What is black body radiation?

• One that absorbs all radiation incident upon it,

regardless of frequency. Such a body is called a black body.

• A black body is an ideal system that absorbs

all radiation incident on it.

• The electromagnetic radiation emitted by a black body

is called blackbody radiation

Example: Black Holes

 A good approximation of a black body is a small hole
leading to the inside of a hollow object

 The hole acts as a perfect absorber

 The nature of the radiation leaving the cavity through

the hole depends only on the temperature of the cavity
Black body spectrum
 Classical approach of explaining black body radiation-1

Wien’s displacement law

λmaxT = 2.898 x 10-3 m.K

λmax is the wavelength at which the curve peaks

T is the absolute temperature

The wavelength is inversely proportional to the absolute

temperature

As the temperature increases, the peak is “displaced” to shorter

wavelengths

Wien’s law works well only for short wavelengths

Classical approach of explaining black body radiation-2

Rayleigh jeans law

An early classical attempt to explain blackbody radiation was the

Rayleigh-Jeans law

At long wavelengths, the law matched experimental results fairly well

At short wavelengths, there was a major disagreement between the

Rayleigh-Jeans law and experiment

This mismatch known as the ultraviolet catastrophe; You would have

infinite energy as the wavelength approaches zero
It is explained by considering the radiation inside a cavity of absolute temperature
T whose walls are perfect reflectors to be a series of standing em waves.
This is a three-dimensional generalization of standing waves in a stretched string.

The number of independent standing waves G (ν ) dν

In the frequency interval between ν and dν per unit volume in the cavity turned
out to be density of standing waves in cavity

8πυ 2 dυ
G (ν ) dν = C3

According to the theorem of equipartition of energy, the average energy per

degree of freedom of an entity
1
K BT
2
 Classical average energy per standing wave
ε = K BT

The total energy U (ν ) dν per unit volume in the cavity in the frequency interval
from ν to ν+d ν is therefore

U (ν ) dν = ε G (ν ) dν
8πkT 2
U (ν ) dν = 3
υ dν
c

This is called Rayleigh Jeans formula.

It contains everything that classical physics can say about the spectrum of black body
Radiation
Energy density is proportional to υ 2
; at high frequencies U (ν )dν ∞

In the black body spectrum U (ν )dν 0 and ν ∞

 Planck’s Hypothesis

Molecules can only have discrete values of energy En, given by:
En = nhν
where n is a positive integer called a quantum number and ν is the natural
frequency of oscillation of the molecules.

This is quite different from the classical model of the harmonic

oscillator, in which energy of identical oscillators is related to the
amplitude of the motion and unrelated to the frequency.

Because the energy of a molecule can only have discrete values, we say
the energy is quantized. Each discrete energy level represents a specific
quantum state.
The molecules emit or absorb energy in discrete packets that later became
known as photons. The molecules emit or absorb photons by 'jumping' from
one quantum state to another.

If the jump is downward from state to an adjacent lower state, the amount
of energy radiated by the molecule in a single photon is hν. A molecule emits
or absorbs energy only when it changes quantum states.

The RayleighJeans curve agrees with the Planck radiation formula for longer
wavelengths, (low frequencies)
Planck’s constant h = 6.626×10-34 J s
 Average energy of an oscillator whose
frequency of vibration is υ.
hυ
E= hυ / kT
(e − 1)
Energy radiated per unit volume in the
frequency interval υ and υ+dυ

8πhν 3 dv
U (v)dv =
c 3 e hv / k BT − 1
This is called Planck’s radiation formula.
h –Planck’s constant
c –velocity of light
kB – Boltzmann constant 1.38 x 10-23 J/K
T- Absolute temperature
 At high frequencies hυ >> kT and e hυ kT ∞

Which means that U (ν )dν 0 as observed.

