FABRICATION OF

INTELLIGENT BRAKING SYSTEM

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

MANGALESWARAN.M 23200429
MANIKANDAN.S 23200430
MANOKARAN.P 23200431
MOHAMED IBRAHIM.R 23200433
NACHIYAPPAN.K 23200434

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree

of
DIPLOMA
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ALAGAPPA GOVERNMENT POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
KARAIKUDI - 630 003

2024 - 2025

i
 ALAGAPPA GOVERNMENT POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE,
KARAIKUDI – 630 003

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report titled “FABRICATION OF

INTELLIGENT BRAKING SYSTEM” is the bonafide work of

MANGALESWARAN.M (23200429), MANIKANDAN.S (23200430),

MANOKARAN.P (23200431), MOHAMED IBRAHIM.R (23200433),

NACHIYAPPAN.K (23200434) who carried out the project under my supervision.

Certified further that to the best of my knowledge the work reported here in does not form

part of any other project report or dissertation on the basis of which a diploma or award

was conferred on an earlier occasion of this or any other candidate.

SATHISH KUMAR.R M.E., KALPANA.R M.E.,

Supervisor Head of the Department
Lecturer / Mechanical Engineering

Submitted for the viva-voce examination held on…………………

at Alagappa Government Polytechnic college, Karaikudi.

Internal Examiner External Examiner

ii
 ABSTRACT
Road accidents due to delay in braking or due to some other issue is the major

problem in India. Every day nearly 400 road accidents happen in India due to which

safety is a major concern now in India. In USA nearly 3 million road accidents happen.

To reduce this automobile industry come with an idea of intelligent braking system. By

using intelligent braking system we can prevent many road accident in such a way that,

if someone is driving a vehicle without concentration and suddenly a person or an animal

comes in front of the vehicle the photo-electric sensor senses the object in front of the

vehicle and send the signal to the relay from there the relay opens or closes the solenoid

wall to apply brake according to the situation .The system will detect the body or thing

and the vehicle will stop automatically due to which the accident can be prevented. As

the accidents are increasing day by day to overcome this Intelligence braking system can

be used to prevent accidents. This system can be used in small vehicle, heavy vehicles

and up to some limits in train also.

Keywords: Photoelectric sensor, Electronic relay, intelligent braking system.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to express our deep sense of heart full gratitude to our founder and

philanthropist Dr. RM. ALAGAPPA CHETTIAR.

Our sense of gratitude to our beloved Principal Mrs. N. Sivakami M.E., PGDCA

for permitting us to take up this project.

We wish to thank Mrs. R.Kalpana, Head of Department for the valuable

suggestion and encouragement rendered to carrying out this project.

With deep sense of gratitude, we extend our earnest &sincere thanks to our guide

Mr.R. Sathish Kumar, Lecturer, Department of Mechanical Engineering for his kind

guidance and encouragement during this project.

We also express our sincere thanks to the entire Mechanical Engineering

Department Staff of our college, friends, family members for their useful guidance

rendered to us for the valuable support.

Most of all to our almighty God, for giving his endless blessing, Knowledge and

Strength for the completion of the project.

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 TABLE OF CONTENT
PAGE
S.NO PARTICULARS
NO

PROJECT PLANNING 1

1 INTRODUCTION 3

2 INTRODUCTION OF PNEUMATIC BRAKE 7

3 MAJOR COMPONENTS OF INTELLIGENT BRAKING

14
SYSTEM

4 BLOCK DIAGRAM 30

5 LINE DIAGRAM 49

6 WORKING PRINCIPLE 50

7 ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES 32

8 COST OF ESTIMATION 33

CONCLUSION 34

BIBLIOGRAPHY 35

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 1. PROJECT PLANNING

Before starting every project its planning is to be done. Planning is very

important task and should be taken with great care, as the efficiency of the whole project
largely depends upon its planning while planning a project each and every details should
be worked out in anticipation and should carefully is considered with all the relating
provisions in advance. Project planning consists of the following steps.

PROJECT CAPACITY
The capacity of the project must be decided considering the amount of money
which can be invested and availability of material and machines.

DRAWINGS
Drawing been decided for the project to be manufacture. Its detailed drawing
specification for raw material and finished products should be decided carefully along
with the specification of the machines required for their manufacture.

MATERIAL EQUIPMENT
The list of materials required for manufacture is prepared from the drawings. The
list of is known as “BILL OF MATERIALS”. This passes to the store keeper and the
required materials taken from the store under permission of store keeper operation, the
necessity of operation, the person to do the job, machine to be used to do the job are
considered while planning the operation. After considering tea above questions a best
method is developed and the best method is applied to the operation. above questions a
best method is developed and the best method is applied to the operation.

