REPUBLIC OF CAMEROON RÉPUBLIQUE DU CAMEROUN

Peace-Work-Fatherland Paix-Travail-Patrie
MINISTRY OF HIGHER MINISTÈRE DE L’ENSEIGNEMENT
EDUCATION SUPÉRIEUR

UNIVERSITY OF BUEA
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND
TECHNOLOGY
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
OPTION: CIVIL ENGINEERING

ASSESSMENT OF STORMWATER DRAINAGE SYSTEMS AND

FLOOD RISK MITIGATION STRATEGIES IN FRONT OF GCE
BOARD, BUEA: A CASE STUDY

Final year project submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the
Bachelor (BEng) in CIVIL ENGINEERING

PRESENTED BY:
MOVEN JERY-GASTON DZEKEMJEI
(FE21A069)
UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF:
Arch. MACKONGO JEAN-CHRISTIAN
Lecturer/FET_CAE UB, ENSTP

2024/2025 ACADEMIC
YEAR
 DECLARATION

I, the undersigned MOVEN JERY-GASTON DZEKEMJEI hereby declare that the project
work presented in this report
is my own work and has been carried out under the supervision of Arch. MACKONGO
JEAN-CHRISTIAN (Lecturer/FET_CAE UB, ENSTP)
This work has not received any previous academic credit at this or any other institution.

ii
DEDICATION

iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

iv
LIST OF ACRONYMS

v
LIST OF FIGURES

vi
LIST OF TABLES

vii
LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS

viii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Flooding in front of the GCE Board, Buea, is a big problem, especially when it rains heavily.
The drainage system in this area is too small or blocked, making water overflow onto
streets. Rapid urban growth and poor waste disposal also make flooding worse. This study
looks at the causes of flooding, problems with the drainage system, and ways to fix them.

Many cities use better drainage systems, flood barriers, and smart water management to
stop flooding. Buea can do the same by expanding drainage pipes, keeping drains clean,
and using nature-friendly solutions like rain gardens and permeable pavements. The
study shows that stronger drainage systems, regular maintenance, and better flood
prevention plans can help reduce water buildup. Government support and community
awareness are also important to protect the area from future floods.

Key Words

 Flooding
 Drainage System
 Flood Prevention
 Urban Development
 Stormwater Management
 Sustainable Drainage
 Community Awareness
 Drainage Maintenance
 Climate Adaptation
 Flood Control Strategies

ix
 ABSTRACT
This study examines the stormwater drainage system in front of the GCE Board, Buea, where
heavy rains often lead to water build-up and flooding. The problem is that the current
drainage system cannot handle the large amount of water during heavy rains, which creates a
risk of floods and affects the safety and accessibility of the area. The key objective of this
work is to assess the existing drainage situation and to design a culvert-based drainage system
that can better manage stormwater and reduce flood risks. The method used centres on
designing and evaluating a culvert-based drainage system. Field observations, water flow
measurements, and design calculations were carried out to understand how water moves
during rain events and to determine the appropriate size and placement of the culvert. The key
results of the study indicate that the proposed culvert design can efficiently divert excess
water from the area, thereby lowering the risk of flooding. In conclusion, upgrading the
drainage system with a culvert-based design significantly improves the management of
stormwater, reducing the chance of floods and enhancing public safety. The main
recommendations are to adopt the new drainage design, ensure regular maintenance of the
culvert, and continuously monitor rainfall patterns to adjust the design if needed.

Key Words

 Stormwater drainage system

 Flood risk mitigation
 Culvert-based design
 GCE Board, Buea
 Heavy rains
 Stormwater management

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 CHAPTER I: GENERAL INTRODUCTION
I.1. Context and Justification
Flooding is a major issue in many cities, including Buea, Cameroon. The area in front of the
GCE Board in Buea frequently experiences flooding due to poor drainage systems. Heavy
rainfall, blocked drains, and rapid urban development have worsened the situation. When
stormwater cannot flow properly, it collects on roads and sidewalks, causing damage to
buildings, transportation delays, and health risks (Li et al., 2019).

Stormwater drainage systems are designed to remove excess rainwater from streets and
prevent flooding. However, if these systems are not well-maintained or properly designed,
they fail to control water flow. In Buea, the drainage system in front of the GCE Board may
not be effective enough to handle large amounts of rainwater. This study aims to assess the
current drainage system and suggest better ways to reduce flood risks (Sohn et al., 2020)

This research is important for several reasons, some of which include:

I.1.1. Preventing Flood Damage

Flooding can damage roads, buildings, and businesses. By improving drainage systems, we
can reduce these risks (Dohnji et al., 2024).

I.1.2. Improving Public Safety

Flooded streets can be dangerous for pedestrians and drivers. A better drainage system will
make the area safer (Li et al., 2019).

I.1.3. Supporting Urban Development

As Buea grows, proper drainage systems are needed to support new buildings and roads
(Sohn et al., 2020).

I.1.4. Environmental Protection

Poor drainage can lead to water pollution and soil erosion. A well-designed system will help
protect the environment (Dohnji et al., 2024).

I.1.5. Data for Decision-Making

This study will provide useful information for engineers and city planners to design better
drainage solutions (Li et al., 2019).

I.2. Motivation
The entrance to GCE Board, Molyko Police station and Regional Centre for Research and
innovation for South West has become a nightmare zone to road users both drivers and

1
pedestrians due to poor stormwater management. Yet these public services are of great
importance to the community especially the headquarters of the GCE, however accessing
these services is a real ordeal given the very poor condition of the main entrance to these
facilities. The main road which is the main entrance is intersected by a heavy runoff
descending from 3 different channels. Road users are forced to make a long deviation which
wastes them energy and time. How, then, can we open up this area and simultaneously
improve the living conditions of the road users?

To address the problem mentioned above, this study requires us to conduct a hydraulic and
structural design of a crossing structure in accordance with current design standards. This
research will help improve flood management strategies in Buea and ensure a safer
environment for residents

I.3. Challenge Statement

The area in front of the GCE Board often gets flooded because of the absence of a drainage
system to remove the rainwater (Dohnji et al., 2024). The road in front of the GCE Board
collects water from three different directions, making it worse when it rains. This flooding
makes it hard for people to walk or drive, damages the road, and causes health problems (Li et
al., 2019).

The GCE Board is an important place, but when it rains, getting there becomes very difficult.
Drivers and pedestrians must go a long way around to avoid the flooded road, wasting time
and energy (Sohn et al., 2020). The absence of the drainage system makes it difficult for the
water to be moved away, and the lack of proper flood control makes the problem worse.

This study will check how well the drainage systems work and suggest better ways to reduce
flooding in front of the GCE Board. By looking at how water moves in the area, the research
will help find solutions to make the road safer and easier to use (Gomes et al., 2022).

I.4. Objectives
The assessment of stormwater drainage systems and flood risk mitigation strategies in front of
GCE board, Buea aims to achieve the following objectives:
I.4.1. Evaluate the Existing Drainage System
Assess the effectiveness of the current stormwater drainage infrastructure in front of the GCE
Board, identifying weaknesses and areas for improvement.
I.4.2. Identify Causes of Flooding
Analyze the factors contributing to frequent flooding in the study area, including rainfall
patterns, urbanization, and drainage system inefficiencies.

2
I.4.3. Propose Sustainable Drainage Solutions
Recommend engineering solutions such as improved drainage designs, retention basins, and
sustainable urban drainage systems (SUDS) to mitigate flood risks.
I.4.4. Assess the Impact of Flooding on Road Users
Examine how flooding affects pedestrians, drivers, and businesses in the area, highlighting
the economic and social consequences.
I.4.5. Develop a Hydraulic and Structural Design
Design a crossing structure that meets current engineering standards and ensures efficient
stormwater evacuation.
I.4.6. Improve Public Safety and Accessibility
Provide recommendations to enhance road safety and accessibility for residents, businesses,
and public service users.
I.4.7. Support Urban Planning and Policy Development
Offer data-driven insights to assist policymakers and urban planners in making informed
decisions about flood management strategies.