At low frequencies
hυ
<< 1
kT
2
x
e x = 1 + x + + ....
2!
If x is small ex = 1+ x
1 1 kT
= =
e hυ kT − 1 1 + hυ − 1 hυ
kT
At low frequencies Planck’s formula becomes

8πhν 3 kT
U (v)dv = dv ( )
c 3
hυ
8πkTν 2
= 3
dv
c
which is Rayleigh Jeans formula.
 Engineering Physics
PHY 1001

Lecture-2

M. Ummal Momeen
School of Advanced Sciences,
VIT University, Vellore Campus.
Course plan for Lecture-2

 Compton effect
 Derivation of Compton shift and its
IMPLICATIONS; Comparison of experimental
and theoretical prediction.
The Compton Effect is one of the most important experiments
according to quantum mechanics.

The fact that light is scattered by matter with a change in

wavelength could not be described with the former model of light
(Huygens model).

This problem can only be solved by the introduction

of a “light particle”, the photon which interacts elastically with
weakly bounded electrons in the matter.
Experimental Demonstration of the Compton effect

Source: Concepts of Modern Physics by Arthur Beiser

Source: Concepts of Modern Physics by Arthur Beiser
Course plan for this Lecture
Problems
The temperature of your skin is approximately 35oC.
What is the wavelength at which the peak occurs in the radiation emitted from
your skin?
Ans= 9.40 µm
Heisenberg realized that ...
 In the world of very small particles, one cannot
measure any property of a particle without
interacting with it in some way

 This introduces an unavoidable uncertainty into the

result

 One can never measure all the

properties exactly

Werner Heisenberg (1901-1976)

Image in the Public Domain
 Measuring Position and Momentum
of an Electron

 Shine light on electron and detect

reflected light using a microscope
BEFORE
ELECTRON-PHOTON
COLLISION
 Minimum uncertainty in position
is given by the wavelength of the light

 So to determine the position

accurately, it is necessary to use
incident
light with a short wavelength photon
electron
 Measuring Position and Momentum
of an Electron
 By Planck’s law E = hc/λ, a photon with a
short wavelength has a large energy
AFTER
ELECTRON-PHOTON
COLLISION
 Thus, it would impart a large ‘kick’ to the
electron

 But to determine its momentum accurately,

electron must only be given a small kick
scattered
photon
 This means using light of long wavelength.
recoiling
electron
Implications
 It is impossible to know both the position and
momentum exactly, i.e., Δx=0 and Δp=0

 These uncertainties are inherent in the physical

world and have nothing to do with the skill of the
observer

 Because h is so small, these uncertainties are not

observable in normal everyday situations
If a measurement of position is made with precision ∆x
and a simultaneous measurement of linear momentum
is made with precision ∆p, then the product of the two
uncertainties can never be less than h/2π

∆x∆px ≥  /2

∆E ∆t ≥ /2
Example of Baseball
 A pitcher throws a 0.1-kg baseball at 40 m/s

 So momentum is 0.1 x 40 = 4 kg m/s

 Suppose the momentum is measured to an accuracy

of 1 percent , i.e.,

Δp = 0.01 p = 4 x 10-2 kg m/s

Example of Baseball (cont’d)
 The uncertainty in position is then

 No wonder one does not observe the

effects of the uncertainty principle in
everyday life!
Example of Electron
 Same situation, but baseball replaced by an
electron which has mass 9.11 x 10-31 kg
traveling at 40 m/s

 So momentum = 3.6 x 10-29 kg m/s

and its uncertainty = 3.6 x 10-31 kg m/s

 The uncertainty in position is then

Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrödinger
(1887 –1961)

one of the fathers of quantum mechanics,

the Schrödinger equation,

- he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1933.
In 1935,
after extensive correspondence with personal friend
Albert Einstein,
he proposed the Schrödinger's cat thought experiment.
The wave Equation ( Schrodinger’s equation)- time dependent
Fundamental equation of Quantum Mechanics
(like second law motion of Newtonian mechanics F=ma)
Is a wave equation in the variable ψ

For standing wave equation in classical

y = A cos (ω t − kx ) 1

Let us consider the wave equivalent of a Free Particle in a straight path at

constant speed

This wave is described by general solution

y = A cos (ω t − kx ) − i A sin (ω t − kx ) 2

(If undamped, monochromatic harmonic wave in + x direction)

2 can be written in the form

y = Ae − i (ωt - kx )
Only real part of (2) has significance in the case of waves in a stretched string.
‘y’ means displacement , imaginary is discarded as irrelevant.