MACHINE LOADING
While planning proper care should be taken to find the machining time for each
operation as correct as possible. So that the arrangement for full utilization of machine
can be made machine loading programmed is also known.

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PURCHASE CONSIDERATION
It is different to manufacture all the component needed for the equipment in the
workshop it self. The decision about a particular item whether to purchase or to
manufacture is taken by planning after making through study of relative merits demerits.

EQUIPMENT CONSIDERATION
Result obtained from “PROCESS PLANNING” and “MACHINE LODING”
helps in calculating the equipment requirement specification of the equipment should be
laid down by considering the drawing. Drawing will also help in deciding and necessary
requirement of tools, accessories.

COST CALCULATION

The cost of the project can be calculated by adding following.

Material Cost
Machining Cost
Overhead Expenses.

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 1. INTRODUCTION
The power developed inside the engine cylinder is ultimately aimed to turn the wheels
so that the motor vehicle can move on the road. The reciprocating motion of the piston turns a
crankshaft rotating the flywheel through the connecting rod. The circular motion of the crank
shaft is now to be transmitted to the rear wheels. It is transmitted through the clutch, gear box,
universal joints, propeller shaft or drive shaft, differential and axles extending to the wheels.
The application of engine power to the driving wheels through all these parts is called Power
transmission. The power transmission system is usually the same on all modern passenger
cars and trucks, but its arrangement may vary according to the method of drive and type of the
transmission units.

The motion of the crank shaft is transmitted through the clutch to the gear box or
transmission, which consists of a set of gears to change the speed. From gear box, the motion
is transmitted to the propeller shaft through another universal joint. Universal joint is used
where the two rotating shafts are connected at an angle for power transmission. Finally the
power is transmitted to the rear wheels through the rear axles. The differential provides the
relative motion to the two rear wheels while the vehicle is taking a turn.

1.1 HISTORY OF BRAKE SYSTEM

In physical terms we can state that energy is the capacity of a physical system to
do work. When a car comes down a straight line at 300 km/h or more, it possesses lots of
kinetic (movement) energy. Due to the fact that energy does not get lost, but can instead
only be converted one form into another, the only way to slow down the car is to convert

3
the kinetic energy into another form. Brakes as we know them both in race cars and road
cars convert this movement energy to heat.

Formula One cars must sometimes decelerate in a matter of seconds from 350
km/h to about 70 km/h. During such heavy braking, the temperature of the brake rotor
and pads can warm up from 400°C to more than 1000°C. These 1000°C occurs at the
very end of the braking, and is approximately the highest temperature a carbon brake disc
(as they are used in F1, and limited to 28mm thickness and 278mm diameter by the FIA)
can take.

1.2 WORKING PRINCIPLE

Of all the systems that make up your car, the brake system might just be the most
important. In the olden days it was also one of the simplest. Over the years as
improvements have been made, the system that has evolved isn't so simple anymore...
(It's also about a zillion times more reliable and safer.)
Your brakes work as hard or harder than any other part of the car, however much energy
it takes to get your car up a hill, it takes at least as much energy to stop it at the bottom.
Think about that for a second. Here, I'll say it again, it takes at least as much energy to
get your car safely down a hill and stop it at the bottom, as it took to get your car up
the hill in the first place. Your brakes do this by converting the kinetic energy to heat
energy. All of this heat is generated between the friction surfaces of your brake pads and
your rotors. (I am going to disregard the rear brakes for now, since the front brakes do the
lion's share of the work.)

Rather than try to give you a step-by-step procedure for repairing your brakes, I'm
going to try to show you how to diagnose a few of the many simple brake problems.
Unfortunately, before I can do that, I have to talk about how the brake system works. If
you already know how it works, then you probably already know what your problem is,
but you might find something useful here anyway or at least I hope so.

Brakes operate on a simple hydraulic principle. (See diagram below) If a force is

4
exerted on the piston putting pressure on the fluid confined in the left hand container, the
fluid is forced out through the narrow tube at the bottom and into the right hand
container, exerting a force on the second piston, forcing it to move upward.