I.5. Plan of Report

Below is a structured plan of the research
I.5.1. Chapter 1: Introduction
- Background of the study
- Importance of stormwater drainage systems
- Overview of flooding issues in front of the GCE Board, Buea
- Objectives of the study
- Report structure
I.5.2. Chapter 2: Literature Review
- Overview of stormwater drainage systems and flood risks
- Causes of urban flooding
- Sustainable flood mitigation strategies
- Case studies of effective drainage systems
- Review of existing studies related to stormwater management in Buea
I.5.3. Chapter 3: Methodology
- Study area description
- Data collection methods (field survey, hydrological analysis, GIS mapping)
- Hydrological study: rainfall patterns and runoff estimation
- Hydraulic study: drainage system assessment and proposed solutions
- Structural study: designing crossing structures

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- Financial assessment of flood mitigation strategies
I.5.4. Chapter 4: Results and Discussion
- Findings on the effectiveness of existing drainage systems
- Weaknesses and failure points in current flood control measures
- Proposed engineering solutions and benefits
- Comparison with other drainage systems in urban settings
- Implications for urban development and policy
I.5.5. Chapter 5: Conclusion and Recommendations
- Summary of key findings
- Importance of implementing improved drainage solutions
- Policy recommendations for flood risk mitigation
- Suggestions for future research

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 CHAPTER II: LITTERATURE REVIEW
II.1. Introduction
II.1.1. Background of stormwater drainage systems
Stormwater drainage systems help cities and towns manage rainwater and prevent flooding.
When it rains, water flows over roads, sidewalks, and rooftops. If there is no proper drainage,
this water can collect in low areas, causing floods and damage to buildings and roads
(Pimentel da Silva & de Souza, 2020).

Stormwater drainage systems are designed to move rainwater away from streets and buildings
safely. These systems include pipes, drains, and channels that guide water to rivers, lakes, or
storage areas. Without proper drainage, cities can experience serious problems like water
pollution, erosion, and transportation delays (Gato-Trinidad, 2023).

Drainage systems are very important as they offer the various services:
II.1.1.1. Preventing Flooding
One of the main jobs of a stormwater drainage system is to stop flooding. When rain falls, it
flows over roads and sidewalks. If there is no proper drainage, water collects in low areas,
causing floods. Drainage systems help move this water away quickly to prevent damage
(Pimentel da Silva & de Souza, 2020).

II.1.1.2. Protecting Roads and Buildings

Water can weaken roads and buildings over time. If stormwater is not removed, it can seep
into the ground and damage foundations. Drainage systems help keep roads and buildings
strong by directing water away from them (Gato-Trinidad, 2023).

II.1.1.3. Reducing Water Pollution

Stormwater can carry dirt, chemicals, and trash into rivers and lakes. Drainage systems help
filter out harmful materials before the water reaches natural water bodies. Some systems use
special filters or green spaces to clean the water before it flows into rivers (Pimentel da Silva
& de Souza, 2020).

II.1.1.4. Improving Public Safety

Flooded streets can be dangerous for drivers and pedestrians. Water can make roads slippery
and hide potholes. Drainage systems help keep streets dry and safe for people to use (Gato-
Trinidad, 2023).

These drainage systems also face challenges like blockages and clogging, poor drainage
design, climate change and heavy rainfall.

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II.1.2. Importance of flood risk mitigation

Flooding is one of the most common natural disasters, affecting cities and towns worldwide.
It can damage homes, roads, and businesses, making life difficult for people. Flood risk
mitigation refers to the steps taken to reduce the impact of floods and protect communities
from damage (Genovese & Thaler, 2020).

Floods happen when heavy rain, overflowing rivers, or poor drainage systems cause water to
collect in low areas. Without proper flood control measures, cities can experience serious
problems like property damage, transportation delays, and health risks (Abdi-Dehkordi et al.,
2021).

Why is Flood Risk Mitigation Important?

II.1.2.1. Protecting Lives and Property

Floods can destroy homes, businesses, and roads. People may lose their belongings or even
their lives in severe floods. By using flood mitigation strategies like better drainage systems
and flood barriers, cities can reduce the damage caused by floods (Genovese & Thaler, 2020).

II.1.2.2. Reducing Economic Losses

Floods can cause major financial losses. Businesses may close, and governments may spend a
lot of money repairing roads and buildings. Investing in flood prevention can save money in
the long run by reducing damage and repair costs (Abdi-Dehkordi et al., 2021).

II.1.2.3. Improving Public Safety

Flooded streets can be dangerous for drivers and pedestrians. Water can make roads slippery
and hide potholes. Flood mitigation strategies help keep streets dry and safe for people to use
(Martinez et al., 2021).

II.1.2.4. Preventing Water Pollution

Floodwater can carry dirt, chemicals, and trash into rivers and lakes, polluting drinking water
sources. Proper flood control measures help prevent pollution and protect the environment
(Genovese & Thaler, 2020).

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II.1.2.5. Supporting Sustainable Development

As cities grow, they need strong flood protection systems to ensure safe living conditions.
Good flood management helps cities develop without worrying about frequent flood damage
(Abdi-Dehkordi et al., 2021).

In order to reduce these flood risks, some strategies could be practiced which include;

II.1.2.6. Building Strong Drainage Systems

Cities need well-designed drainage systems to move rainwater away from streets and
buildings. Regular maintenance helps keep drains clear and working properly (Martinez et al.,
2021).

II.1.2.7. Using Flood Barriers and Retention Basins

Flood barriers and retention basins help control water levels and prevent flooding in low-lying
areas (Genovese & Thaler, 2020).

II.1.2.8. Improving Land Use Planning

Avoiding construction in flood-prone areas and using green spaces to absorb rainwater can
help reduce flood risks (Abdi-Dehkordi et al., 2021).

II.1.2.9. Educating Communities

Teaching people about flood risks and emergency preparedness helps communities respond
better to floods and stay safe (Martinez et al., 2021).

Flood risk mitigation is essential for protecting lives, property, and the environment. By
investing in strong drainage systems, flood barriers, and proper land planning, cities can
reduce the impact of floods and create safer communities.

II.1.3. Overview of flooding issues in front of the GCE Board, Buea

This area experiences water build-up on roads, making movement difficult for pedestrians and
vehicles. Poor drainage systems and blocked gutters contribute to frequent flooding, affecting
businesses, homes, and public spaces (OCHA, 2023).

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II.1.3.1. Poor Drainage System
The drainage system in front of the GCE Board is too small or blocked, preventing water
from flowing properly. When it rains heavily, water overflows onto the streets, causing floods
(Dohnji et al., 2024).
II.1.3.2. Heavy Rainfall and Climate Change
Buea receives intense rainfall, especially during the rainy season. Climate change has made
storms stronger, increasing the risk of flash floods in the area (OCHA, 2023).
II.1.3.3. Urbanization and Poor Waste Disposal
Rapid urban growth has reduced natural water absorption, increasing surface runoff. Many
drains are blocked by trash and debris, making flooding worse (Dohnji et al., 2024).

II.2. Causes of Flooding in Front of GCE Board, Buea

II.2.1. Heavy rainfall and climate patterns

Flooding in front of the GCE Board in Buea is a serious problem, especially during the rainy
season. One of the reasons for this flooding is heavy rainfall and changing climate patterns.
Buea has a tropical monsoon climate, meaning it receives a lot of rain throughout the year,
especially between May and November (Baba et al., 2025).

How Heavy Rainfall Causes Flooding

II.2.1.1. Intense Rainfall Overwhelms Drainage Systems

Buea experiences very high rainfall, sometimes over 300 mm in a single month. When rain
falls too quickly, the drainage systems cannot remove the water fast enough, leading to water
buildup on roads and sidewalks (Baba et al., 2025).

II.2.1.2. Soil Saturation and Runoff

When the ground absorbs too much rainwater, it becomes saturated and cannot take in more
water. This leads to runoff, where excess water flows over roads instead of soaking into the
soil, increasing flood risks (Baba et al., 2025).

Climate patterns may impact flooding in the following ways.

