CHAPTER

Political Parties

IN THIS CHAPTER

Summary: Political parties are voluntary associations of people who seek to control the
government through common principles based upon peaceful and legal
actions, such as the winning of elections. Political parties, along with
interest groups, the media, and elections serve as a linkage mechanism
that brings together the people and the government while holding the
government responsible for its actions. Political parties differ from
interest groups in that interest groups do not nominate candidates for office.

Key
Terms
political
parties
two-party system
single-member
districts
New Deal coalition
divided government
 gridlock
dealignment
realignment national
chairperson
soft money
straight ticket

Roles of Political Parties

KEY IDEA

party in the electorate-all of the people who associate themselves with one of
the political parties
• party in government-all of the appointed and elected officials at the national, state,
and local levels who represent the party as members; office holders
• party in organization-all of the people at the various levels of the party
organization who work to maintain the strength of the party between elections,
help raise money, and organize the conventions and party functions

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Party Systems
One-Party
System
In a one-party system only one party exists or has a chance of winning
election. Generally, membership is not voluntary and those who do belong to
the party represent a small por- tion of the population. Party leaders must
approve candidates for political office, and voters have no real choice. The result is
dictatorial
government.

Two-Party
System
In a two-party system there may be several political parties but only two major
 parties compete for power and dominate elections. Minor
political
parties generally have little effect on most elections, especially at the
national level. The Electoral College system makes it dif- ficult for third-party
candidates to affect presidential elections. It would be difficult for a third-party
presidential candidate to actually win a state, which is necessary to capture
elec- toral votes. Systems that operate under the two-party system usually have a
general consen- sus, or agreement, among citizens about the basic principles of
government, even though the parties often differ on the means of carrying
them out. The use of single-member dis- tricts promotes the two-party system.
Voters are given an "either-or" choice, simplifying decisions and the political
process. The two-party system tends to enhance governmental stability;
because both parties want to appeal to the largest number of voters, they tend to
avoid extremes in ideology.

Multi-Party System
Multi-party systems exist when several major parties and a number of minor
parties compete in elections, and any of the parties stands a good chance of
winning. This type of system can be composed of from 4 to 20 different parties,
based on a particular region, ideology, or class position, and is often found in
European nations, as well as in other democratic societies. The multi-party
system is usually the result of a proportional representation voting system
rather than one with single-member districts. The idea behind multi-party
systems is to give voters meaningful choices. This does not always occur because of
two major problems: in many elections, no party has a clear majority of the vote, and
not receiving a majority forces the sharing of power by several parties
(coalitions). The multi-party system tends to promote instability in
government, especially when coalition governments are formed.

What Do Political Parties Do?

• Recruit candidates-find candidates interested in running for public office,

especially if no incumbent is running
• Nominate and support candidates for office-help raise money and run
candidate campaigns through the party organization
• Educate the electorate-inform the voters about the candidates and encourage voters to participate in the election
Organize the government-The organization of Congress and state legislatures is based on political
party controls (majority vs. minority party); political appointments are often
 made based on political party affiliation
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Party Identification and Membership

KEY IDEA

Membership in American political parties is voluntary. There are no dues to

pay; membership is based on party identification. If you believe you are a
member of a particular political party, then you are. Most states require citizens to
identify their political party when registering to vote. Most people choose to belong
to a political party that shares their views on issues or the role of government.
Several factors may influence party identification:

⚫
ideology
⚫ education
⚫ income
⚫
⚫ race or
occupation

ethnicity
•
gender
⚫
religion
•

family
tradition
⚫ region of the
country
⚫ marital status
However, a large number of Americans choose not to join any political party, instead regis-
tering as independents.
The Two-Party Tradition in
America
The Constitution did not call for political parties, and the Founding Fathers at
first did not intend to create them. James Madison, in Federalist #10, warned of the
divisiveness of "factions." George Washington was elected president without party
labels and in his farewell address warned against the "baneful effects of the
spirit of the party." During the process for ratification of the Constitution, Federalists
and Anti-Federalists conflicted over ideals concerning the proper role of government.
This conflict resulted in the development of the first political parties: the Federal-
ists and Jeffersonian Republicans, or Democratic-Republicans as they were later called.