Now this is how the force from your foot gets to the four corners of the car. If we add a
lever to magnify the force applied to the first (master) cylinder, and maybe even a power
booster unit to increase that force even more, all we have to do next is figure a way to use
that force to slow down the wheels. Since the wheels are attached to the car, slowing
them down will slow the car.
If we change the shape of the right hand container, (see below) to make
something for the piston to push against, we can make it pinch something. Let's bolt a
disc(Brake rotor) to the wheel, so that it rotates whenever the wheel does. We'll mount it
in such a way that the edge of it is between the caliper piston and the caliper that we have
bolted to the axle of the car.so that when the piston moves out, the disc is pinched
between it and the other side of the caliper. Actually we're not quite done. As we have the
system now, the disc and the caliper would wear out rather quickly (not to mention
making horrible grinding/scraping noises). We need to put something between them to
protect the surfaces. Let's call this part "Brake Pads" But wait, as we have drawn it, the
piston only pushes on one side of the disc. We have to allow the caliper to slide back and
forth if we want it to actually pinch the disc efficiently. Let's make an anchor post and
allow the caliper to slide along it. Let's make a nice, strong mount to hold the brake pads,
and secure it to the axle. Now all we have to do is mount the caliper assembly to some
sturdy part of the car and we're in business.

5
Brake pads have two main parts, the steel backing, and the actual friction material. The
backing is only there to support the friction material, which does the actual work of
stopping the car. The friction material does it's job by converting the energy of motion to
heat energy. This is done by the magic of friction. The friction between the pad and the
disc slows down the disc, and creates heat. This heat is transferred to the pad and the disc
and then (at some fixed rate) dissipated to the surrounding air. How fast that heat is
radiated is determined by a simple formula, depends on mainly two factors, the
temperature of the air around the parts, and the flow of air past them. 99% of the time,
this cooling is more than enough to keep the brakes cool enough to work just fine.

6
 2. INTRODUCTION OF PNEUMATIC BRAKE

2.1 AIR BRAKE (ROAD VEHICLE)

2.1.1 Truck air actuated disc brake.

Air brakes are used in trucks, buses, trailers, and semi-trailers. George
Westinghouse first developed air brakes for use in railway service. He patented a safer air
brake on March 5, 1872. Originally designed and built for use on railroad train
application, air brakes remain the exclusive systems in widespread use. Westinghouse
made numerous alterations to improve his air pressured brake invention, which led to
various forms of the automatic brake and the subsequent use on heavier road vehicles.

2.1.2 Compressed air brake system

Compressed air brake systems are typically used on heavy trucks and buses (Note
the difference between pneumatic brakes and pneumatic/hydraulic). The system consists
of service brakes, parking brakes, a control pedal, an engine-driven air compressor and a
compressed air storage tank. For the parking brake, there is a disc or drum brake
arrangement which is designed to be held in the 'applied' position by spring pressure. Air

7
pressure must be produced to release these "spring brake" parking brakes. For the service
brakes (the ones used while driving for slowing or stopping) to be applied, the brake
pedal is pushed, routing the air under pressure (approx 100-125psi) to the brake chamber,
causing the brake to reduce wheel rotation speed. Most types of truck air brakes are drum
units, though there is an increasing trend towards the use of disc brakes in this
application. The air compressor air draws filtered air from the atmosphere and forces it
into high-pressure reservoirs at around 120 PSI. Most heavy vehicles have a gauge within
the driver's view, indicating the availability of air pressure for safe vehicle operation,
often including warning tones or lights. Setting of the parking/emergency brake releases
the pressurized air pressure in the lines between the compressed air storage tank and the
brakes, thus actuating the (spring brake) parking braking hardware. An air pressure
failure at any point would apply full spring brake pressure immediately.

In the Florida CDL Handbook [1], this process is described. Here is the section describing
the service brake:

2.1.3 - The Brake Pedal

Brakes are applied by pushing down the brake pedal. (It is also called the foot valve or
treadle valve.) Pushing the pedal down harder applies more air pressure. Letting up on the
brake pedal reduces the air pressure and releases the brakes. Releasing the brakes lets
some compressed air go out of the system, so the air pressure in the tanks is reduced. It
must be made up by the air compressor. Pressing and releasing the pedal unnecessarily
can let air out faster than the compressor can replace it. If the pressure gets too low, the
brakes won't work.

These large vehicles also have an emergency brake system, in which the compressed air
holds back a mechanical force (usually a spring) which will otherwise engage the
brakes.[2] Hence, if air pressure is lost for any reason, the brakes will engage and bring
the vehicle to a stop.

8
Design and function

A compressed air brake system is divided into a supply system and a control
system. The supply system compresses, stores and supplies high-pressure air to the
control system as well as to additional air operated auxiliary truck systems (gearbox shift
control, clutch pedal air assistance servo, etc.).

