Database

A Database is just a place to store information in an

organized way so we can find and use it easily later.

✅ The notebook = Your Database

✅ Each page = A Table
✅ Each row = One students’s info (a record)
✅ Each column = A detail about the student (name, roll_no, class)
Types of Databases
A database is like a place to keep your stuff organized, right?

But there are different kinds of boxes (types)

for keeping that stuff depending on how you want to organize it.
Relational Database (the “Neat Box”)
Tools: MySQL, PostgreSQL
NoSQL Database (the “Flexible Box”)
Tools: MongoDB,Cassandra

Relational Database Management System

✅
✅ Relational = Uses tables (like grids or spreadsheets)
✅ Database = A place to store information
✅ Management System = A tool to organize and control the data
So, an RDBMS is a system that helps us store, organize, and connect data in tables.

SQL (Structured Query Language)

IT is a standard language used to manage and interact with databases.

Types
✅ Data Definition Language (DDL)
✅ Data Manipulation Language (DML)
✅ Data Control Language (DCL)
✅ Transaction Control Language (TCL)
✅ Data Query Language (DQL)

Installation of MySQL Server & Workbench

Windows
Mac
Data Types in SQL
 Data Type Description Minimum Value Maximum Value

TINYINT Very small whole number -128 127

TINYINT UNSIGNED Only positive small numbers 0 255

SMALLINT Small whole number -32,768 32,767

SMALLINT UNSIGNED Only positive small numbers 0 65,535

MEDIUMINT Medium-size whole number -8,388,608 8,388,607

MEDIUMINT UNSIGNED Only positive medium numbers 0 16,777,215

INT / INTEGER Standard whole number -2,147,483,648 2,147,483,647

INT UNSIGNED Only positive whole number 0 4,294,967,295

BIGINT Very large whole number -9,223,372,036,854,770,000 9,223,372,036,854,770,000

BIGINT UNSIGNED Only positive large number 0 18,446,744,073,709,500,000

FLOAT Approximate number with decimals ~ -3.4E38 ~ 3.4E38

DOUBLE Bigger, more precise than FLOAT ~ -1.7E308 ~ 1.7E308

DATE Just the date YYYY-MM-DD 22 Apr 2025

TIME Just the time of day HH:MM:SS 14:30:00

DATETIME Date and time together YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS 2025-04-22 14:30:00

YEAR Only the year YYYY 2025

 CHAR(n) Fixed-length text Always exactly n chars 'Hi ' (with spaces)

VARCHAR(n) Variable-length text Up to n chars 'Hello'

TEXT Large text No strict limit (varies) Long paragraph

TINYTEXT Very small text Max ~255 characters 'Short msg'

MEDIUMTEXT Medium-sized text Max ~16 million chars Article or blog

LONGTEXT Very large text Max ~4 billion chars Full novel

✅ Data Definition Language (DDL)

it's used to define and manage the structure of your database.
1. CREATE
2. ALTER
3. DROP
4. TRUNCATE
5. RENAME

Command What it does Real-World Example

CREATE Makes a new table/database Build a new toy box

ALTER Changes the structure (add/remove column) Add drawer to toy box

DROP Deletes the entire table Smash the toy box

TRUNCATE Empties all data inside the table Throw out all toys, keep the box

RENAME Changes the name of the table Give your toy box a new name

1. CREATE
building a brand-new toy box (a table)
✅ Syntax:
 CREATE TABLE Students (

ID INT,

Name VARCHAR(50),

Age INT

);

2. ALTER
you already built a toy box, and now you want to
change somethings.
✅ Syntax:
ALTER TABLE Students ADD Grade VARCHAR(2);

3. DROP
This is like smashing your block tower to the ground
it's gone forever!
✅ Syntax:
DROP TABLE Students;

4. TRUNCATE
it will throw all the toys out but keep the box.
✅ Syntax:
TRUNCATE TABLE Students;

5. RENAME
Giving it a new name
✅ Syntax:
RENAME TABLE Students TO Kids;

✅ Data Manipulation Language (DML)

DML is about playing with the toys inside
adding them, changing them, or taking them out!
1. INSERT – Add new toys
2. UPDATE – Fix or change toys
3. DELETE – Remove a toy
1. INSERT
You got a new toy and want to add it to your toy box.
✅ Syntax:
INSERT INTO ToyBox (ToyID, ToyName, ToyType)

VALUES (1, 'Teddy Bear', 'Stuffed');

You added a toy with:

ID: 1
Name: Teddy Bear
Type: Stuffed

2. UPDATE
Change Something About a Toy
✅ Syntax:
UPDATE ToyBox

SET ToyType = 'Plush'

WHERE ToyID = 1;

You found the toy with ToyID = 1.