Why a Two-Party
Tradition?
Although there have been numerous minor parties throughout its history, why has the
United States maintained the two-party tradition?

• historical roots-British heritage, Federalist and Anti-Federalist divisions

• electoral system-single-member districts mean that only one representative is chosen
from each district (one winner per office)
• election laws-vary from state to state, which makes it difficult for minor parties to get
on the ballot in many states

Rise of Political Parties: Party Development (1789-1800)

The earliest political parties began to develop under the administration of George Washington.
Alexander Hamilton, secretary of the treasury, supported a strong national government;
his followers became known as Federalists. Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson
supported states' rights and a less powerful national government. The clash
between these two individuals
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 KEY IDEA

and their supporters led to the development of political parties. In the election of 1796, Jefferson
challenged John Adams, the Federalist candidate, for the presidency but lost.
By 1800 Jefferson was able to rally his supporters and win the presidency.

Democratic Domination (1800-1860)

 The Democratic-Republicans dominated the government from 1800 to 1824,
when they split into factions. The faction led by Andrew Jackson, the Jacksonian
Democrats or Democ- rats, won the presidency in 1828. The major opposition to the
Democrats during this time was the Whig Party. Although the Whigs were a
powerful opposition party in the U.S. Congress, they were able to win the
presidency only twice, in 1840 with the victory of William Henry Harrison and in
1848 with that of Zachary Taylor. From that election until the election of 1860,
Democrats dominated American politics. The Democratic Party became known
as the party of the "common man," encouraging popular participation, and
helping to bring about an expansion of suffrage to all adult white males.

Republican Domination (1860-1932)

The Republican Party began as a third party, developed from a split in the Whig Party. The
Whigs had been the major opposition to the Democrats. By 1860 the Whig
Party had dis- appeared and the Republican Party had emerged as the
second major party. The Republican Party was composed mostly of former
members of other political parties, appealing to commercial and antislavery
groups. The Republican Party was successful in electing Abraham Lincoln
president in 1860, and by the end of the Civil War had become a dominant
party. Sometimes called the Grand Old Party or GOP, the Republican Party often
controlled both the presidency and Congress.

Return of Democrats (1932-1968)

With the onset of the Depression, new electoral coalitions were formed and the
Republicans lost their domination of government. Franklin Delano Roosevelt was
able to unite blacks, city dwellers, blue-collar (labor union) workers, Catholics, Jews,
and women to create a voting bloc known as the New Deal coalition. The election of
1932 brought the Democrats back to power as the dominant party in American
politics. Roosevelt was elected to the pres- idency an unprecedented four times.
From 1932 to 1968 only two Republican presidents (Eisenhower and Nixon) were
elected. Not until 1994 did the Republicans gain control of both houses of Congress.

Divided Government (1968-Present)

Since 1968 divided government has characterized American institutions, a condition in which one
political party controls the presidency and the opposing party controls one or
both houses of Congress. This division creates a potential gridlock when
opposing parties and interests often block each other's proposals, creating a
 political stalemate. In the election of 2000, George W. Bush won the presidency
and the Republican Party won control of the House of Representatives and Senate
(until Jim Jeffords changed affiliation to Independent). In the mid-term election
of 2002, the Republicans again gained control of the executive and legislative
branches, creating a unified government. In the 2006 off-year election, the
Democrats won control of both houses of Congress, returning divided
government to U.S. politics. In the 2008 elections, the Democrats won control
of the presidency and both houses of Congress, although few predicted that this
would permanently end the era of divided
government.
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Electoral Dealignment
When significant numbers of voters no longer support a particular political
party, dealignment has occurred. Often, those voters identify as independents and
believe they owe no loyalty to any particular political party.