9
2.2 INTRODUCTION OF PNEUMATICS

2.2.1 Pneumatics

Pneumatic systems means which produces the power by using pressurized gases.
Pneumatic systems typically use air as the fluid medium because air is safe, low cost and
readily available.

2.2.2 Pneumatic System

● Mechanization is broadly defined as the replacement of manual effort by

mechanical power. Pneumatic is an attractive medium for low cost
mechanization particularly for sequential (or) repetitive operations. Many
factories and plants already have a compressed air system, which is capable
of providing the power (or) energy requirements and the control system
(although equally pneumatic control systems may be economic and can be
advantageously applied to other forms of power).

● The main advantage of an all pneumatic system are usually economic and
simplicity the latter reducing maintenance to a low level. It can also have
outstanding advantages in terms of safety.

2.2.3 Working Medium

● Pneumatic systems operate on a supply of compressed air, which must be

made available.

● In sufficient quantity and at a pressure to suit the capacity of the system

When pneumatic system is being adopted for the first time, however it wills
indeed the necessary to deal with the question of compressed air supply.

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 ● The key part of any facility for supply of compressed air is by means using
reciprocating compressor. A compressor is a machine that takes in air, gas at
a certain pressure and delivered the air at a high pressure. Compressor
capacity is the actual quantity of air compressed and delivered and the
volume expressed is that of the air at intake conditions namely at
atmosphere pressure and normal ambient temperature.

2.2.4 Source Of The System

● The main function of the air compressor is to compress the air up to the
required pressure. The maximum capacity of the compressor is 10x105 to
12 x105 N/m².
● This is a two stages or two-cylinder reciprocating air compressor. The two
cylinders are for low and high compression.
● The air pressure is measured at various places by the use of pressure gauges.
V-belt and pulley are used to drive the compressor.
● Clean condition of the suction air is one of the factors, which decides the life
of a compressor.
● Warm and moist suction air will result in increased precipitation of condense
from the compressed air. Compressor may be classified in two general types.
● The compressor is driven by the seperate electric motor. And this type of
compressor having the “V” SHAPED CYLINDER arrangement.
● The main components of the compressor are
 Storage tank.
 Piston and cylinder arrangements.

2.2.5 Selection Of Pneumatics

Mechanization is broadly defined as the replacement of manual effort by
mechanical power. Pneumatic is an attractive medium for low cost mechanization
particular for sequential or repetitive operations. Many factories and plants already have a

11
compressed air system, which is capable of providing the power or energy requirements
and the control system .
The main advantage of an all-pneumatic system are usually economic and
simplicity and reducing maintenance to a low level. It can also have standing advantages
in terms of safety.

2.2.6 Production of Compressed Air

A pneumatic system operates on a supply of compressed air, which must be made
available in sufficient quantity and at pressure to suit the capacity of the systems. When
pneumatic system is being adopted for the first time, however it will indeed the necessary
to deal with the question of compressed air supply.

2.3 BASIC PRINCIPLES & INTRODUCTION OF HYDRAULICS AND

PNEUMATICS

Pneumatic cylinders are the devices for converting the air pressure into linear
mechanical force and motion. They are basically used for single purpose applications
such as clamping, tilting, bending, turning and many other applications.

The Pneumatic power is converted to straight line reciprocating motion by pneumatic

cylinders. The various industrial applications for which air cylinders are used can be
divided duty wise into the groups. They are light duty, medium duty and heavy duty but
according to the operating principle air cylinders can be sub divided as 1.single-acting,
2.Double- acting cylinders. Since our project is based on single acting cylinder we shall
see deep about it.

In a single-acting cylinder, compressed air is fed only in one side hence, this cylinder can
produce work only in one direction the return movement of the piston is affected by a
built–in spring or by application of an external force the spring is designed to return the
piston to its initial position with a sufficiently high speed.

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 Most industrial processes require substances to be transformed from one place to
another. Also the final products should be shaped (or) compressed (or) held by
applying a great force. Such activities are performed by using prime movers.
 The prime movers are operated by (i) electrical system (ii) Hydraulic system (iii)
Pneumatic system.
 In electrical system, the rotary motion is provided by simple motors. The linear
motions can be obtained by converting rotary motions with the aid of screw jack
(or) Rack and pinion.
 In ‘Hydraulic system, enclosed water (or) oil can be used to convey energy from
one location to another. In Greek, hydra means water.
 In Pneumatic system, enclosed gas (normally compressed air) is used to transfer
energy from one location to another). In Greek, Pneumatic means wind.

