8.

0 REMOTE SENSING

Introduction to remote sensing:

• Remote sensing is defined as the process of collecting and interpreting information about a
target without being in physical contact with it. Using this method, the physical or chemical
characteristics of an object can be studied from a distance.
• Remote sensing is science of acquiring, processing, and interpreting images and related data
that are obtained from ground-based, air-borne or space-borne instruments that record the
interaction between matter (target) and electromagnetic radiation using electromagnetic
spectrum to image the land, ocean, and atmosphere.

Fig.: Schematic representation of remote sensing technique

• On 3 December 1986, UN has defined remote sensing as: “Remote sensing means seeing the
earth’s surface by making use of the properties of electromagnetic waves emitted, reflected or
diffracted by the sensed objects for the purpose of improving the natural resource
management, land use and protection of the environment.”
• Remote sensing includes all the methods of obtaining pictures or other forms of electro-
magnetic records of earth’s surface from a distance, their processing and interpretation.
Aircrafts and satellites are the common platforms used for remote sensing.
• Collection of data is usually carried out by highly sophisticated sensors like camera,
multispectral scanner, radar etc.

Components of Remote Sensing:

1. Energy Source or Illumination (A) – the first requirement for remote sensing is to have an
energy source which illuminates or provides electromagnetic energy to the target of interest.
2. Radiation and the Atmosphere (B) – as the energy travels from its source to the target, it will
come in contact with and interact with the atmosphere it passes through. This interaction may
take place a second time as the energy travels from the target to the sensor.
3. Interaction with the Target (C) - once the energy makes its way to the target through the
atmosphere, it interacts with the target depending on the properties of both the target and the
radiation.

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 Fig.: Components of Remote Sensing
4. Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D) - after the energy has been scattered by, or emitted
from the target, we require a sensor (remote - not in contact with the target) to collect and
record the electromagnetic radiation.
5. Transmission, Reception, and Processing (E) - the energy recorded by the sensor has to be
transmitted, often in electronic form, to a receiving and processing station where the data are
processed into an image (hardcopy and/or digital).
6. Interpretation and Analysis (F) - the processed image is interpreted, visually and/or digitally
or electronically, to extract information about the target which was illuminated.
7. Application (G) - the final element of the remote sensing process is achieved when we apply
the information, we have been able to extract from the imagery about the target in order to
better understand it, reveal some new information, or assist in solving a particular problem.

Principle of remote sensing:

• Remote sensing makes use of electro-magnetic radiations which move with the velocity of
light, and which are not visible to the human eye.
• The electromagnetic radiations consist of photons which have the electro-magnetic energy.
When these radiations reach the data collecting equipments after striking the object, a change
in electro-magnetic energy takes which is detected by remote sensing.

Advantages:
• It is relatively inexpensive. The cost of software and data is less expensive than sending
teams of surveyors out into the field.
• One particular problem that the developing world faces is that data is old or out of date.
Satellite imagery can be acquired for free from the last decade and contemporary data can be
acquired fairly inexpensively.
• Provides data about large areas.
• Provides data about inaccessible areas - or even if they’re not inaccessible, then at least you
don’t have to go there.
• Rapid production of maps possible.
• Easy to manipulate with computers and derive information for map production.
• Rapid collection of data – much more efficient than ground survey.

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Disadvantages:
• There will be doubtful, and uncertainties of classification related to pixel size. A full field
check will be necessary to resolve ground use in these areas.
• Datasets from multiple sources are sometimes difficult to geo-reference. Using images and
maps that are drawn in different scales and projections can lead to difficulty combining them.
• The sensor performs a sweep and as such can create errors. i.e., only some of the image is
directly below the sensor and so pixels toward the edge of the image may be distorted.
• Objects in the image can be confused or mis-classified. For example, shadows may look like
metalled roads.
• To get any level of detailed, current data and to buy specialist Remote Sensing (RS) software
can be expensive.
• In some active sensing systems (such as lidar), the sensor and source are moving relative to
each other distortions can creep to the image. This is a form of Doppler effect (the visual
equivalent of a police siren changing pitch as it moves closer or further away from you).
• The interpretation of imagery requires a certain skill level
• Needs cross verification with ground (field) survey data
• Data from multiple sources may create confusion
• Objects can be misclassified or confused
• Distortions may occur in an image due to the relative motion of sensor and source