In quantum mechanics the wave function ‘ψ’ corresponds to the wave

variable ‘y’ of wave motion in general.

However, ψ - is not measureable quantity and may therefore be complex

ψ = Ae −i (ωt - kx )
It convenient to change ω and k in terms of total energy ‘E’ and momentum
‘p’ of the particle being described by ‘ψ’
−
i
( Et − px )
ψ = Ae  -3
Since
E= hυ = 2π υ* h/ 2π = ħ ω
∴E= ħ ω ω=E/ ħ
λ =h/p p =h/ λ = = (h/ 2π)* (2π / λ)
∴ P= ħk k = P/ ħ
 (3) describes the wave equivalent of an unrestricted particles
of total energy ‘E’ and momentum ‘p’ moving in + x direction
 Wave function ‘ψ’ given by (3) is correct only for free moving
particle
 However motion of particle with various restriction are
interested
 e.g. Electron bound to an atom by electric filed of nucleus
A particle can have as a wave only under motion,

So the total energy E of the particle is sum of K.E and its potential energy U,
Where U is in a function of position ‘x’ and time ‘t’

1 2
E = mv + U ( x, t )
2
2 2
1mv
E= +U
2 m
p2
E= +U -(4)
2m
multiplying both side of eq. 4 with wave function ψ
p2
Eψ = ψ + Uψ -(5)
2m
Aim to obtain the fundamental differential equation for ‘ψ’

- solve for ‘ψ’ in a specific situation

Differentiating eq. 3 for ‘ψ’ twice w.r.t ‘x’

∂ψ ip −  (Et − px ) ip
i
= Ae = ψ
∂x  
∂ψ i p ( Et − px )
2 2 2 i 2
− p
= Ae 
=− 2ψ
∂x 2
 2

∂ 2
ψ
p ψ = −
2 2
------- 6
∂x 2
differentiating eq.3 once w.r.t. ' t'
∂ψ iE −  (Et − px )
i
iE
= − Ae =− ψ
∂t  
 ∂ψ ∂ψ
Eψ = − → Eψ = i

i ∂t ∂t ------7
Substitute ‘Eψ’ and p2 ψ

∂ψ  2 ∂ 2ψ -(8)
i =− + Uψ
∂t 2m ∂x 2
in three dimensions the time - dependent form of schrodinger eq.
∂ψ  2  ∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ 
i =−  2 + 2 + 2  + Uψ
∂t 2m  ∂x ∂y ∂z 
∂ψ   2 2 
i =  − ∇ + U ψ
∂t  2m  -(9)

Eψ = Hψ
∂
E → i → energy operator
∂t
 2 2 
H →  − ∇ + U  → Hamiltonian operator
 2m 
P → −i∇ → Momentum operator
Schrodinger’s time independent equation (steady state equation)
Let us consider a system of stationary wave associated a moving particle.
Let ψ be the wave function of particle along x.

For simplicity we take 1 dimension Cartesian coordinate

− ( Et − px )
i
then
Ψ =ψ x ,t = Ae 
ip
----- 3
x
Removing time component
ψ = ψ = Ae
x
 ----- 4

iE
− t
Ψ = ψe  ----- 5

Schrodinger’s time dependent equation can be written as

∂Ψ 2 ∂ 2Ψ ----- 6
i =− + UΨ
∂t 2m ∂x 2
Schrodinger’s time independent equation

Differentiating eq. 3 w.r.t. x

−i −i
∂Ψ ip
i
px ip
Et Et
= Ae e 
= ψe
 
∂x  
−i −i
∂ Ψ i p
2 2 2 i 2
px Et p Et
= 2 Ae e  
= − 2 ψe 
∂x 2
 
−i
2 ∂ Ψ
2
Et
p ψe
2 
= − -----------(7)
∂x 2
Schrodinger’s time independent equation