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 3. MAJOR COMPONENTS OF INTELLIGENT BRAKING SYSYTEM

3.1 Major Accessories

1. I.R transmitter& Receiver with relay

2. Control unit
3. Pneumatic assembly
4. Break assembly
5. Power supply

3.1.1 Ir Sensor With Relay

The IR transmitter and IR receiver circuit is used to sense obstacles crossing the sensor.
It is fixed to the frame stand with a suitable arrangement.

14
It is the same principle in ALL Infra-Red proximity sensors. The basic idea is to send
infra red light through IR-LEDs, which is then reflected by any object in front of the
sensor.

This is an electrical property of Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) which is the fact that a led
produce a voltage difference across its leads when it is subjected to light. As if it was a
photo-ell, but with much lower output current. In other words, the voltage generated by
the leds can't be - in any way - used to generate electrical power from light, It can barely
be detected.

15
Basic relay operation

The electromagnetic relay consists of a multi-turn coil, wound on an iron core, to

form an electromagnet. When the coil is energized, by passing current through it, the core
becomes temporarily magnetized. The magnetized core attracts the iron armature. The
armature is pivoted which causes it to operate one or more sets of contacts. When the coil
is de-energized the armature and contacts are released.
The coil can be energized from a low power source such as a transistor while the
contacts can switch high powers such as the mains supply. The relay can also be situated
remotely from the control source. Relays can generate a very high voltage across the coil
when switched off.
This can damage other components in the circuit. To prevent this diode is
connected across the coil. The cathode of the diode is connected to the most positive end
of the coil.

16
 The spring sets (contacts) can be a mixture of N.O, N.C and c.o. look at the page
on switches to see how they can be used in circuits. Various coil-operating voltages (ac
and dc) are available. The actual contact points on the spring sets are available for high
current and low current operation. The REED RELAY has a much faster operation than
the relays described above.

3.1.2 Control Unit

 Microcontroller

Microelectronics engineering deals with the design and micro fabrication of

very small electronic circuit components for use in an integrated circuit or sometimes for
use on their own as a general electronic component. The most common microelectronic
components are semiconductor transistors, although all main electronic components
(resistors, capacitors, inductors) can be created at a microscopic level. Nano electronics is
the further scaling of devices down to nanometer levels.

Microelectronic components are created by chemically fabricating wafers of

semiconductors such as silicon (at higher frequencies, compound semiconductors like
gallium arsenide and indium phosphide) to obtain the desired transport of electronic
charge and control of current. The field of microelectronics involves a significant amount
of chemistry and material science and requires the electronic engineer working in the
field to have a very good working knowledge of the effects of quantum mechanics.

17
  Basic Electronics Components
Resistors, capacitors, and inductors are basic electrical components used in electronic
circuits. Some of the electrical components and their symbols are given here
 Resistors
Resistors are components which resist the flow of electronic current. The resistors
are mainly used to reduce the voltage applied to other components and to limit the current
flowing through other components. The higher the value of the resistance, the lower the
current will be. Resistance of a resistor is measured in terms of Ohms (Ω) since the
relationship between voltage (V, volts), current (I, Ampere), and resistance (R) is
explained by Ohm's law given in equation-1
V=IR (Eq-1)

 Inductors
An inductor is an electronic component composed of a coil of wire. The magnetic
properties of a coil come into effect. When a voltage is applied, a current starts flowing in
the coil and a magnetic field is created as shown in Figure 5. While the field is building,
the coil resists the flow of the current. Once the field is built, current flows normally.
When the voltage is removed, the magnetic field around the coil keeps the current
flowing until the field collapses. Thus, the inductor can store energy in its magnetic field,
and resist any change in the amount of current flowing through it. The unit of inductance
is the Henry (H). In order to increase the inductance, we can
use core materials like Soft iron, Silicon iron, etc. The most common type of inductor is
the Bar Coil type. The others are surface mount inductors, Toroids (ring-shaped core),
thin film inductors, and transformers. The choice of inductor depends on the space
availability, frequency range of operation, and certainly power requirements.

18
 Figure-5: An Inductor and its magnetic field
 Capacitor
A capacitor is an energy storing device, made up of two parallel conductive plates
separated by an insulating material. This insulating material is called a dielectric. It stores
a charge because electrons crowd onto the negative plate and repel electrons on the
positive plate, thereby inducing an equal and opposite charge. The unit of the capacitance
is Farad (F). However, practical values of a capacitor are in micro and nano Farad ranges.
Figure 6 presents an electrolytic capacitor and its symbols.

Electrolytic capacitor and its symbol

There are two different types of capacitors: Electrolytic and Non-electrolytic.