Electromagnetic Energy or Electromagnetic Radiation (EMR):

• The first requirement for remote sensing is to have an energy source to illuminate the target
(unless the sensed energy is being emitted by the target). This energy is in the form of
electromagnetic energy or electromagnetic radiation. Visible light, ultraviolet (UV) rays,
infrared rays (IR), heat, radio waves, X-rays all are different forms of electro-magnetic
energy.
• All electromagnetic radiation has fundamental properties and behaves in predictable ways
according to the basics of wave theory.
• All matters reflect, emit or radiate a range of electromagnetic energy, depending upon the
material characteristics. In remote sensing, it is the measurement of electromagnetic radiation
reflected or emitted from an object, is the used to identify the target and to infer its properties.
• Electromagnetic radiation consists of an electrical field (E) which varies in magnitude in a
direction perpendicular to the direction in which the radiation is traveling, and a magnetic
field (M) oriented at right angles to the electrical field. Both these fields travel at the speed of
light (C).
• Two characteristics of electromagnetic radiation are particularly important to understand
remote sensing. These are the wavelength and frequency.
• Electromagnetic radiation (EMR) is an electromagnetic wave that travels through space at the
speed of light C which is 3x108 m/sec. Theoretical model of random media including the
anisotropic effects, random distribution discrete scatters, rough surface effects, have been
studied for remote sensing with electromagnetic waves.

Light - can be thought of as a wave in the 'electromagnetic field ' of the universe

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 Fig.: Wavelength and frequency

• The wavelength is the length of one wave cycle, which can be measured as the distance
between successive wave crests. Wavelength is usually represented by λ. Wavelength is
measured in m or nanometers (nm, 10-9 m), micrometers (μm, 10-6 m) or centimeters (cm, 10-
2
m).
• Frequency refers to the number of cycles of a wave passing a fixed point per unit of time.
Frequency is normally measured in hertz (Hz), equivalent to one cycle/second, and various
multiples of hertz.
• Wavelength and frequency are related by the following formula:
c=λf
where, c is celerity or speed of light (3 x 108 m/sec)
f is frequency expressed in Hertz and
λ is the wavelength
• Therefore, the two are inversely related to each other. The shorter the wavelength, the higher
the frequency. The longer the wavelength, the lower the frequency.
• Electro-magnetic energy (E) can be expressed either in terms of frequency (f) or wavelength
(λ) of radiation given by Planck’s equation as:
E=hf
Or, E=hc/λ
Where, h is Planck's constant (6.626 x 10-34 Joules-sec),
λ is the wavelength expressed in micrometers
• Understanding the characteristics of electromagnetic radiation in terms of their wavelength
and frequency is crucial to understanding the information to be extracted from remote sensing
data.
• Distribution of the continuum of energy can be plotted as a function of wavelength (or
frequency) and is known as the EMR spectrum. The electromagnetic spectrum ranges from
the shorter wavelengths (including gamma and x-rays) to the longer wavelengths (including
microwaves and broadcast radio waves). There are several regions of the electromagnetic
spectrum which are useful for remote sensing.

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 Fig.: Electromagnetic Spectrum

EMR Interaction with Earth Surface

• Electromagnetic radiation that passes through the earth’s atmosphere without being absorbed
or scattered reaches the earth’s surface to interact in different ways with different materials
constituting the surface.
• Radiation is able to penetrate the materials and pass through it is said to be transmitted. Most
wavelength of visible light energy from sun is transmitted through the atmosphere, allowing
it to come in contact with earth’s surface (Fig.).