You changed its type from "Stuffed" to "Plush".

3. DELETE
Throw a Toy Away
✅ Syntax:
DELETE FROM ToyBox

WHERE ToyID = 1;

You found the toy with ID 1 and took it out of the box.

✅ Data Control Language (DCL)

If DDL was for building your toy box
DML was for playing with the toys inside
then DCL is about giving permission to others:
✅ Who can see your toy box?
✅ Who can add or remove toys?
✅ Who can’t touch anything at all?
It’s like being the Toy Box Boss 👑

1. GRANT – Give someone permission

2. REVOKE – Take that permission away
1. GRANT
Let a Friend Use Your Toy Box
✅ Syntax:
GRANT SELECT, INSERT ON ToyBox TO Sam;

You gave Sam permission to:

SELECT → Look at the toys in your box
INSERT → Add new toys to your box

2. REVOKE
Take Permission Back
✅ Syntax:
REVOKE INSERT ON ToyBox FROM Sam;

You told Sam: “You can no longer add toys,

but He can still look at them.”

Full Toy Box SQL Story

1. You build the toy box → CREATE
2. You add toys → INSERT
3. You peek inside → SELECT
4. You change toys → UPDATE
5. You remove toys → DELETE
6. You let friends play → GRANT
7. You stop them if needed → REVOKE

✅ Transaction Control Language (TCL)

Imagine you're playing with your toy box and doing many things one after another:
Adding toys
Removing some
Changing a few
But you only want to save these changes if everything goes well.
If something goes wrong — like you dropped a toy or broke one — you want to undo everything.
That’s where TCL helps!

COMMIT – Save all your changes

ROLLBACK – Undo your changes
SAVEPOINT – Set a checkpoint to go back to

1.COMMIT
Save Your Work
✅ Example:
INSERT INTO ToyBox VALUES (1, 'Car', 'Vehicle');

INSERT INTO ToyBox VALUES (2, 'Doll', 'Stuffed');

COMMIT;

2.ROLLBACK
Undo Everything
✅ Example:
INSERT INTO ToyBox VALUES (3, 'Robot', 'Electronic');

INSERT INTO ToyBox VALUES (4, 'Ball', 'Outdoor');

ROLLBACK;

3.SAVEPOINT
Set a Checkpoint
✅ Example:
INSERT INTO ToyBox VALUES (5, 'Puzzle', 'Brain');

SAVEPOINT Save1;

INSERT INTO ToyBox VALUES (6, 'Yo-Yo', 'Outdoor');

INSERT INTO ToyBox VALUES (7, 'RC Car', 'Electronic');

ROLLBACK TO Save1;

✅ Data Query Language (DQL)

SELECT - Ask for whats inside the toy box.
Examples: -
SELECT * FROM ToyBox;

SELECT ToyName FROM ToyBox;

SELECT * FROM ToyBox WHERE ToyType = 'Vehicle';

SELECT COUNT(*) FROM ToyBox;

 Query Example What it Does

SELECT * FROM ToyBox; Shows all the toys

SELECT ToyName FROM ToyBox; Shows only toy names

WHERE ToyType = 'Vehicle'; Filters only Vehicle toys

ORDER BY ToyName; Sorts toys by name

COUNT(*) Counts total number of toys

GROUP BY ToyType Groups toys by their type

HAVING
The HAVING clause is used to filter groups created by the GROUP BY clause. It's similar to WHERE, but WHERE
filters rows before grouping, while HAVING filters groups after grouping.
SELECT customer, SUM(amount) AS total_spent

FROM sales_data

GROUP BY customer

HAVING SUM(amount) > 30;