Electoral Realignment
Historically, as voting patterns have shifted and new coalitions of party supporters have
formed, electoral realignment has occurred. Several elections can be considered
realigning elections, where the dominant party loses power and a new dominant
party takes its place. The elections of 1860 and 1932 are examples. Many
consider the 1980 election in this light; the long-term impact of the 2008 and
2010 elections will be studied in the future.

Third or Minor Parties

KEY IDEA

Although the Republican and Democratic parties have dominated the political
scene, there have been minor, or third, parties throughout U.S. history. Minor
parties usually have great difficulty in getting candidates elected to office,
although they have been more successful at the state and local levels. A few
minor party candidates have been elected to Congress, but no minor party
candidate has ever been elected president. Minor parties have been
instrumental in providing important reforms that have been adopted by the
major parties. Success rather than failure often brings an end to minor
 parties, as the major parties often adopt popular reforms or ideas, especially
if they appeal to the
voters.

Types of Third
Parties
Some third parties have been permanent, running candidates in every
election; however, many third parties disappear after only a few elections.
Several types of minor parties have emerged:
• ideological-those based on a particular set of social, political, or economic
beliefs (communist, socialist, libertarian)
splinter/personality/factional-those that have split away from one of
the major parties; usu- ally formed around a strong personality who does not
win the party nomination; may dis- appear when that leader steps aside
(Theodore Roosevelt's "Bull Moose" Progressive, Strom Thurmond's States'
Rights, George Wallace's American Independent)
single issue-parties that concentrate on a single public policy matter (Free
Soil, Right to Life, Prohibition)
protest usually rooted in periods of economic discontent; may be sectional in
nature (Greenback, Populist); Some observers place the "Tea Party," which
supported many can- didates in the 2010 congressional elections, in this
category.

Structure and Organization of Political

Parties

KEY IDEA

A political party must have an effective organization to accomplish its goals.

Both of the major parties are organized in much the same manner. Both parties
are highly decentralized, or frag- mented. The party of the president is normally
more solidly united than the opposition. The president is automatically considered the
party leader, while the opposition is often without a sin- gle strong leader.
Usually one or more members of Congress are seen as the opposition leaders.
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 National Convention

The national convention serves as the party's national voice. Party delegates
meet in the sum- mer of every fourth year to select the party's candidates for
president and vice president. They are also responsible for writing and
adopting the party's platform, which describes the policy beliefs of the party.

National Committee

The national committee manages the political party's business between

conventions. They are responsible for selecting the convention site,
establishing the rules of the convention, publishing and distributing party
literature, and helping the party raise campaign
contributions.

National
Chairperson
The party's national committee, with the consent of the party's presidential
nominee, elects the national chairperson. The chairperson is responsible for
directing the work of the national committee from their national headquarters
in Washington, D.C. The chairperson is involved in fund raising, recruiting new
party members, encouraging unity within the party, and helping the party's
presidential nominee win election.

Congressional Campaign
Committee
Each party has a committee in the House of Representatives and Senate that works to ensure the election or
reelection of the party's candidates by raising funds and determining how much
money and support each candidate will receive. The committee often works to defeat
an opposition party member who appears weak and might be open to defeat.

State and Local Organization

State law largely determines state and local party organization. Differences
exist from state to state; however, state and local parties are structured in much the
same way as the national party organization. Generally, state parties today are
more organized and better funded than in previous years. As a result of soft
money, money that is distributed from the national political party organization
and that does not have to be reported under the Federal Election Campaign Act
 (1971) or its amendments, state parties have become more dependent on
the national party organization and are subject to their influence. In 2002,
however, the use of soft money was significantly restricted by the Bipartisan
Campaign Reform Act, also known as the McCain-Feingold Act. However, in 2010
the Supreme Court ruled that limiting the ability of businesses, unions, and other
groups to fund their own efforts to elect or defeat can- didates for office is unconstitutional.