 Longer Rainy Seasons

Climate change has made rainy seasons longer and more intense. Buea now experiences more
frequent and heavier rainfall, increasing the chances of flooding (Weather Atlas, 2025).

8
  Rising Temperatures and Extreme Weather

Higher temperatures can lead to stronger storms and heavier rainfall. This sudden increase in
rain can overwhelm drainage systems, causing flash floods (Baba et al., 2025).

 Unpredictable Rainfall Patterns

Rainfall in Buea is becoming less predictable, making it harder for city planners to prepare for
floods. Some months receive unexpectedly high rainfall, leading to drainage failures and
water accumulation (Weather Atlas, 2025).

II.2.2. Poor drainage infrastructure and maintenance issues

Flooding in Buea is a major issue, especially during heavy rains. One of the causes for this
flooding is poor drainage infrastructure and lack of proper maintenance. When drainage
systems are not well-designed or regularly cleaned, they cannot remove rainwater effectively,
leading to water buildup on roads and sidewalks (Baba et al., 2025).

How Poor Drainage Infrastructures Causes Flooding

II.2.2.1. Small and Inefficient Drains

Many drainage channels in Buea are too small to handle large amounts of rainwater. When
heavy rain falls, the drains quickly fill up, causing water to overflow onto the streets (Baba et
al., 2025).

II.2.2.2. Blocked Drainage Channels

Trash, sand, and leaves often block the drainage system, preventing water from flowing
properly. When drains are clogged, rainwater has nowhere to go, leading to flooding
(FloodList, 2023).

II.2.2.3. Poorly Designed Drainage System

Some drainage systems in Buea were built without proper planning. If drains are placed in the
wrong locations or do not have enough slope, water cannot flow efficiently, increasing the
risk of flooding (Baba et al., 2025).

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Lack of maintenance of these drainage systems worsens the situation. Below are some effects
that are experienced if maintenance of these systems are not done.

No Regular Cleaning

Drainage systems need regular cleaning to remove dirt and debris. Without maintenance,
drains become blocked, making it difficult for rainwater to pass through (FloodList, 2023).

Broken and Damaged Drains

Over time, drainage pipes and channels can crack or collapse due to wear and tear. If broken
drains are not repaired, they cannot remove water properly, leading to flooding (Baba et al.,
2025).

Government Inaction

Many residents in Buea have complained about poor drainage, but little or no action has been
taken to fix the problem. Without proper investment in drainage infrastructure, flooding will
continue to be a major issue (FloodList, 2023).

II.2.3. Urbanization and impermeable surfaces

Urbanization and the increase in impermeable surfaces are also one of the causes of
flooding. As Buea expands, more roads, buildings, and paved areas replace natural land,
reducing the ability of the ground to absorb rainwater. Instead of soaking into the soil,
rainwater runs off these surfaces, overwhelming the drainage system and causing floods
(Baba et al., 2025).

II.2.3.1. Construction of Buildings and Roads

Urbanization leads to the rapid construction of houses, offices, and roads, replacing green
spaces that naturally absorb rainwater. As a result, water flows faster over concrete and
asphalt, increasing the chances of flooding (Feng, Zhang, & Bourke, 2021).

II.2.3.2. Weak Drainage System Upgrades

As cities grow, drainage systems must also expand to handle more rainwater. However, in
many cases, drainage networks in Buea have not been adequately improved to keep up with

10
urban growth. The existing infrastructure struggles to manage excessive runoff, leading to
water accumulation on roads (Baba et al., 2025).

II.2.3.3. Loss of Vegetation and Natural Absorption Areas

Before urban expansion, trees, grass, and open spaces helped absorb rainwater. When these
areas are replaced with impermeable surfaces, the water cannot penetrate the ground,
increasing surface runoff and making flooding worse (Feng, Zhang, & Bourke, 2021).

Impermeable surfaces also worsen the flooding by;

 Reduced Water Absorption

Impermeable surfaces such as concrete and asphalt do not allow water to pass through.
Rainwater that would normally seep into the soil instead flows rapidly across roads and
sidewalks, increasing the volume of runoff entering drainage systems (Baba et al., 2025).

 Drainage Overload and Overflow

More surface runoff puts extra pressure on drainage systems. If the drains in front of the GCE
Board are too small or partially blocked, water overflows, leading to localized flooding (Feng,
Zhang, & Bourke, 2021).

 Increased Risk of Flash Floods

Impermeable surfaces cause water to move faster, creating flash floods (sudden and intense
flooding events after heavy rainfall). Flash floods can be dangerous for pedestrians and
vehicles, making roads difficult to navigate (Baba et al., 2025).

II.2.4. Waste management and blocked drainage channels

Poor waste management and blocked drainage channels disturbs the smooth flow of water and
therefore causes flooding. When trash, plastic, and other debris clog drainage systems,
rainwater cannot flow properly, leading to water buildup on roads and sidewalks (Baba et al.,
2025).

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II.2.5. Trash Blocking Drainage Channels

Many people dispose of waste improperly, throwing plastic bags, bottles, and other trash into
gutters and drains. Over time, this waste builds up and blocks the flow of water, causing
flooding during heavy rains (Angeh, 2020).

II.2.5.1. Sand and Dirt Accumulation

In addition to trash, sand and dirt from construction sites and erosion can enter drainage
channels. When too much sediment collects in the drains, water cannot pass through easily,
leading to overflow and flooding (Baba et al., 2025).

II.2.5.2. Lack of Proper Waste Collection

If waste collection services are not frequent or effective, people may dump trash into drainage
systems. Without regular cleaning, these blocked drains become a major cause of flooding in
urban areas like Buea (Angeh, 2020).

How Blocked Drainage Channels Worsen Flooding

 Water Cannot Flow Properly

Drainage channels are designed to carry rainwater away from roads and buildings. When they
are blocked, water has nowhere to go, leading to large pools of water on streets (Baba et al.,
2025).

 Increased Surface Runoff

Blocked drains force rainwater to flow over roads and sidewalks instead of entering the
drainage system. This increases surface runoff, making flooding worse, especially in areas
with heavy rainfall (Angeh, 2020).

 Damage to Roads and Infrastructure

Flooding caused by blocked drains can weaken roads and sidewalks. Standing water can
create potholes and cracks, making transportation difficult and increasing repair costs (Baba et
al., 2025).

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II.3. Flood Risk Mitigation Strategies
II.3.1. Improving drainage infrastructure (Li et al., 2019)

One of the ways to reduce flood risks is by improving drainage infrastructure. A strong
drainage system helps move rainwater away from roads and buildings, preventing water
buildup and damage. If drainage systems are poorly designed or blocked, flooding becomes
worse during heavy rains (Li et al., 2019).

II.3.1.1. Expanding Drainage Capacity

Many cities have small or outdated drainage systems that cannot handle large amounts of
rainwater. Expanding drainage pipes and channels allows more water to flow, reducing the
chances of flooding (Li et al., 2019).

II.3.1.2. Installing Better Drainage Materials

Using stronger and more durable materials for drainage pipes helps prevent cracks and
blockages. Modern drainage systems use concrete, plastic, or metal pipes that last longer and
improve water flow (Zhang et al., 2024).

II.3.1.3. Adding Retention Basins

Retention basins store excess rainwater and release it slowly to prevent sudden flooding.
These basins help control water levels and protect roads and buildings from flood damage (Li
et al., 2019).

II.3.1.4. Improving Drainage Maintenance

Regular cleaning and inspection of drainage systems prevent blockages caused by trash, sand,
and leaves. Cities must invest in maintenance programs to keep drainage systems working
properly (Zhang et al., 2024).

II.3.2. Implementing Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS)

Implementing SUDS help manage rainwater by mimicking natural water processes, allowing
water to soak into the ground instead of overwhelming drainage systems (Monachese et al.,
2025).

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II.3.2.1. Using Permeable Pavements

Permeable pavements allow rainwater to pass through the surface and soak into the ground.
This reduces water buildup on roads and sidewalks, preventing floods (Tran & Minh, 2024).