SQL Functions
Aggregate Functions
 Function Description

SUM() Adds up all the values

AVG() Calculates average

COUNT() Counts the number of values

MAX() Finds the maximum value

MIN() Finds the minimum value

Scalar Functions

Function Description

UPPER(str) Converts to uppercase

LOWER(str) Converts to lowercase

LENGTH(str) Returns number of characters

Date Functions
 Function Description

NOW() Current date and time

CURDATE() Current date

YEAR(date) Extracts year from date

MONTH(date) Extracts month from date

SQL Joins
Join Type Description

INNER JOIN Returns matching rows from both tables

LEFT JOIN Returns all rows from the left table and matching rows from the right

RIGHT JOIN Returns all rows from the right table and matching rows from the left

FULL OUTER JOIN Returns all rows when there is a match in one of the tables

CROSS JOIN Returns the cartesian product (all combinations)

SELF JOIN A table is joined with itself

1. INNER JOIN
 SELECT e.name, d.dept_name

FROM employees e

INNER JOIN departments d ON e.dept_id = d.dept_id;

2. LEFT JOIN

SELECT e.name, d.dept_name

FROM employees e

LEFT JOIN departments d ON e.dept_id = d.dept_id;

3. RIGHT JOIN
SELECT e.name, d.dept_name

FROM employees e

RIGHT JOIN departments d ON e.dept_id = d.dept_id;

4. FULL OUTER JOIN

SELECT e.name, d.dept_name

FROM employees e

FULL OUTER JOIN departments d ON e.dept_id = d.dept_id;

5. CROSS JOIN
SELECT e.name, d.dept_name

FROM employees e

CROSS JOIN departments d;

6. SELF JOIN
SELECT e.name AS employee,

m.name AS manager

FROM

employees e

LEFT JOIN

employees m ON e.manager_id = m.emp_id;

SQL Keys
 Key Type Purpose

Primary Key Uniquely identifies each row in a table

Foreign Key Links one table to another

Unique Key Ensures all values in a column are unique (except NULLs)

Composite Key Combines two or more columns to uniquely identify a row

Primary Key
CREATE TABLE students (

student_id INT PRIMARY KEY,

name VARCHAR(50),

age INT);

Foreign Key
CREATE TABLE enrollments (

student_id INT,

course_id INT,

FOREIGN KEY (student_id) REFERENCES students(student_id),

FOREIGN KEY (course_id) REFERENCES courses(course_id)

);

Unique Key
CREATE TABLE teachers (

teacher_id INT PRIMARY KEY,

email VARCHAR(100) UNIQUE

);

Composite Key
CREATE TABLE enrollments (

student_id INT,

course_id INT,

PRIMARY KEY (student_id, course_id)

);
SQL Constraints

Constraint Description

NOT NULL Column cannot have a NULL value

CHECK Ensures the values meet a condition

DEFAULT Sets a default value if none is provided

NOT NULL
CREATE TABLE users (

user_id INT PRIMARY KEY,

username VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL

);

DEFAULT
CREATE TABLE orders (

order_id INT PRIMARY KEY,

status VARCHAR(20) DEFAULT 'Pending'

);

CHECK
CREATE TABLE employees (

emp_id INT PRIMARY KEY,

age INT CHECK (age >= 18)

);

SQL View
 A custom lens to look at data
A saved query that acts like a table

emp_id name dept salary

1 Alice HR 60000

2 Bob IT 75000

3 Charlie HR 58000

CREATE VIEW hr_employees AS

SELECT name, salary

FROM employees

WHERE dept = 'HR';

SELECT * FROM hr_employees;

SQL Index
An Index is like the index in a book
it helps you find data faster in a table.