Differentiating eq. 5 w.r.t. x

−i
∂Ψ ∂ψ Et
= e 
∂x ∂x
−i
∂ Ψ ∂ ψ  Et
2 2
= 2 e
∂x 2
∂x
-----------(8)
Schrodinger’s time independent equation
Differentiating eq. 3 w.r.t. t
−i
∂Ψ − iE Et
ip
x
= 
Ae e 
∂t 
−i -----------(9)
− iE  Et
= ψe

Substitute equations 5, 8 and 9 in equation 6

−i
− iE  Et  −  2  ∂ 2ψ −  t
iE iE
− t
i ( ψe ) =   2 e + Uψe 
  2m  ∂x
 −  2  ∂ 2ψ
Eψ =   2 + Uψ
 2m  ∂x
  2  ∂ 2ψ
  2 + ( E − U )ψ = 0
 2m  ∂x
∂ 2ψ  2m 
+  2 ( E − U )ψ = 0
∂x 2
 
if in 3 dimension
∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ
= − 2 (E − U )ψ
2m
+ +
∂x 2
∂y 2
∂z 2 

∇ ψ = − 2 (E − U )ψ
2 2m

∇ − laplacian operator
therefore

∇ ψ + 2 (E − U )ψ = 0
2 2m

∂  ∂  ∂
∇ = iˆ + j +k
∂x ∂y ∂z
Schrodinger equation obtained here is for wave function of
a freely moving particle

Then how far it applies to general case of particles subject

To arbitrary forces

Postulate Schrodinger eq. , solve it for a variety of physical

situation , compare the results of cal. And exp.

Both agree -> postulate is valid

Not agree-> postulate must be discarded and some other
approaches have to be explored

Schrodinger’s eq. cannot be derived from other basic principles

Of physics ; it is a basic principle in itself.

Remarkably accurate in predicting the results of exp.

Used only for non-relativistic problem
Elaborate formulation needed for relativistic

newton’s second law F=ma

Application of Schrodinger’s eq.
Particle in a Box or Infinite potential well
To solve Schrödinger eq. elaborate mathematics is needed

Simplest quantum mechanical problem

- particle trapped in a box with infinitely hard wall

Let us consider
- motion of a particle
along x – direction
within the region x= 0 and x= L
rigid walls of infinite height
- particle does not loss energy when it collides on walls

- potential energy is constant V(x) = 0 ; 0 < x < L

- potential energy is infinite V(x) = ∞ at x=0 and x = L ( 0≥x≥L)

Particle cannot have infinite energy so, it can not exist outside the
box.

- rectangular potential box or potential well

of infinite depth and width L
Our task is to find what ψ is with in the box
Height - ∞

U(x)= ∞ U(x) = 0 U(x) = ∞

x=0 x=L

Time independent Schrodinger ‘s equation for free particle

∂ 2ψ 2m
+ 2 (E − U )ψ = 0
∂x 2

we have taken U( x) = 0
∂ ψ 2m
2

+ 2 Eψ = 0
∂x2

 d 2ψ
2
+ k 2
ψ =0 Total derivative is the same as partial
Derivative becs, ψ is the function only
dx
Of x
2m
where k = 2 E 2


ψ ( x) = A sin kx + B cos kx
A and B are constants to be determined from boundary conditions

At x = 0, ψ=0

0 = A sin k 0.0 + B cos k 0.0

0 = B -> ψ(x) = A sin kx

And At x = L; then ψ=0 => 0 = A sin kL

kL = nπ ; where n = 1,2,3…..
k = nπ / L

√(2mE/ ħ2 ) = nπ / L

Energy of particle can not be any arbitrary values,

It can have only certain discrete values

2m n 2π 2
En = 2
 2
L
n 2π 2  2
En = 2
where n = 1,2,3.... ; are energy eigen values
2mL

n=0 is excluded since E0=0 then ψ become ‘Zero’ which is

not permissible physically and quantum mechanically

Its energy is quantized.