II.3.2.2. Installing Green Roofs

Green roofs are covered with plants and soil, which absorb rainwater and slow down runoff.
This helps reduce the amount of water entering drainage systems during heavy rains
(Monachese et al., 2025).

II.3.2.3. Creating Rain Gardens

Rain gardens are small planted areas that collect and absorb rainwater. They help prevent
water from pooling on streets and sidewalks, reducing flood risks (Tran & Minh, 2024).

II.3.3. Proper waste management and community awareness

When people dispose of waste correctly and understand how blocked drains cause flooding,
cities can prevent water buildup and protect roads and buildings (Agborabang & Ori, 2025).

II.3.3.1. Preventing Drain Blockages

Trash, plastic, and dirt often clog drainage systems, stopping water from flowing properly.
When drains are blocked, rainwater overflows onto streets, causing floods. Proper waste
disposal ensures that drains remain clear and functional (Wantim et al., 2023).

II.3.3.2. Recycling and Waste Reduction

Reducing waste through recycling and composting helps prevent excessive trash from
entering drainage systems. If people recycle plastic and dispose of waste properly, cities
experience fewer drainage problems (Agborabang & Ori, 2025).

II.3.3.3. Regular Waste Collection Services

Cities must provide frequent waste collection to prevent trash from piling up in streets and
drains. When garbage is collected on time, it does not block drainage channels, reducing flood
risks (Wantim et al., 2023).

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II.3.3.4. Educating People About Waste Disposal

Many people do not realize that throwing trash into gutters and drains causes flooding. Public
awareness campaigns teach residents about proper waste disposal and how it affects drainage
systems (Debrah et al., 2021).

II.3.3.5. Encouraging Community Clean-Up Programs

Organizing community clean-up events helps remove trash from streets and drains. When
people work together to keep their environment clean, drainage systems function better,
reducing flood risks (Wantim et al., 2023).

II.3.3.6. Involving Schools and Local Organizations

Teaching students and community groups about waste management and flood prevention
helps spread awareness. When young people learn about proper waste disposal, they
encourage their families to follow good practices (Debrah et al., 2021).

II.3.4. Constructing retention basins and flood control structures

One effective way to reduce flood risks is by constructing retention basins and flood control
structures. These systems help store and control excess rainwater, preventing water from
overflowing onto streets and damaging buildings (Reduce Flood Risk, 2024).

II.3.4.1. Holding Excess Rainwater

Retention basins are large storage areas that collect rainwater during storms. Instead of letting
water rush into streets, these basins hold the water and release it slowly, reducing flood risks
(NRC Solutions, 2017).

II.3.4.2. Preventing Drainage System Overload

When heavy rain falls, drainage systems can become overloaded and cause flooding.
Retention basins store extra water, preventing drains from overflowing (Reduce Flood Risk,
2024).

II.3.4.3. Improving Water Quality

Retention basins help filter out dirt and pollution before water flows into rivers and lakes.
This improves water quality and protects the environment (NRC Solutions, 2017).

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II.3.4.4. Building Flood Walls and Barriers

Flood walls and barriers block floodwater from entering homes and streets. These structures
are placed in flood-prone areas to protect buildings and roads (Reduce Flood Risk, 2024).

II.3.4.5. Creating Detention Basins

Detention basins temporarily hold floodwater and release it slowly. Unlike retention basins,
they do not store water permanently but help control sudden floods (NRC Solutions, 2017).

II.3.4.6. Using Levees and Dams

Levees and dams redirect floodwater away from cities and into safe storage areas. These
structures help prevent major flooding and protect communities (Reduce Flood Risk, 2024).

II.3.5. Regular maintenance and monitoring

One of the best ways to reduce flood risks is through regular maintenance and monitoring
of drainage systems and flood control structures. When cities check and clean their drainage
systems often, they can prevent blockages and ensure water flows properly during heavy rains
(Natural Resources Canada, 2018).

II.3.5.1. Cleaning Drainage Systems

Trash, leaves, and dirt can block drains, stopping water from flowing. Regular cleaning
removes these blockages and keeps drainage systems working well (GOV.UK, 2025).

II.3.5.2. Repairing Damaged Pipes and Drains

Over time, drainage pipes and flood barriers can crack or break. Fixing them quickly helps
prevent water from overflowing onto streets and sidewalks (Natural Resources Canada,
2018).

II.3.5.3. Removing Silt and Sediment

Floodwater often carries sand and mud, which can build up in drainage channels. Clearing out
this sediment ensures water can move freely and reduces the risk of flooding (GOV.UK,
2025).

16
II.3.5.4. Checking Water Levels

Monitoring water levels in rivers and drainage systems helps cities predict floods and take
action before water overflows (Natural Resources Canada, 2018).

II.3.5.5. Using Sensors and Technology

Modern flood monitoring systems use sensors and cameras to track water movement. These
tools help detect problems early and allow quick responses to prevent flooding (GOV.UK,
2025).

II.3.5.6. Inspecting Flood Control Structures

Flood barriers, levees, and retention basins must be checked regularly to ensure they are
strong enough to hold back water during storms (Natural Resources Canada, 2018).

II.4. Case studies of effective drainage systems

Many cities around the world have improved their drainage systems to reduce flooding. By
using modern technology, better designs, and smart planning, these cities have successfully
managed urban floods. Learning from these examples can help other cities like Buea improve
their flood control strategies.

II.4.1. Case Study 1: Sustainable Drainage Systems (SUDS) in the UK

II.4.1.1. Problem Before Improvements
Many cities in the UK faced frequent flooding due to heavy rainfall and poor drainage
systems. Streets and homes were often underwater, causing damage to infrastructure and
disrupting daily life (Cotterill & Bracken, 2020).

II.4.1.2. Solution: SUDS Implementation

The UK introduced Sustainable Drainage Systems (SUDS), which use green roofs, rain
gardens, and permeable pavements to absorb rainwater and reduce runoff. These methods
help slow down water flow and prevent drainage systems from overflowing (Cotterill &
Bracken, 2020).

II.4.1.3. Results
SUDS reduced flooding and improved water quality. However, some cities found that these
solutions work best for small to medium rainfall events but may not be enough for extreme
storms (Cotterill & Bracken, 2020).

17
II.4.2. Case Study 2: Urban Drainage Planning in Sweden
II.4.2.1. Problem Before Improvements
Sweden experienced urban flooding due to climate change and poor drainage planning. The
existing drainage system could not handle extreme rainfall, leading to frequent waterlogging
(Hellberg, 2020).

II.4.2.2. Solution: Smart Drainage Planning

Sweden introduced better drainage channels, flood barriers, and improved waste management.
Engineers also studied future rainfall patterns to design a system that could handle extreme
weather (Hellberg, 2020).

II.4.2.3. Results
The improved drainage system reduced flood damage and made roads safer during storms.
The city also educated residents on proper waste disposal to prevent blocked drains (Hellberg,
2020).

II.4.3. Case Study 3: Tehran, Iran

II.4.3.1. Problem Before Improvements
Tehran experienced urban flash floods due to climate change and poor drainage planning. The
city’s drainage system could not handle sudden heavy rains, leading to water buildup on roads
(Karamouz et al., 2011).

II.4.3.2. Solution: Best Management Practices (BMPs)

Tehran introduced BMPs, including better drainage channels, flood barriers, and improved
waste management. Engineers also studied future rainfall patterns to design a system that
could handle extreme weather (Karamouz et al., 2011).

II.4.3.3. Results
The improved drainage system reduced flood damage and made roads safer during storms.
The city also educated residents on proper waste disposal to prevent blocked drains
(Karamouz et al., 2011).

Successful drainage systems in the UK, Sweden, and Tehran show that modern technology,
better planning, and community involvement can reduce urban flooding. Cities must invest in
advanced drainage models, flood barriers, and proper waste management to protect
infrastructure and improve public safety.

18
II.5. Review of existing studies related to stormwater management in Buea

Stormwater management is a major challenge in Buea, especially during heavy rains. Poor
drainage systems, rapid urbanization, and blocked gutters contribute to frequent flooding.
Several studies have examined the impact of stormwater management in Buea and suggested
solutions to improve drainage and reduce flood risks.