Non-electrolytic capacitors use mica or polyester as dielectric. Electrolytic capacitors use
aluminum metal plates on either side of a sheet of paper soaked in aluminum borate.
Ceramic capacitors are used in high frequency applications. These are stable at high
frequencies. Tantalum bead capacitors are very small in size, thus commonly used as
surface mount components. Large capacitors have the value printed plainly on them but

19
smaller ones often have just 2 or three numbers on them. It is similar to the resistor codes.
The first two are the 1st and 2nd significant digits and the third is a multiplier code.
Sometimes, one or two letters are added for tolerance and temperature coefficient. The
values calculated using the digits on a capacitor is in pF (pico Farad). For example, if a
capacitor has 105F on it, the capacitor has 10× 100,000 = 1000000 pF = 1000 nF (nano
Farad) = 1 μ F (micro Farad) value and 1% tolerance. There are two letters used for
temperature co efficient: P (+100) and Z (+80). There are other standards such as EIA
(Electronic Industrial Association) where there are more letters for a detailed tolerance
and temperature coefficients.

 Diodes

Diode is an electrical device allowing current to move through it in one direction

with far greater ease than in the other direction. The most common type of diode in
modern circuit design is the semiconductor diode. Diodes are polarized, which means that
they must be inserted in the correct way. Diodes have two connections: an anode
(positive) and a cathode (negative). The cathode is always identified by a dot, ring, or
some other mark, shown in

DIODES
Diodes are said to be biased, based on the voltages applied to it. To forward bias a
diode, the anode must be more positive than the cathode. To reverse bias a diode, the
anode must be less positive than the cathode. When forward biased, the device conducts
current, but when reverse biased, it prevents the flow of current. Note that diode starts to
conduct when the voltage on the diode reaches a certain level (in practice this is about 0.7
Volt). Voltages above this value increase the current going through the diode linearly. On
the other hand, if the voltage on the diode is reversed, the diode does not let any current

20
pass through itself. However, if the reverse voltage is increased up to a certain level, the
diode can be broken and lets a high current pass through itself. This voltage is called
breakdown voltage.

 Transistor

A transistor shown in figure-9, can be initially thought of as an "electronically-

controlled resistor." Two of the pins act like a normal resistor. The other "control" pin
controls the resistance "seen" between the other 2 pins. The "control" pin is called the
gate in a Field Effect Transistor (FET) (the other 2 pins are the source and drain). The
"control" pin is called the base in a Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) (the other 2 pins are
the emitter and the collector).
Two electrical quantities can be used to control the resistance between the two
terminals - current and voltage. In a FET, the voltage at the gate controls the resistance
between source and drain, while in the BJT, the current flowing into the base controls the
resistance between the emitter and collector. While often referred to as an amplifier, a
transistor does not create a higher voltage or current of its own accord. Like any other
device, it obeys the Kirchoff's laws. The resistance of a transistor dynamically changes,
hence the term transistor.

Figure-9 Transistors

One of its popular uses is in building a signal amplifier, but it can also be used as a
switch. Today's transistors are mostly found inside ICs. Stand- alone transistors are used
mostly only in high power applications or for power- regulation.

21
 Both the BJT and the FET are popular today (among the FETs, the MOSFET
being the most popular form of transistor), each one having certain advantages over the
other. BJTs are much faster and high current devices, while FETs are small-sized low-
power devices. Understanding the function of a transistor is a key to understanding
electronics.

22
3.3. Pneumatic Assembly
The major components of these systems are,
1. Compressor
2. Pneumatic Cylinder
3. Solenoid Valve
4. Hose and fitting
3.3.1 Compressor:
The air under high pressure is given by a compressor. It is driven by an electric
motor. The compressor delivers air to inlet of the cylinder. An air compressor as the
same indicates is a machine to compress the air and to raise its pressure. The air
compressor sucks air from the atmosphere, compresses it and then delivers the same
under a high pressure to a storage vessel from the storage vessel it may be conveyed by a
pipeline to a place where the supply of compressed air is required.