Wave function of particle in a box whose energy En with B=0

2mEn
ψ ( x) = A sin x

nπ
ψ ( x) = A sin x
L

For each n, ψ is a finite, single valued function of ‘x’

ψn and dψn/dx are continuous

Integral of | ψn |2 for over all space is finite.

To normalize ψ we have to assign the value of A

∞

∫ ψ ( x) dx = 1
2

−∞
L

∫ ψ ( x) dx = 1
2

 nπ 
L
A ∫ sin 
2
x dx = 1
2

0  L 
A   nπ  
2 L L

 ∫ dx − ∫ cos 2 x dx  = 1 ; from trigonometry;

2 0 0  L  
L
A   L   2nπ 
2
1
 x −  sin  x  = 1 ; sin θ = (1 - cos2θ )
2

2   2nπ   L  0 2
2
A
[L] = 1 →→→ A = 2
2 L
 The normalized wave function of the particle

2 nπ
ψn = sin x n = 1,2,3....
L L
0.4 0.4
0.2
|ψ4|2 0.0
0.2
0.0 ψ4
-0.2 -0.2
-0.4 -0.4
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0.0
-0.2 ψ3 |ψ3| -0.2
2 0.0
-0.4 -0.4
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
|ψ2|2 -0.2
0.0
-0.2 ψ2 0.0
-0.4 -0.4
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0.0 ψ1 |ψ1| 0.0
2
-0.2 -0.2
-0.4 -0.4
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
A A
At particular place in the box the probability of the
particle being present may
Vary for different quantum number

For instance |ψ1|2 has its max. at L/2 (middle of box)

For instance | ψ 2|2 has its 0 . at L/2 (middle of box)

Classical mechanics suggest the same probability for

the Particle being anywhere in the box

The wave function resemble the stretched string fixed

both ends

-same form of equation

Find the probability that a particle trapped in the box L wide can be
found between 0.45L and 0.55L for the ground and first exited states.

x2
Px1, x 2 = ∫ ψ ( x) dx
2

x1

2  nπ 
x2
2
= ∫ sin  x dx
L x1  L 
x2
x  1   2nπ 
=  −  sin  x 
 L  2nπ   L  x1
n= 1 P x1,x2 =0.198 then 19.8 percent
n= 2 P x1,x2 =0.0065 then 0.65 percent
PARTICLE IN A 3-D BOX
Question: An electron is in 1D box of 1nm
length. What is the probability of locating the
electron between x=0 and x=0.2nm in its lowest
energy state?
QUESTION: AN ELECTRON IS IN 1D BOX OF 1NM LENGTH. WHAT IS
THE PROBABILITY OF LOCATING THE ELECTRON BETWEEN X=0 AND
X=0.2NM IN ITS LOWEST ENERGY STATE?

Solution:
QUESTION: WHAT ARE THE MOST
LIKELY LOCATIONS OF A PARTICLE IN A
BOX OF LENGTH L IN THE STATE N=3
Example: What are the most likely locations of a particle in a
box of length L in the state n=3
NORMALIZATION AND PROBABILITY
 The probability P(x) dx of a particle being between x
and X + dx was given in the equation

 The probability of the particle being between x1 and x2

is given by

 The wave function must also be normalized so that the

probability
38 of the particle being somewhere on the x
axis is 1.
PROPERTIES OF VALID WAVE FUNCTIONS
Boundary conditions
1) In order to avoid infinite probabilities, the wave function must be
finite everywhere.
2) In order to avoid multiple values of the probability, the wave
function must be single valued.
3) For finite potentials, the wave function and its derivative must be
continuous. This is required because the second-order derivative
term in the wave equation must be single valued. (There are
exceptions to this rule when V is infinite.)
4) In order to normalize the wave functions, they must approach zero
as x approaches infinity.