II.5.1. Key Findings from Existing Studies

II.5.1.1. Poor Drainage Infrastructure

Studies show that Buea’s drainage system is not well-developed, leading to water build-up on
roads and sidewalks. Many drainage channels are too small or blocked, preventing proper
water flow (Adamu et al., 2025).

II.5.1.2. Impact of Urbanization

Rapid urban growth has reduced natural water absorption, increasing surface runoff and
making flooding worse. More buildings and roads mean less open land to absorb rainwater,
leading to drainage system overload (Adamu et al., 2025).

II.5.1.3. Environmental and Health Risks

Flooding in Buea has caused stream pollution, soil erosion, and ecosystem damage. Many
residents report waterborne diseases due to contaminated floodwater (Adamu et al., 2025).

II.5.1.4. Need for Sustainable Drainage Solutions

Experts recommend Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS), such as rain gardens,
permeable pavements, and retention basins, to help absorb rainwater naturally and reduce
flooding (Nazarpour et al., 2023).

II.5.2. Recommendations from Studies

II.5.2.1. Expanding Drainage Capacity

Increasing the size of drainage channels and pipes can help manage larger volumes of
rainwater, reducing overflow and street flooding (Adamu et al., 2025).

19
II.5.2.2. Regular Drainage Maintenance

Cleaning and repairing drainage systems prevents blockages and ensures water flows properly
during storms (Nazarpour et al., 2023).

II.5.2.3. Community Awareness and Waste Management

Educating residents about proper waste disposal prevents trash from clogging drains,
improving drainage efficiency (Nazarpour et al., 2023).

The review of existing studies on stormwater drainage systems and flood risk mitigation in
front of the GCE Board, Buea, highlights several important findings. Research shows that
poor drainage systems, heavy rainfall, urbanization, and waste blockages contribute to
frequent flooding in this area. Many studies agree that blocked drains, small drainage
channels, and uncontrolled surface runoff worsen the flood problem. To reduce flooding,
experts suggest improving drainage infrastructure, maintaining drainage systems regularly,
and using sustainable urban drainage solutions. Strategies such as retention basins, proper
waste management, and flood monitoring technologies have been successful in other cities
and could help Buea manage stormwater more effectively.

The literature review also emphasizes the need for community awareness and government
action in flood prevention. Public education on waste disposal and flood risks can help keep
drains clear and improve urban resilience. Overall, research recommends a combination of
better drainage planning, infrastructure upgrades, and climate adaptation measures to reduce
flood risks in front of the GCE Board, Buea.

This review provides valuable insights into the causes, effects, and possible solutions for
flooding in Buea, helping guide future studies and flood management policies.

20
 CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY
III.1. Introduction
The Cameroon General Certificate of Education (GCE) Board is located between latitude
4.15999° N and longitude 9.2755° E in Buea, Southwest Region, Cameroon. Buea is a
historic town situated at the foot of Mount Cameroon, the highest mountain in West Africa.
The town is known for its cool climate, academic institutions, and administrative significance.

Buea is a town in Southwest region of Cameroon, found on the eastern slope of Mount
Cameroon, the tallest volcano in West-Central Africa. The town has grown significantly, from
300,000 people in 2013 to around 500,000 today, mainly because many people moved there
from conflict-affected areas (Dohnji et al., 2024).

Buea has a tropical monsoon climate, with hot temperatures and heavy rainfall throughout the
year. The hottest month is February, while August is the coldest. In lower areas, temperatures
range between 25–35°C, but at the mountain peak, it can be as low as 4°C. Humidity stays
high because of the nearby ocean and frequent clouds. The town has two main seasons:

 Wet season (June to October) – Heavy rains, reaching 10,000 mm annually in some
areas.
 Dry season (November to May) – Less rain, but some parts still receive around 2,000
mm yearly.

The GCE Board is responsible for organizing and managing examinations for secondary and
high school students in Cameroon. Its headquarters is strategically positioned in Buea, which
serves as a hub for education and governance in the English-speaking part of the country.

21
Map of Buea municipality showing the sampled localities. Inset: maps of Cameroon, the
South West Region, Fako Division and a portion of Buea (GCE Board withing shaded
polygon)

III.1.1. Key Issues

The major issues identified for stormwater drainage and which causes the flood in front of the
GCE that needs to be addressed are listed below:

22
  The area is vulnerable to floods during monsoons due to clogged drainage facilities.
 The existing Drainage system needs a significant revamping as it is clogged and has
been encroached at many places. All the existing drains around this have to be
upgraded to a high bearing capacity.
 Efforts shall be concentrated towards the development of a new adequately planned
drainage system.
 All the natural drains shall be periodically cleaned to prevent flooding of the area
during monsoon periods and other occasional rains.
 Authorized and unauthorized objects or structures blocking the open drains are a
serious problem. We need to remove these blockages right away so that water can
flow through the drains properly and not cause flooding.
 Awareness programs have to be conducted to local citizens to avoid dumping waste in
the open drains.

III.2. Materials and Methods

III.2.1. Data Collection and Instrumentation
III.2.1.1. Research Design

This study used a descriptive research design that included both quantitative data (numbers)
and qualitative data (opinions) to give a full picture of stormwater drainage systems and flood
risk mitigation strategies. A case study approach was utilized for in-depth analysis, with
descriptive and analytical approach to asses existing stormwater drainage systems at our place
of focus and analyze their effectiveness in mitigating flood risks.

Primary data was collected through field survey, questionnaires and hydrological
measurements. The field surveys were done to assess the current drainage infrastructures
surrounding this area of study, identify flood-prone areas and observe water flow patterns
during rainfall. Secondary data was equally collected by reviewing existing studies and usage
of satellite imagery and GIS data.

The data was divided and analyzed separately into quantitative and qualitative analysis. The
quantitative analysis involves the use of numerical data and statistical methods to evaluate
drainage performance, flood risks and support the design of a crossing structure (Culvert),
while qualitative analysis was focused on non-numerical insights from stakeholders and
observational data. Quantitative analysis was done using rainfall-runoff analysis, flood
frequency analysis, GIS-based spatial analysis, and drainage systems efficiency metrics.
Thematic analysis, comparative case study and policy/infrastructure assessment was used for
qualitative analysis.

23
As outcome, it was expected to pinpoint the critical areas in the surrounding drainage systems
that are prone to failure during heavy rainfall, suggest improvements based on simulation
results and qualitative insights and provide data-backed policy recommendations for urban
planning and sustainable drainage management.

Softwares were been made used in order to collect data where difficulties were faced.
AutoCAD 2D was used to prepare the various drawings for the structural detailing of the
culvert, and also to read and interpret some of the plans collected from MINDUH, Google
earth was used to get a clearer map of the area of focus and also to calculate the various
catchment areas surrounding the place of focus. Microsoft excel and OriginPro2024 were
used to analyze, carry out calculations and produce the various curves/graphs and charts.

III.2.1.2. Quantitative data

Research and field surveys were carried out to collect measurable data from the physical
environment, to support the design of a culvert-based stormwater drainage system. Some
these quantitative data include:

 Rainfall Data

The rainfall rate of Buea municipality was collected together with the duration of the various
events. This was done in order to determine the design storm which is crucial for runoff
estimation. Historical weather data of 5 years was used to set design criteria and estimate
recurrence intervals. Based on the magnitude, the rainfall is classified as;

Very light Rain (0.1-2.4 mm/day)

Light Rain (2.5 – 15.5 mm/day)

Moderate Rain (15.6 – 64.4 mm/day)

Heavy Rain (64.5 – 115.5 mm/day)

Very Heavy Rain (115.6 – 204.4 mm/day)

Extremely Heavy Rain (>204.5 mm/day).

The data provided was the daily rainfall intensity from the 1 st day of January 2020 to 1st May
2025. This data was filtered in order to pay more focus on the maximum peak of the daily
records of each year from 2020 to May 2025.