3.3.2 Pneumatic Cylinder

In this the force exerted by the compressed air moves the piston in two directions.
They are used partially when the piston is required to perform work not only on the
advance movement but also on the return stroke. This principle, the stroke length is
unlimited, although bucking and bending must be considered before selecting the
particular size of piston diameter, rod length and stroke length.
The different parts of double acting cylinder are:
1. Barrel
2. Piston rod
3. Top Cover
4. Bottom Cover
5. Wiper Cover
6. Retaining ring
7. Piston
8. Piston guide
9. Bearing Cap
10. ‘O’ ring for piston guide

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 11. Hexagonal socket head screw
12. Check nut
The double acting cylinder is made up of cast aluminium. The inner and outer
surface of the cylinder should be machined accurately. The internal diameter of the
cylinder should be accurate in order to provide a smooth surface for the packing. The
appearance of the outer diameter should be good. The outer most part of the bottom
and top cover contains internal threads for inserting bolts to clamp the cylinder.
In case of double acting cylinder a force is developed in both the directions. The
moving member inside the cylinder is nothing but a piston which is found to be moving
forward and backward due to high-pressure air. The cylinder top and lower plate are
flanged together by means of bolts and nuts. The bottom of the cylinder is also flanged
with end covers for the movement of the piston in reciprocating manner.
3.3.3 Solenoid Valve
The directional valve is one of the important parts of a pneumatic system.
Commonly known as DCV, this valve is used to control the direction of air flow in the
pneumatic system. The directional valve does this by changing the position of its internal
movable parts.
This valve was selected for speedy operation and to reduce the manual effort and
also for the modification of the machine into automatic machine by means of using a
solenoid valve. A solenoid is an electrical device that converts electrical energy into
straight line motion and force. These are also used to operate a mechanical operation
which in turn operates the valve mechanism.
Solenoids may be push type or pull type. The push type solenoid is one in which
the plunger is pushed when the solenoid is energized electrically. The pull type solenoid
is one is which the plunger is pulled when the solenoid is energized.
The name of the parts of the solenoid should be learned so that they can be
recognized when called upon to make repairs, to do service work or to install them.

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Working of Solenoid Valve
The solenoid valve has 5 openings. This ensure easy exhausting of
5/2 valve. The spool of the 5/2 valve slide inside the main bore according to
spool position; the ports get connected and disconnected. The working
principle is as follows.
Position-1
When the spool is actuated towards outer direction port ‘P’ gets
connected to ‘B’ and ‘S’ remains closed while ‘A’ gets connected to ‘R’
Poisition-2
When the spool is pushed in the inner direction port ‘P’ and ‘A’ gets
connected to each other and ‘B’ to ‘S’ while port ‘R’ remains closed.
3.4. House and fittings:
It is provided for the passage of compressed air from the compressor outlet to the
operating valve.
Two separate pipes also connect the operating valve with the working cylinder
pressure drop through and air line depends on the flow rate, pipe diameter, pipe length
and pipe geometry. It can be determined directly for straight pipes of any given length.
A small chaining bore size can have marked effect on pressure drop, where as even
doubling the pipe length, will only result in doubling the pressure drop.
3.5. Brake Assembly
A brake is a mechanical device which inhibits motion. Its opposite component is
a clutch. The rest of this article is dedicated to various types of vehicular brakes Most
commonly brakes use friction to convert kinetic energy into heat, though other methods

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of energy conversion may be employed. For example regenerative braking converts much
of the energy to electrical energy, which may be stored for later use. Other methods
convert kinetic energy into potential energy in such stored forms as pressurized air or
pressurized oil. Eddy current brakes use magnetic fields to convert kinetic energy into
electric current in the brake disc, fin, or rail, which is converted into heat. Still other
braking methods even transform kinetic energy into different forms, for example by
transferring the energy to a rotating flywheel.

Brakes are generally applied to rotating axles or wheels, but may also take other
forms such as the surface of a moving fluid (flaps deployed into water or air). Some
vehicles use a combination of braking mechanisms, such as drag racing cars with both
wheel brakes and a parachute, or airplanes with both wheel brakes and drag flaps raised
into the air during landing.

Since kinetic energy increases quadratically with velocity (K = mv2 / 2), an object
moving at 10 m/s has 100 times as much energy as one of the same mass moving at 1m/s
, and consequently the theoretical braking distance, when braking at the traction limit, is
100 times as long. In practice, fast vehicles usually have significant air drag, and energy
lost to air drag rises quickly with speed.

Almost all wheeled vehicles have a brake of some sort. Even baggage carts and
shopping carts may have them for use on a moving ramp. Most fixed-wing aircraft are
fitted with wheel brakes on the undercarriage. Some aircraft also feature air brakes
designed to reduce their speed in flight. Notable examples include gliders and some
World War II-era aircraft, primarily some fighter aircraft and many dive bombers of the
era. These allow the aircraft to maintain a safe speed in a steep descent. The Saab B 17
dive bomber used the deployed undercarriage as an air brake.

Friction brakes on automobiles store braking heat in the drum brake or disc brake
while braking then conduct it to the air gradually. When traveling downhill some vehicles
can use their engines to brake.