 Solutions that do not satisfy these properties do not generally

correspond to physically realizable circumstances.

39
 The Wavefunction

 corresponds to a physically meaningful quantity –

- the probability of finding the particle near x
 is related to the momentum probability density -
- the probability of finding a particle with a particular momentum

PHYSICALLY MEANINGFUL STATES MUST HAVE THE FOLLOWING

PROPERTIES:

ψ(x) must be single-valued, and finite

(finite to avoid infinite probability density)

ψ(x) must be continuous, with finite dψ/dx

(because dψ/dx is related to the momentum density)

In regions with finite potential, dψ/dx must be continuous

(with finite d2ψ/dx2, to avoid infinite energies)

There is usually no significance to the overall sign of ψ(x) (it goes

away when we take the absolute square)
(In fact, ψ(x,t) is usually complex !)
 Nature of a wave

 A wave is described by frequency ν, wavelength λ,

phase velocity u and intensity I

 A wave is spread out and occupies a relatively large

region of space
 Nature of a particle

 A particle is specified by mass m, velocity v,

momentum p, and energy E

 A particle occupies a definite position in space.

In order for that it must be small
 Light

 Interference and Diffraction experiments showed the

wave nature of light

 Blackbody radiation and Photoelectric effect can be

explained only by considering light as a stream of
particles
How are they related?

E = hν

 E– energy of the photon

 ν– frequency of the wave
 h– plank's constant

p=h/λ

 p – momentum of the particle

 λ - wavelength of the photon
WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY OF LIGHT
In 1924 Einstein wrote:- “ There are therefore now two
theories of light, both indispensable, and … without any
logical connection.”
Evidence for wave-nature of light
• Diffraction and interference
Evidence for particle-nature of light
• Photoelectric effect
•Light exhibits diffraction and interference
phenomena Compton
• that effectin terms of wave
are only explicable
properties
•Light is always detected as packets (photons); if we
look, we never observe half a photon
•Number of photons proportional to energy density
(i.e. to square of electromagnetic field strength)
 DE BROGLIE HYPOTHESIS
In the Year 1924 Louis de Broglie
made the bold suggestion
“ If radiation which is basically a wave can exhibit
particle nature under certain circumstances, and
since nature likes symmetry, then entities which
exhibit particle nature ordinarily, should also exhibit
wave nature under suitable circumstances”
The reasoning used might be paraphrased
as follows

1. Nature loves symmetry

LOUIS DE BROGLIE
2. Therefore the two great entities,
matter and energy, must be mutually
symmetrical
3. If energy (radiant) is undulatory
and/or corpuscular, matter must be
corpuscular and/or undulatory 6
 The de Broglie Hypothesis

 If light can act like a wave sometimes and like a particle

at other times, then all matter, usually thought of as
particles, should exhibit wave-like behaviour

 The relation between the momentum and the

wavelength of a photon can be applied to material
particles also

Prince Louis de Broglie

(1892-1987)
 de Broglie Wavelength

h
λ=
mv

Relates a particle-like property (p)

to a wave-like property (λ)
 DE BROGLIE WAVELENGTH
The Wave associated with the
matter particle is called Matter
Wave.
The Wavelength associated is called
de Broglie Wavelength.

9
 h h
de Broglie wavelength λ = =
p mv
h is Planck' s Constant
m is the mass of the particle
v is the velocity of the particle
for an electron with Kinetic Energy ' E '
accelerated by a Potential difference 'V '
h h
Then λ = =
2mE 2meV
substituting for h , m , and e we get
6.625 ×10 −34 1.226
λ = = nm
2 × 9.11× 10 −31 × 1.602 × 10 −19 ×V V
thus for V = 100 Volts
1.226
λ = = 0.1226 nm
100
 The frequency