24
DO Yea Rainfal DO Yea Rainfal DO Yea Rainfal DO Yea Rainfal DO Yea Rainfal DO Yea Rainfal
Y r l Depth Y r l Depth Y r l Depth Y r l Depth Y r l Depth Y r l Depth
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
202 202 202 202 202 202
1 0 0 38 0 0 75 0 2.4 112 0 0.06 149 0 1.47 186 0 6.59
202 Year 202 DOY
Rainfall Year 202 Rainfall DOY 202 Year Rainfall202DOY Year 202Rainfall
2 0 0 39 0 0 76 0 4.9 113 0 0.46 150 0 3.58 187 0 14.91
Depth Depth Depth Depth
202 202 202 202 202 202
3 0 0 (mm) 0
40 0 77 0 (mm) 6.38 114 0 0.16 151
(mm) 0 5.72 188 0 (mm)35.08
202 202 202 202 202 202
4 0 0 41 0 0.01 78 0 34.14 115 0 0.17 152 0 4.38 189 0 27.8
202 202 202 202 202 202
5 0 0 42 0 0 79 0 90.98 116 0 0.67 153 0 49.2 190 0 7
202 202 202 202 202 202
6 0 0.08 43 0 0 80 0 159.08 117 0 12.79 154 0 8.55 191 0 4.78
202 202 202 202 202 202
7 0 0.02 44 0 0 81 0 32.36 118 0 1.98 155 0 7.37 192 0 61.85
202 202 202 202 202 202
8 0 0 45 0 0 82 0 6.22 119 0 5.55 156 0 7.21 193 0 17.56
202 202 202 202 202 202
9 0 0.08 46 0 0.01 83 0 1.85 120 0 7.37 157 0 2.56 194 0 7.12
202 202 202 202 202 202
10 0 0.25 47 0 0.02 84 0 16.47 121 0 12.5 158 0 2.27 195 0 13.71
202 202 202 202 202 202
11 0 0.02 48 0 0.03 85 0 4.18 122 0 21.36 159 0 4.05 196 0 57.77
202 202 202 202 202 202
12 0 0 49 0 0.02 86 0 0.74 123 0 8.06 160 0 5.57 197 0 11.97
202 202 202 202 202 202
13 0 0 50 0 0.02 87 0 0.82 124 0 3.65 161 0 5.44 198 0 11.9
202 202 202 202 202 202
14 0 0 51 0 0.05 88 0 1.71 125 0 4.51 162 0 10.05 199 0 3.94
202 202 202 202 202 202
15 0 0 52 0 0.09 89 0 2.67 126 0 4.49 163 0 8.63 200 0 1.98
202 202 202 202 202 202
16 0 0 53 0 0.22 90 0 4.3 127 0 2.78 164 0 28.97 201 0 4.07
202 202 202 202 202 202
17 0 0 54 0 0.2 91 0 4.23 128 0 14.62 165 0 2.47 202 0 35.12
202 202 202 202 202 202
18 0 0 55 0 0.04 92 0 42.47 25 129 0 8.49 166 0 3.07 203 0 41.29
202 202 202 202 202 202
19 0 0 56 0 7.37 93 0 0.54 130 0 4.08 167 0 6.01 204 0 8.04
202 202 202 202 202 202
DOY
223 2020 1.69 261 2020 10.55 299 2020 9.96 337 2020 0.28
224 2020 1.7 262 2020 71.38 300 2020 17.38 338 2020 0.03
225 2020 1.4 263 2020 7.23 301 2020 15.01 339 2020 0.03
226 2020 8.7 264 2020 6.93 302 2020 5.12 340 2020 0.02
227 2020 5.93 265 2020 2.14 303 2020 3.87 341 2020 0.02
228 2020 8.77 266 2020 2.35 304 2020 1.93 342 2020 0.26
229 2020 16.83 267 2020 12.57 305 2020 37.05 343 2020 0.09
230 2020 20.37 268 2020 6.77 306 2020 5.14 344 2020 0.08
231 2020 4.88 269 2020 15.21 307 2020 1.82 345 2020 0.26
232 2020 23.76 270 2020 5.08 308 2020 0.74 346 2020 0.28
233 2020 68.06 271 2020 10.37 309 2020 10 347 2020 1.98
234 2020 30.41 272 2020 15.01 310 2020 0.56 348 2020 1.41
235 2020 4.43 273 2020 6.99 311 2020 4.03 349 2020 1.44
236 2020 33.91 274 2020 3.25 312 2020 23.15 350 2020 1.74
237 2020 10.27 275 2020 4.26 313 2020 1.25 351 2020 1.41
238 2020 0.94 276 2020 8.46 314 2020 1.86 352 2020 0.13
239 2020 3.04 277 2020 2.86 315 2020 2.41 353 2020 0.01
240 2020 8.69 278 2020 14.81 316 2020 2.34 354 2020 0.01
241 2020 17.13 279 2020 17.68 317 2020 4.47 355 2020 0.02
242 2020 9.69 280 2020 4.73 318 2020 1.9 356 2020 0.01

26
 243 2020 9.06 281 2020 2.48 319 2020 2.94 357 2020 0
244 2020 13.31 282 2020 1.16 320 2020 3.85 358 2020 0
245 2020 33.49 283 2020 3.73 321 2020 5.93 359 2020 0.01
246 2020 8.65 284 2020 1.83 322 2020 0.44 360 2020 0
247 2020 16.11 285 2020 3.93 323 2020 0.42 361 2020 0
248 2020 19.81 286 2020 0.94 324 2020 1.07 362 2020 0.01
249 2020 38.18 287 2020 17.21 325 2020 0.25 363 2020 0.02
250 2020 34.49 288 2020 5.66 326 2020 0.29 364 2020 0.03
251 2020 45.21 289 2020 10.91 327 2020 2.36 365 2020 0.02
252 2020 7.94 290 2020 5.44 328 2020 0.1 366 2020 0.05
253 2020 4.67 291 2020 2.2 329 2020 0.36
254 2020 4.84 292 2020 1.14 330 2020 0.81
255 2020 11.57 293 2020 3.23 331 2020 0.63
256 2020 20.14 294 2020 3.55 332 2020 7.13
257 2020 15.69 295 2020 2.17 333 2020 7.21
258 2020 16.68 296 2020 1.85 334 2020 4.58
259 2020 13.69 297 2020 8.59 335 2020 6.67
260 2020 9.83 298 2020 4.81 336 2020 6.21
Sample of daily rainfall data collected (Daily rainfall for the year 2020)

27
S/N Year Annual Rainfall
1 2020 2877.70
2 2021 2337.63
3 2022 3020.06
4 2023 1914.80
5 2024 1674.11
6 2025 244.88

28
Annual rainfall of the five different years & Total Annual rainfall chart.

29
 S/N Year Highest daily peak of annual (mm)
1 2020 159.08
2 2021 134.96
3 2022 101.18
4 2023 64.75
5 2024 76.42
6 2025 16.78
Maximum depths of different years

Maximum depths of rainfall daily records from 2020 to early 2025

After filtering this data and mounting on a graph with curves of the 5 years, it was observed
that the maximum rainfall recorded so far from 2020 is 159.08mm which occurred on the 80th
day of 2020 (Friday, 20 March 2020) and based on magnitude, it falls in the very heavy
rain class. With time this event might still occur or even higher, and therefore since designs
in civil engineering are always done at the worst case, this was the chosen rainfall for the
design.

30
This data is very fundamental as it serves for the construction of intensity duration curves
(IDF) which helps in the calculation recurrence interval.

 Runoff and Flow Data

In the absence of flow meters, the peak flow (maximum discharge) was estimated using
rainfall intensities from the IDF curves, but with an important nuance to consider:

IDF Curves:

IDF curves show the rainfall intensity for various durations and return periods. For example,
for a given design storm (say, the 100-year event over a 15-minute duration), the IDF curve
gave us the corresponding rainfall intensity (I, typically expressed in mm/hr). The IDF curves
were constructed using the Gumbel Distribution Method. First the short duration rainfall
was estimated using the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) empirical reduction
formula (Ramaseshan, 1996), which is aimed at finding the precipitation in mm of an event at
a certain time, by the formula:

( )
1
t
Pt =P24 3
24

Pt is the required rainfall depth in mm at a duration time t.