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When the brake pedal of a modern vehicle with hydraulic brakes is pushed, ultimately a
piston pushes the brake pad against the brake disc which slows the wheel down. On the
brake drum it is similar as the cylinder pushes the brake shoes against the drum which
also slows the wheel down

3.6 Power Supply:

There are many types of power supply. Most are designed to convert high voltage
AC mains electricity to a suitable low voltage supply for electronics circuits and other
devices. A power supply can by broken down into a series of blocks, each of which
performs a particular function.

For example a 5V regulated supply Functional Diagram:

Circuit Diagram:

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Transformer only:
The low voltage AC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and special AC motors.
It is not suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a rectifier and a smoothing
capacitor.

Bridge rectifier:
A bridge rectifier can be made using four individual diodes, but it is also available
in special packages containing the four diodes required. It is called a full-wave rectifier
because it uses all the AC wave (both positive and negative sections). 1.4V is used up in
the bridge rectifier because each diode uses 0.7V when conducting and there are always
two diodes conducting, as shown in the diagram below. Bridge rectifiers are rated by the
maximum current they can pass and the maximum reverse voltage they can withstand
(this must be at least three times the supply RMS voltage so the rectifier can withstand
the peak voltages).

Rectifier Unit:
A rectifier is a device which offers a low resistance in one direction and high
resistance in the opposite direction. Such a device is capable of converting AC voltage in
to pulsating DC voltage the rectifier employs one or more diodes.
Filter:
The function of the filter circuit is to remove the ripples or to reduce it. The
resistors, inductors and capacitors are used in the filter circuit. The filter circuit is placed
in between rectifier and voltage regulator.

Smoothing:
The smooth DC output has a small ripple. It is suitable for most electronic
circuits.
Voltage regulator:
Voltage regulator is a device, connected in the output circuit of a power supply.
To keep the output voltage constant regardless of variations in load currents are the
supply voltage with in the specified limit. Voltage regulator are connected in between the
filter and the load.
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 Figure shows the circuit diagram of a bridge rectifier. This includes a power
transformer and filter circuit. This employs four diodes, D1, D2, D3 and D4. During the
positive half cycle of the applied AC voltage diodes D1 and D3 conducts. While during
the negative half cycle D2, D4 conducts. The current through the load flows in the same
direction in the both half cycle the output of the rectifier contains ripples. Filters are used
reduces the ripples components in the output.

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 4. BLOCK DIAGRAM

BLOCK DIAGRAM

IR
TRANSMITTER
POWER CONTROL
SUPPLY UNIT

IR
SOLENOID RECEIVER
FLOW CONTROL VALVE
VALVE

AIR TANK PNEUMATIC

(COMPRESSOR) CYLINDER BRAKE

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 6. WORKING PRINCIPLE

WORKING PRINCIPLE
 This system determinates and performs the according to the I.R Sensing circuits.
 Sensor sense the interruption signal sends to the control unit.
 At once the pneumatic function will start.
 At that time break system will operate.
Thus our project works satisfactory.

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 7. ADVANTAGES& DISADVANTAGES

ADVANTGES
 Electronics system does not need any special care.
 Each and every area can be moved.
 Unexpected accident is easily controlled.
 It works with maximum efficiently.

APPLICATION
 It is very useful to all car and Trucks.

It performs high efficiency than the other method

DISADVANTAGES
1. Links will failure during the operation due to over load.

2. Electronic component has less durability.

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 8. COST OF ESTIMATION

COMPONENTS NAME QTY RATE AMOUNT

MECHANICAL 1 1500 1500
STRUCTURE&D.C MOTOR
CONTROLASSEMBLY 1 2500 2500
PNEUMATIC CYLINDER 1 900 900
D.C VALVE 1 700 700
POWER SUPPLY 1 300 300
BRAKE ASSLY COST - 600
TOTAL 6500

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 CONCLUSION

In our project we have successfully implemented the Intelligent brake system

for four wheeler for accident avoiding operation based automation process. It maintains
high accuracy and precision. The prototype model designed by us with an application of
is checked whether this system is suitable or not and analyzed by us.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. KENNETH J. AYALA, 8051 Microcontroller Architecture, Programming and

Applications.
2. ROY CHOUDRY, Linear Integrated Circuits.
3. SAM SERIES, 555 and Its Applications.
4. BPB Publishers, CMOS Data Book.
5. ALBERT PAL MALVINO, Principle of Digital Electronics.
http://www.howstuffworks.com
http://www.google.com

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