 De Broglie postulated that all particles satisfy

Einstein’s relation

E= hυ

In other words,

υ=E/h
Example: de Broglie wavelength of an electron

Mass = 9.11 x 10-31 kg

Speed = 106 m / sec

6.63 × 10−34 Joules ⋅ sec −10

λ= −31 6
= 7 . 28 × 10 m
(9.11 × 10 kg)(10 m/sec)

This wavelength is in the region of X-rays

 Example: de Broglie wavelength of a ball

 Mass = 1 kg
Speed = 1 m / sec

6.63 × 10−34 Joules ⋅ sec

λ= = 6.63 × 10−34 m
(1 kg)(1 m/sec)
 Theoretical implication – The Bohr
postulate

 Consider standing waves produced in a stretched

string tied at two ends

 Condition for these standing waves is that the length

of the string should be integral multiple of λ/2
 Bragg Scattering

Bragg scattering is used to determine the structure of the atoms in a crystal

from the spacing between the spots on a diffraction pattern (above)
 The Diffraction

X-rays electrons

The diffraction patterns are similar because

electrons have similar wavelengths to X-rays
 Wave-like Behaviour of Matter

 Evidence:
– electron diffraction
– electron interference (double-slit experiment)

 Also possible with more massive particles,

such as neutrons and α-particles

 Applications:
– Bragg scattering
– Electron microscopes
– Electron- and proton-beam lithography
 Wave-Particle Duality

particle wave function

 Wave Function

 Completely describes all the properties of a

given particle

 Called ψ = ψ (x,t); is a complex function of

position x and time t
 Wave-Particle Duality

particle wave function

 Matter Waves

 Louis de Broglie was a physics graduate student when

he suggested that matter had a wave nature.
 Recall that electromagnetic radiation acts as a wave in
some experiments; diffraction, refraction, interference
 Electromagnetic radiation also acts like a particle;
photoelectric effect, momentum
 Matter Waves

 De Broglie stated that since EMR has momentum and

acts like a wave, perhaps matter, which has
momentum, also acts like a wave.
 • He used Compton’s momentum of EMR formula,
p=h/λ and equated it to the formula for momentum of
matter, p=mv
 Matter Waves
PHASE VELOCITY
Phase velocity: The velocity with which a wave travels is called Phase
velocity or wave velocity. It is denoted by vp. It is given by

c2
vp =
v
Where c = velocity of light and v = is velocity of the particle.

The above equation gives the relationship between the phase velocity and
particle velocity.

It is clear from the above equation that, Phase velocity is not only greater
than the velocity of the particle but also greater than the velocity of light,
which can never happen. Therefore phase velocity has no physical
meaning in case of matter waves. Thus a concept of group velocity was
23
introduced.
 Matter Waves
GROUP VELOCITY
Since phase velocity has no meaning, the concept of group velocity was
introduced as follows.
“ Matter wave is regarded as the resultant of the superposition of large
number of component waves all traveling with different velocities. The resultant
is in the form of a packet called wave packet or wave group. The velocity with
which this wave group travels is called group velocity.” The group velocity is
represented by vg.

V
g

Particle

Vp
24
 DeBroglie Hypothesis
DeBroglie = h/mv = h/p
In this case, we are considering the
electron to be a WAVE, and
the electron wave will “fit” around the orbit
if the momentum (and energy) is just right
(as in the above relation). But this will happen
only for specific cases - and those are the
specific allowed orbits (rn) and energies (En)
that are allowed in the Bohr Theory!
What we now have is a wave/particle duality for light
(E&M vs photon), AND a wave/particle duality for
electrons!
 DeBroglie Hypothesis
If the electron behaves as a wave, with
 = h/mv, then we should be able to test this
wave behavior via interference and
diffraction.
In fact, experiments show that electrons DO
EXHIBIT INTERFERENCE when they go
through multiple slits, just as the DeBroglie
Hypothesis indicates.
Properties of matter waves
•The lighter the particle, greater the wavelength associated with it
•Smaller the velocity of the particle greater the wavelength associated
with it
•When v=0, λ= infinity, this shows that matter waves are generated by
the motion of particles. These waves are produced whether the particles
are charged or uncharged. Wavelength is independent of charge. This
fact reveals that these waves are not electromagnetic and they are new
kind of waves
•The velocity of matter waves is not constant while velocity of
electromagnetic wave is constant
•Velocity of matter wave is greater than velocity of light
 Proof:
A particle in motion with an associated wave has two different velocities
• Due to the mechanical motion of the particle v and
the other related to the propagation of the wave denoted by ω
We know that E=hν 2
mc
E=mc2 , ν=
h