P24 is the daily rainfall in mm.

t is the time at which the rainfall depth is required.

Time(hr)

Year 0.166 hr 0.33 hr 0.5 hr 1 hr 2hr 3hr 6hr 12hr 24hr

2020 30.31 38.11 43.77 54.40 69.48 79.54 100.21 126.26 159.08
2021 25.71 32.33 37.14 46.16 58.95 67.48 85.02 107.12 134.96
2022 19.28 24.24 27.84 34.60 44.19 50.59 63.74 80.31 101.18
2023 12.34 15.51 17.82 22.14 28.28 32.38 40.79 51.39 64.75
2024 14.56 18.31 21.03 26.14 33.38 38.21 48.14 60.65 76.42
2025 3.20 4.02 4.62 5.74 7.33 8.39 10.57 13.32 16.78
Derived shorter duration rainfalls from maximum rainfall for various years.

31
From the above information, the Gumbel distribution frequency is used to determine the flood
probability events, given by;

Pt =Pave + K t × S
Pave is the average precipitation corresponding to a specific duration, given as;
n
1
Pave = ∑ ( t )
n i =1
n is the number of events.
S is the standard deviation calculated by

S= √
∑ ( P−P ave )
2

n−1
P is the maximum precipitation depth corresponding to a specific time.
Kt is the Gumbel frequency factor calculated as;
−√ 6
Kt=
π ¿¿
The rainfall intensity It(mm/hr) for a given return period Tr is gotten by

Pt
I t=
Td

Td is duration in hours.

Pave Standard Deviation Duration

17.57 8.89 0.166 hr
22.09 12.25 0.33 hr
25.37 14.07 0.5 hr
31.53 17.49 1 hr
40.27 22.33 2hr
46.10 25.57 3hr
58.08 32.21 6hr
73.18 40.58 12hr
92.20 51.13 24hr
Standard deviations and average precipitations for various time durations

32
 Tr (Years) Kt
2 -0.16
5 0.72
10 1.30
25 2.04
50 2.59
100 3.14
The values of Gumbel frequency factor in order to a specified return period.

Tr (Years) 2 5 10 25 50 100

Duration
Pt It Pt It Pt It Pt It Pt It Pt It
244.7
10 16.11 97.02 23.96 144.36 29.17 175.71 35.74 215.32 40.62 0 45.46 273.87
163.1
20 20.07 60.83 30.90 93.64 38.07 115.36 47.12 142.80 53.84 6 60.51 183.37
123.6
30 23.06 46.11 35.49 70.98 43.72 87.45 54.12 108.25 61.84 8 69.50 139.00
60 28.66 28.66 44.11 44.11 54.34 54.34 67.27 67.27 76.86 76.86 86.38 86.38
120 36.60 18.30 56.34 28.17 69.41 34.70 85.92 42.96 98.17 49.08 110.33 55.16
180 41.90 13.97 64.49 21.50 79.45 26.48 98.35 32.78 112.37 37.46 126.29 42.10
100.1
360 52.79 8.80 81.25 13.54 0 16.68 123.91 20.65 141.58 23.60 159.12 26.52
126.1
720 66.51 5.54 102.37 8.53 2 10.51 156.12 13.01 178.38 14.87 200.47 16.71
158.9
1440 83.80 3.49 128.98 5.37 0 6.62 196.70 8.20 224.75 9.36 252.58 10.52

From Rainfall Intensity to Discharge:

33
Although the IDF curve gave us the rainfall intensity, calculating the maximum discharge (Q)
required combining that intensity with other catchment characteristics. A common method
was used, called the Rational Method, where:

Q=CIA

(C) is the runoff coefficient (a dimensionless factor representing the fraction of rainfall that
becomes runoff). It depends on the various land uses as can be seen on table below

Simplified table of rational method runoff coefficients.

(I) is the rainfall intensity (obtained from the IDF curve for a specific duration and recurrence
interval). The concentration time Tc is also calculated to know at what duration time we have
to select the intensity. The concentration time is given as;

[ ]
0.385
11.9 L3
T c=
H

Tc= time of concentration in hrs

L = length of channel in miles from the head of the watershed to the crossing point

H = elevation difference (in feet) between highest point in the watershed and the crossing
point (where the culvert is going to be installed).

If the value of Tc is calculated as less than 10 minutes, studies suggest you should use a
default value of 10 minutes

(A) is the drainage area (in appropriate units, typically converted so that Q ends up in cubic
meters per second, m³/s).

34
III.2.1.3. Qualitative Data
This data was collected at the site, from stakeholders, inhabitants around area of focus,
engineers and technicians who have a certain level of technical knowhow. Interviews and
visits were done with these stakeholders, technicians and engineers, then a questionnaire was
used for inhabitants along study area and within Buea in order to asses the effects of this flood
area to the community. Measuring tapes were used to asses already existing drainage systems
to see if they are capable of to withstand current rainfall events.

Buea municipality population is the headcount of inhabitants in neighborhoods like Mile 16,
Mile 17, Mile 18, Muea, Molyko, Great Soppo, Bokwango, Buea Town, Bonduma etc.
According to figures from census bureau, the population of Buea is currently and
approximately 597,000 inhabitants in 2025 with the percentage of male about
49%(292,530males) and that of female 51%(304,470females). The sample population of this
study was selected going by the UNs norms adopted by Cameroon which says an average
household size is 5.2persons (UN 2018).

This study purposely targets officials from the department of urban planning and engineering
within the town of Buea such as the Buea municipal council, Regional Delegation of Housing
and Urban Development (MINDHU) and staff of Faculty of Engineering and Technology
(FET), University of Buea. After collecting data related to urban drainage systems and
managements, key staff within these departments were visited for a face-to-face interview to
discuss more on the causes and effects of this flood and possible solutions to be put in place.

III.2.2. Application in Culvert Design:

When the maximum discharge was gotten using the above approach, the culvert was designed
to have sufficient hydraulic capacity (or headwater height, diameter, etc.) to handle that flow
rate during design storm conditions. This ensures that during heavy rainfall events, the culvert
will effectively convey the peak discharge without causing flooding.

This design discharged was used in the Manning’s equation to determine the size(area) of our
culvert.

( )
2 1
1.49
Q= AV = A ( Rh ) 3 ( S 0 ) 2
n

V is the average velocity in m/s.

n is the dimensionless Manning’s channel roughness coefficient.

35
Rh the hydraulic radius (m).

S0 is the bottom slope of the channel (m/m).

The above information gave us the hydraulic dimensions of our culvert (inner dimensions)
and other parameters like the road’s width together with the pedestrian lane were measured in
order to do the deign proper of the culvert-based structure

III.3. Culvert and Wing Wall Design

III.3.1. Box Culvert
This section consists of the RC calculations of the box culvert. The thicknesses, design
assumptions, design principles, and steel cross-sections of the various components of the box
culvert body are detailed, including:

 Top slab
 Vertical shear walls
 Bottom slab (Foundation)

The box culvert was calculated as a closed frame and carried out over a linear section of 1 m.

III.3.2. Determination of box culvert thickness

L
Generally, the thickness is approximately , where L is the longest side of the hydraulic
15
cell. Then, it will be necessary to ensure that there will be no compressed and transverse steel
in the top slab. In addition to the condition of L, depending on the height H of the earth fill,
we have;
L
If H <2 m; e ≈ −5 cm
10
L
If 2 m≤ H <4 m; e ≈
10
L
If 4 m≤ H <8 m; e ≈ +5 cm
10
150
e 1= =10 cm
15
150
e 2= −5 cm=10 cm
10
e=max ( e1 , e 2)

e=10 cm

36
For security reasons, let us use e=15cm.

 Culvert thickness all through = 0.15m

 Culvert height = 1.5m
 Culvert width = 1.8m
 Hydraulic opening = 1.5m x 1.8m
 Road width Lr = 13.20 m
 Loadable width Lc = 12.20 m

2D Representative diagram of the culvert

III.3.2.1. Data
 Pressure coefficient Ka = 0.33
 Backfill overload R = 10 KN/m²
 Allowable soil stress (бsoil) = 0.15 MPa = 1.5 bar
 Grade Fe = 500 MPa
 High-adhesion steel (HA), class Fe 500

III.3.2.2. Calculation hypothesis

 Regulations
1. The reinforced concrete calculation will be carried out in accordance with the BAEL
91 revised 99 rules;
2. The road overloads taken into account in the calculations are taken from Fascicule No.