CREATE INDEX index_name

ON table_name (column1, column2, ...);

ALTER TABLE table_name

DROP INDEX index_name;

Stored Procedure in SQL

A Stored Procedure is a named set of SQL statements
that you save in the database and can call later.
OneShot Querie
create database xyz;

use xyz;

CREATE TABLE Students (

ID INT,

Name VARCHAR(50),

Age INT

);

ALTER TABLE Students

ADD Grade VARCHAR(2);

ALTER TABLE Students

drop Grade;

RENAME TABLE Students TO Kids;

INSERT INTO Kids (ID, Name, Age)

VALUES (1, 'Teddy Bear', 22);

TRUNCATE TABLE Kids;

drop table Kids;

CREATE TABLE ToyBox

(ToyID int, ToyName varchar(100), ToyType varchar(100));

INSERT INTO ToyBox (ToyID, ToyName, ToyType)

VALUES (1, 'Teddy Bear', 'Stuffed');

INSERT INTO ToyBox (ToyID, ToyName, ToyType)

VALUES (1, 'Teddy Bear', 'Stuffed'),

(2, 'Teddy Bearr', 'block'),

(3, 'Teddy Bearrr', 'Stuffed'),

(4, 'Teddy Bearrrr', 'block');

INSERT INTO ToyBox (ToyID, ToyName)

VALUES (1, 'Teddy Bearrrrr');

UPDATE ToyBox

SET ToyType = 'Plush'

WHERE ToyID = 1;

SET SQL_SAFE_UPDATES = 0;

DELETE FROM ToyBox

WHERE ToyID = 1;

GRANT SELECT, INSERT ON ToyBox TO Sam;

CREATE USER Sam IDENTIFIED BY 'password';

GRANT SELECT, INSERT ON ToyBox TO Sam;

SHOW GRANTS FOR Sam;

REVOKE INSERT ON ToyBox FROM Sam;

drop user Sam;

BEGIN;

delete from ToyBox;

INSERT INTO ToyBox (ToyID, ToyName)

VALUES (1, 'Teddy Bearrrrr');

SAVEPOINT before_more_toys;

SELECT * FROM xyz.ToyBox;

ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT before_more_toys;

INSERT INTO ToyBox (ToyID, ToyName)

VALUES (2, 'Car');

rollback;

COMMIT;
SELECT * FROM ToyBox ORDER BY ToyID desc;

SELECT ToyName FROM ToyBox;

SELECT ToyID FROM ToyBox WHERE ToyType = 'Stuffed';

SELECT ToyType, count(*) FROM ToyBox GROUP BY ToyType;

SELECT customer, AVG(amount) AS AVG_spent

FROM sales_data

GROUP BY customer

HAVING AVG_spent > 10;

SELECT customer, amount FROM sales_data WHERE amount = (SELECT min(amount) FROM sales_data);

select length('SHRIDHAR');

select day('2025-04-23');

SELECT e.name, d.dept_name

FROM employeess e

INNER JOIN departments d ON e.dept_id = d.dept_id;

SELECT e.name, d.dept_name

FROM employeess e

LEFT JOIN departments d ON e.dept_id = d.dept_id

UNION

SELECT e.name, d.dept_name

FROM employeess e

RIGHT JOIN departments d ON e.dept_id = d.dept_id;

SELECT e.name, d.dept_name

FROM employeess e

CROSS JOIN departments d;

SELECT e.name AS employee,

m.name AS manager

FROM

employeess e

INNER JOIN

employeess m ON e.manager_id = m.emp_id;

CREATE TABLE studentss (

student_id INT PRIMARY KEY default 5,

name VARCHAR(50),

age INT);

insert into students values(1,'shridhar',27);

insert into studentss(name,age) values('shree',25);

CREATE TABLE enrollments (

student_id INT,

FOREIGN KEY (student_id) REFERENCES students(student_id)

);

insert into enrollments values(1);

CREATE TABLE teachers (

teacher_id INT PRIMARY KEY,

email VARCHAR(100) UNIQUE

);

CREATE TABLE enrollmentss (

student_id INT,

course_id INT,

PRIMARY KEY (student_id, course_id)

);

CREATE TABLE userss (

user_id INT PRIMARY KEY,

username VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL default 'ABC'

);

insert into userss(user_id) values(1);

CREATE TABLE employeees (

emp_id INT PRIMARY KEY,

age INT CHECK (age >= 18)

);

insert into employeees values(1,15);

CREATE VIEW pen_value AS

SELECT customer, amount

FROM sales_data

WHERE product = 'Pen';

select * from pen_value;

drop view pen_value;

CREATE INDEX youtubee

ON youtube_channel_stats (subscribers);

select * from youtube_channel_stats where subscribers > 100000;

call youtube.empty();

call lakhsubs(600000);