The velocity of the wave is given by h

ω=νλ, λ= [ ]
mv
2
c
ω=
v
since the velocity v cannot exceed velocity of light c, Hence ω>c
( velocity of light) This is an unexpected result and this can be
understood by assuming by the wave velocity equal to phase velocity or
group velocity.
•The wave and particle aspects of moving bodies can never appear
together in the same experiment

•The wave nature of matter introduces an uncertainty in the location of

position of the particle because a wave cannot be exactly taken at a
particular point, If the wave is very large, the particle can be identified
at a given point whereas if the wave is small, the particle cannot be
located easily. Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle is based on this
concept.
 Davisson-Germer Experiment

• If particles have a wave nature, then under

appropriate conditions, they should exhibit
diffraction
• Davisson and Germer measured the
wavelength of electrons
• This provided experimental confirmation of
the matter waves proposed by de Broglie
 Diffraction of X-Rays by Crystals
• X-rays are electromagnetic waves of relatively short
wavelength (λ = 10-8 to 10-12 m = 100 – 0.01 Å)
• Max von Laue suggested that the regular array of atoms
in a crystal (spacing in order of several Angstroms) could
act as a three-dimensional diffraction grating for x-rays
 X-Ray Diffraction
• This is a two-dimensional
description of the reflection
(diffraction) of the x-ray
beams
• The condition for
constructive interference is
• This condition is known
2d sin  n as Bragg’s law
• This can also be used to
where n = 1, 2, 3
calculate the spacing
between atomic planes
 Davisson and Germer Experiment
• Electrons were directed
onto nickel crystals
• Accelerating voltage is
used to control electron
energy: E = |e|V
• The scattering angle and
intensity (electron current)
are detected
– φ is the scattering angle
Davisson and Germer -- VERY clean nickel crystal.
Interference is electron scattering off Ni atoms.

e e det. e e
e
e scatter off atoms
e e
e e e
e
move detector around,
see what angle electrons coming off
Ni
• If electrons are “just” particles, we expect a smooth
monotonic dependence of scattered intensity on angle and
voltage because only elastic collisions are involved
• Diffraction pattern similar to X-rays would be observed if
electrons behave as waves
Davisson and Germer Experiment
 Davisson and Germer Experiment
• Observations:
– Intensity was stronger for
certain angles for specific
accelerating voltages (i.e.
for specific electron
energies)
– Electrons were reflected in
almost the same way that
X-rays of comparable
wavelength
 Davisson and Germer Experiment
• Observations:
– Current vs accelerating
voltage has a maximum,
i.e. the highest number of
electrons is scattered in a
specific direction
– This can’t be explained by
particle-like nature of
electrons  electrons
scattered on crystals
behave as waves

For φ ~ 50° the maximum is at ~54V

• Assuming the wave nature of electrons
we can use de Broglie’s approach to
calculate wavelengths of a matter wave
corresponding to electrons in this
experiment
• V = 54 V  E = 54 eV = 8.64×10-18J

p2 h
E , p  2mE , B 
2m 2mE
6.63 10 34 J - sec 
B   1.67 A
31 18
2  9.110 kg  8.6 10 J

This is in excellent agreement with wavelengths of

X-rays diffracted from Nickel!
 Davisson and Germer Experiment
• For X-ray Diffraction on Nickel

2d sin  
o o
d111  0.91 A; X -ray  1.65 A

  65    50 