Period (New Stone Age)
about the development of religious
The term Neolithic is derived from the Greek
practices and also reflect the division of
word ‘neo’ which means new and ‘lithic’
labour on the basis of gender.
meaning stone. Thus, the term Neolithic Age

6|QCR Contact : 7006356779, 7006442202

refers to the ‘New Stone Age’. It is also termed more settled life and paved the way for the
as 'Neolithic revolution' since it introduced a lot beginning of civilization.
of important changes in man’s social and
economic life. The Neolithic age saw man
turning into a food producer from food The neolithic people did not live far away from
gatherer. the hilly areas. They inhabited mainly the hilly
river valleys, rock shelters and the slopes of the
Characteristic Features of the Neolithic
hills, since they were entirely dependent on
Age weapons and tools made of stone.
• Tools and Weapons - The people used
microlithic blades in addition to tools made
of polished stones. The use of celts was Important Neolithic Sites
especially important for ground and • Koldihwa and Mahagara (lying south of
polished hand axes. They also used tools Allahabad) - This site provides evidence of
and weapons made of bones - such as circular huts along with crude hand made
needles, scrapers, borers, arrowheads, etc. pottery. There is also evidence of rice, which
The use of new polished tools made it easier is the oldest evidence of rice, not only in
for humans to cultivate, hunt and perform India but anywhere in the world.
other activities in a better manner. • Mehrgarh (Balochistan, Pakistan) - The
• Agriculture - The people of the Neolithic age earliest Neolithic site, where people lived in
cultivated land and grew fruits and corn like houses built of sun-dried bricks and
ragi and horse gram (kulati). They also cultivated crops like cotton and wheat.
domesticated cattle, sheep and goats. • Burzahom (Kashmir) - The domestic dogs
• Pottery - With the advent of agriculture, were buried along with their masters in their
people were required to store their food graves; people lived in pits and used tools
grains as well as to cook, eat the product, made of polished stones as well as bones.
etc. That's why it is said that pottery • Gufkral (Kashmir) - This neolithic site is
appeared in this phase on a large scale. The famous for pit dwelling, stone tools and
pottery of this period was classified under graveyards in houses.
greyware, black-burnished ware, and mat • Chirand (Bihar) - The neolithic men used
impressed ware. In the initial stages of the tools and weapons made of bones.
Neolithic age, handmade pottery was made • Piklihal, Brahmagiri, Maski, Takkalakota,
but later on, foot wheels were used to make Hallur (Karnataka) - The people were
pots. cattle herders. They domesticated sheep
• Housing and Settled Life - The people of and goats. Ash mounds have been found.
Neolithic age lived in rectangular or circular • Belan Valley (which is located on the
houses which were made of mud and reeds. northern spurs of the Vindhyas and middle
Neolithic men also knew how to make boats part of Narmada valley)
and could spin cotton, wool and weave
cloth. The people of the Neolithic age led a

7|QCR Contact : 7006356779, 7006442202

- All the three phases i.e., palaeolithic, seems to have been widely prevalent in that
mesolithic and neolithic ages are found in era. The ochre-coloured pottery was also
sequence. popular. The potter's wheel was used and
painting with white linear designs was also
done.
Chalcolithic Age (Stone Copper Age) • Rural settlements - The people living in the
stone age were characterised by rural
The Chalcolithic Age marked the emergence of
settlements and were not acquainted with
the use of metal along with stone tools. The first
burnt bricks. They lived in thatched houses
metal to be used was copper. The chalcolithic
made of mud bricks. This age also marked
age largely applied to the pre-Harappan
the beginning of social inequalities, as
phase, but in many parts of the country, it
chiefs lived in rectangular houses while the
appears after the end of the bronze Harappan
commoners lived in round huts. Their
culture.
villages consisted of more than 35 houses
of different sizes, circular or rectangular in
shape. The chalcolithic economy is
Characteristics of the Chalcolithic Age
considered as a village economy.
• Agriculture & cattle rearing - The people • Art and Craft - The chalcolithic people were
living in the stone-copper age expert coppersmiths. They knew the art of
domesticated animals and cultivated food copper smelting and were good stone
grains. They domesticated cows, sheep, workers as well. They knew spinning and
goats, pig and buffaloes and hunted deer. It weaving and were well acquainted with the
is not clear whether they were acquainted art of manufacturing cloth. However, they
with the horse or not. People ate beef but did not know the art of writing.
did not take pork on any considerable scale. • Worship - Small clay images of earth
The people of the Chalcolithic phase goddesses have been found from the
produced wheat and rice, they also chalcolithic sites. It is thus possible to say
cultivated bajra. They also produced several that they venerated the Mother Goddess. In
pulses such as lentil (masur), black gram, Malwa and Rajasthan, stylised bull
green gram, and grass pea. Cotton was terracottas show that the bull served as a
produced in the black cotton soil of the religious cult.
Deccan and ragi, bajra and several millets • Infant mortality - Infant mortality was high
were cultivated in the lower Deccan. The among the Chalcolithic people, as is evident
people belonging to the stone-copper from the burial of a large number of
phase in the eastern regions lived mainly on children in West Maharashtra. In spite of
fish and rice, which is still a popular diet in being a food-producing economy, the rate
that part of the country. of infant mortality was very high. We can
• Pottery - The people of the stone-copper say that the Chalcolithic social and
phase used different types of pottery, one of economic pattern did not promote
which is called black and red pottery and longevity.

8|QCR Contact : 7006356779, 7006442202

• Jewellery - The Chalcolithic people were ovens and circular pit houses have been
fond of ornaments and decoration. The discovered here.
women wore ornaments of shell and bone • Navdatoli (on Narmada) - It was one of the
and carried finely worked combs in their largest chalcolithic settlements in the
hair. They manufactured beads of semi- country. It was spread over 10 hectares and
precious stones such as carnelian, steatite, cultivated almost all food grains.
and quartz crystal. • Nevasa (Jorwe, Maharashtra) and Eran
(Madhya Pradesh) - These sites are known
for their non- Harappan culture.
Important Chalcolithic Sites

• Ahar (Banas valley, South Eastern

PREHISTORIC PERIOD IRON AGE
Rajasthan) - The people of this region
practised smelting and metallurgy, supplied
copper tools to other contemporary • Arrival of the Aryans: Vedic Period
communities. Rice was cultivated here. • Jainism, Buddhism
• Gilund (Banas valley, Rajasthan) - Stone • Mahajanapadas: the first major civilisation
blade industry was discovered here. on the banks of the river Ganga after the
• Daimabad (Ahmadnagar, Gujrat) - The Indus Valley.
largest Jorwe culture site in Godavari valley.
It is famous for recovery of bronze goods
such as bronze rhinoceros, elephant, two
wheeled chariot with a rider and a buffalo.
• Malwa (Madhya Pradesh) - The settlements
of Malwa culture are mostly located on the
Narmada and its tributaries. It provides
evidence of the richest chalcolithic
ceramics, and also spindle whorls.
• Kayatha (Madya Pradesh) - The settlement
of Kayatha culture was mostly located on
the Chambal River and its tributaries.
Houses had mud-plastered floors, pre-
Harappan elements in pottery along with
copper objects with sharp cutting edges
were found.
• Chirand, Senuar, Sonpur (Bihar), Mahishdal
(West Bengal) - These are the prominent
chalcolithic sites in these states.
• Songaon, Inamgaon and Nasik
(Maharashtra) - Large mud houses with

9|QCR Contact : 7006356779, 7006442202