Future of Political Parties

KEY IDEA

The future of political parties in the United States is uncertain. In recent

decades, political parties have been in decline. This decline may be attributed to
several factors:
third-party challenges-In recent elections third-party challengers have taken
votes from the major candidates, lessening their ability to win a majority of
the vote.
• loss of support by party loyalists-An increase in the number of
independent voters.
Political Parties < 111

• increase in split-ticket voting-Many voters no longer vote a straight ticket

(only for can- didates of one political party) but rather split their vote among
candidates from more than one party.
• lack of perceived differences between the parties-Voters often believe there
are no major differences in the parties or their candidates.
• party reforms-Changes within the parties themselves to create greater diversity
and open- ness have allowed for greater conflict within some parties.
• methods of campaigning-New technologies have allowed candidates to become more inde-
pendent of parties and more directly involved with the voters.
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> Review Questions

1. Which of the following best describes a
multi-party
system?
(A) Membership in the party of choice is not
generally
voluntary.
(B) There is usually a general consensus of
agreement as to basic principles of
government.

(C) Multi-party systems usually give the

voters
meaningful
choices.
(D) Parties tend to avoid extreme ideologies.
(E) Minor parties have little effect on most
elections.

2. Which of the following is NOT a

responsibility
of a political
party?
(A) organize the government
(B) represent special
interests
(C) recruit candidates

(D) educate voters

(E) raise campaign money
3. The Republican and Democratic parties have
dom- inated the political scene throughout
American history. Minor parties have often
surfaced to fill the void left by the major
parties. A splinter minor party can best be
characterized by
(A) the single issues supported by the
party (B) the fact that it is usually built
around the
working-class
American
 (C) the permanence of its presence on
the
political
scene
(D) its presence during times of economic
discontent

(E) the fact that it is the result of a revolt

within
a major party

4. The Republicans dominated party

politics during
5. The national convention serves what major
purpose for a political
party?
(A) to allow the people to direct the work
of the national committee through a
system of national participation
(B) to establish the rules of party campaigning (C) to serve as the party's national voice in the
selection of the party's
candidate
(D) to manage the political party's
business by
the vote of party
constituents
(E) to allow the political party to meet as a
whole in order to raise funds, recruit new members,
and encourage unity within the
party

6. Which of the following best describes state

party
organization
s?
(A) They are independent of the
national party. (B) They are subject to
their own jurisdiction.
according to party
doctrines.
(C) They are determined and organized by
 the national party in accordance with national
law.

(D) Their funding has been affected by

campaign reform
law.
(E) They have the same organizational
struc- tures in all states because they are
regulated by state law.

7. Membership in an American political

party is voluntary and based on party
identification. Which factors influence party
identification?
education
I.

II. gender
III
.
public
opinion
(A) I only
which span of
years?
(A) 1860-1932
(B) 1932-1968
(C) 1968-present
(D) 1800-1860
(E) 1789-1800
(B) II only
(C) III
only
(D) I and II only
(E) I and III only
8. Which of the following best describes the
structure and organization of a political
party? (A) They are close-knit and very
organized. (B) They are highly
highly decentralized
fragmented.
or
 (C) After election day they are usually less
responsible to the
people.
(D) The president plays no role in party
leadership after his
election.
(E) During the founding of our country, both
parties organized in the same manner, along
the same lines, and with the same political
ideas in mind.

9. The shifting of voting patterns and formation

of new coalitions of party supporters is
known as

(A) alignment
(B)
realignment
(C) divided government
(D)
dealignment
(E) party
positioning
Political Parties < 113

10. The future of political parties in the United

States is uncertain due to

I.
decline of third-party
challenges
II. perceived differences between the
parties III. increase in split-ticket voting
IV. lack of party
reform
(A) I
only
(B) III only
(C) II and III only
(D) I and III only
(E) I, II, and IV only