61 (design, calculation, and testing of civil engineering structures) Title II (load programs and
tests for road bridges);

3. The foundation calculation will be carried out in accordance with Fascicule No. 62
Title V.
 Material
1. Concrete

Characteristic strengths

Compressive: fc28 = 25 MPa

Tensile: ft28 = 2.1 MPa

Serviceability Limit State (SLS)

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Allowable stress: (бblim) = 0.6 fc28 = 15.00 MPa

2. Steel

High-strength steel (HA), class Fe 500

Grade fe = 500 MPa

Serviceability Limit State (SLS)

Cracks are harmful

Allowable stress бs = min {2/3 fe; 110√ η x ft 28} бs = 215.55 MPa

 Foundation Soil

Soil density γ = 20 KN/m³

Thrust coefficient Ka = 0.33

Backfill overload R = 10 KN/m²

Permissible soil stress (бsoil) = 0.15 MPa = 1.5 bar

 Class of Bridge
For the rest of our work, it is necessary to define the class of our bridge.
Whole road width: (Lr) = 13.20 m
Loaded road width: (Lc) = Lr - (0.5x2) = 12.2 m
Number of lanes: (n) = Lc/3 = 4.07 → number of lanes = 4 lanes

Class Lr
I ≥7m
II 5.5 m< Lr <7 m
III ≤ 5.5 m
Class of bridges according to whole road width
Since our Lr >7m, the culvers is in the Class I.
 Loads
1. Permanent Load

Reinforced concrete density: 25 KN/m3,

Backfill density (γ): 20 kg/m3 with a thickness of 20 cm;

Earth pressure: a soil density equal to 20 KN/m3, friction angle of 30°

38
 (Ka = 0.33) was considered for their evaluation.
2. Live Loads

System A Live Loads

This system consists of uniformly distributed load whose intensity depends on the loaded
360 2
length L expressed in m A ( L )=2.30+ kN /m . A(L) is then multiplied by a coefficient
L+12
a1, similar to a transverse degression coefficient, given in table below.

Class of bridge Number of Lanes

1 2 3 4 5
I 1 1 0.9 0.75 0.75
II 1 0.9 - - -
III 0.9 0.8
Values of coefficient a1

For large loaded lengths, the load a1A(L) is limited by (4 – 0.002L) kN/m2, so that the
effective load density q(l) can be expressed as;

q ( L ) =Max {a1 A ( L ) ; ( 4−0.002 L ) } kN /m

2

The design value of the live load A is then

Q=γ q . a 2 . q ( l ) ,

Where: γ q=1.2 SLS.

V0
a 2=
V

V is the width of a lane, and V0 depends on the class of bridge according to table below.

Class of Bridge V0
I 3.5
II 3.0
III 2.75
Values of coefficient V0

System B Live Loads

- System Bc
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This system consists of standard trucks with three axles, all three single wheels equipped with
pneumatic tires, and meeting the following specifications:

- Total weight: 30 t.

- Weight carried by each rear axle: 12 t.

- Weight carried by the front axle: 6 t.

- Overall length: 10.50 m.

- Overall width: 2.50 m.

- Distance between the rear axles: 1.50 m.

- Distance from the front axle to the first rear axle: 4.50 m.

- Center-to-center distance of the two wheels on an axle: 2.00 m.

- Impact surface of a rear wheel: 0.25 m square.

- Impact surface of a front wheel: 0.20 m square.

All other provisions of Booklet 61 – Title II concerning the Bc system are applicable (number
of trucks, arrangement in the longitudinal and transverse direction, bc coefficients).

Consider the rear axles of the two (02) trucks in the most unfavorable situation. Depending on
the bridge class and the number of rows considered, the load values of the Bc system taken
into account are multiplied by the bc coefficients in the following table:

Number of Lanes 1 2 3 4 5
Class of Bridge I 1.20 1.10 0.95 0.80 0.70
II 1 1 - - -
III 0.90 0.80
Coefficient bc to be assigned to the BC system based on the number of lanes considered and
the bridge class

- System Bt

The Bt System, which consists of standard trucks with two axles, each with single wheels
equipped with pneumatic tires, and meeting the following characteristics:

- Mass carried by each axle: 16 t.

40
- Distance between the two axles: 1.35 m.

- Distance from center to center of the two wheels on an axle: 2.00 m.

Depending on the axle class, the Bt System load values taken into account are multiplied by
the following bt coefficients:

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 CHAPTER IV: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
IV.1. Introduction
The peak discharge obtained from the Rational method is a fundamental parameter used for
sizing and hence the design of a culvert-based stormwater drainage system. Other parameters
used to obtain this peak discharge are listed and determined below.

 Recall

Q=CIA

C=Runoff coefficient (depending on land use).

I=Rainfall intensity for a specific duration recurrence interval.

A=Drainage or catchment are in appropriate units.

IV.1.1. Catchment area (A)

We started by determining the catchment area from Google earth.

Estimated areas contributing to GCE Board catchment area

Land Use or Ground Cover Area (m2)

Forest 10,955
Parking 4,720
Roof 3,515
Street 1,480
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 Total 20,670
Catchment area results
IV.1.2. Time of Concentration
 Recall

[ ]
0.385
11.9 L3
T c=
H

L = 0.2mi
H = 81ft
Tc = 0.074475 hrs aprox = 4.5 mins
Since its less than 10mins, we use the 10mins duration

IV.1.3. Rainfall Intensity (I)

The intensity was gotten from the Intensity duration curve constructed from the Gumbel
distribution method. This design focuses on doing a design that can last for a period of
25years and therefore we chose an intensity corresponding to a return period of 25 years
which will happen at a time duration of 10mins.

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IDF Curves for the different return periods (2, 5, 10, 25…years)
Return Period(years) Duration(mins) Intensity (mm/hr)
25 10 215.32
Design intensity for 25years
IV.1.4. Runoff Coefficient (C)
Since the catchment area is not of a single ground cover, we use an area-weighted composite
coefficient (Ccomp) for a watershed spatially distributed by subareas. This Ccomp is given by;

∑ Ci × A i
C comp= i=1
Atotal
Ground Cover Area(m2) Runoff Coef (C) A_i & C_i Product
Forest 49,000 0.15 7350
Parking 3,970 0.175 694.75
Roof 5,400 0.85 4590
Street 2,575 0.825 2124.375
A_total 60,945
C_comp 0.24217

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IV.1.5. Discharge (Q)
Q=0.24217 ( 60,945 ) ( 5.981× 10−5 )
Q = 0.883m3/s
Since we’re are not very sure of the catchment area and we also as well want to design at the
worst state, the value of discharge was rounded up to 1m3/s.

IV.2. Culvert Sizing

The Manning’s equation is an equality equation, and so the other site of the equation was used
to calculate the velocity of water with 0.013 as Manning’s n value for channel flow
(concrete surface) and 2% as channel bottom slope.

( )
2
h ×w
V =16.21 3
2 h+ w

h is the height of culvert.

w width of culvert.
When this velocity was determined, it was then substituted in the 1 st site of the Manning’s
equation to test for appropriate values of heigh (h) and width (w) of the culvert.

( )
2
h× w
Q=16.21 ( h × w ) 3
2 h+w

1=16.21 ( h × w ) (
2 h+w )
2
h×w 3

When the RHS of the equation was greater than the LHS (1.5m3/s>1m3/s) the values of h and
w and an additional safety height of 20cm were recorded as;
Height ( h )=1.2 m
Width ( w )=1.5 m

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