Fig. Interaction of EMR with Earth Surface

• There are three ways in which the total incident energy will interact with earth’s surface
materials. These are Absorption, Transmission, and Reflection.
• How much of the energy is absorbed, transmitted or reflected by a material will depend upon:
o Wavelength of the energy
o Material constituting the surface, and
o Condition of the features

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i. Absorption:
• Absorption of electromagnetic radiation is the way where energy of a photon is taken up by
matter. Thus, the electromagnetic energy is transformed into internal energy of the absorber,
for example thermal energy.
• The reduction in intensity of a light wave propagating through a medium by absorption of a
part of its photons is often called attenuation. Usually, the absorption of waves does not
depend on their intensity (linear absorption), although in certain conditions (usually,
in optics), the medium changes its transparency dependently on the intensity of waves going
through, and saturable absorption (or nonlinear absorption) occurs.

Measuring Absorption
• The absorbance of the object is depended on the intensity of light absorbed by the matter.
Precise measurement of the absorbance at many wavelengths allows the identification of
substance via absorption spectroscopy, where a sample is illuminated from one side and
the intensity of light exiting from all the direction is measured. Example, ultra-violet
spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy, X-ray absorption spectroscopy.

ii. Transmission
• Transmission is the process by which incident radiation passes through matter without
measurable attenuation; the substance is thus transparent to the radiation. Transmission
through material media of different densities (e.g., air to water) causes radiation to be
refracted or deflected from a straight-line path with an accompanying change in its velocity
and wavelength; frequency always remains constant.

iii. Reflection
• Reflection is a process in which energy is incident on the surface in such a way angle of
incidence is equal to angle of reflection. When electromagnetic energy is incident on the
surface, it may get reflected or scattered depending upon the roughness of the surface relative
to the wavelength of the incident energy. If the roughness of the surface is less than the
wavelength of the radiation or the ratio of roughness to wavelength is less than 1, the
radiation is reflected. When the ratio is more than 1 or if the roughness is more than the
wavelength, the radiation is scattered.
• Reflection from surfaces occurs in two ways:
a. When the surface is smooth, we get a mirror-like or smooth reflection where all (or
almost all) of the incident energy is reflected in one direction. This is called Specular
Reflection and gives rise to images Fig. (a).
b. When the surface is rough, the energy is reflected uniformly in almost all directions. This
is called Diffuse Reflection and does not give rise to images Fig (b).

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 Fig. (a) Specular Reflection Fig. (b) Diffuse Reflection

• Most surface features of the earth lie somewhere between perfectly specular or perfectly
diffuse reflectors. Whether a particular target reflects specular or diffusely or somewhere in
between, depends on the surface roughness of the feature in comparison to the wavelength of
the incoming radiation. If the wavelengths are much smaller than the surface variations or the
particle sizes that make up the surface, diffuse reflection will dominate. For example, fine-
grained sand would appear fairly smooth to long wavelength microwaves but would appear
quite rough to the visible wavelengths.

Types of Remote Sensing (RS):

A. Based on Detector or Function:

1. Framing system RS
2. Scanning system RS

Framing system:
• It can image a large area because the system has a dense array of detectors located at the focal
plane.
• In framing system, two dimensional images are formed at one single instant. Here, a lens is
used to gather the light which is passed through various filters and then focused on a flat
photosensitive target.
• Camera and Videocon are example of framing system. In ordinary Camera, the target is film
emulsion, whereas in Videocon camera, the target is electrically charged plate.

Scanning system:
• It employs a single detector with a narrow field of view which sweeps across the terrain or a
scene in a series of parallel lines and collect data for continuous cells to produce an image.
• Multi Spectral Scanner, Microwave Radiometer, Microwave Radar, Optical Scanners are few
examples of scanning system sensors.

B. Based on Source of Energy (Light source):

1. Active RS system
2. Passive RS system

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Active RS
• A system which utilizes man made sources of energy for data collection is called active
system e.g. taking photographs in dark places with the help of a flash bulb.
• This type of a system propagates its own electro-magnetic radiation and measures the
intensity of the return signal. Thus, active remote sensing means that the sensor provides its
own illumination and measures what comes back.
• Remote sensing technologies that use this type of system include Lidar (laser) and radar.
• It can acquire the data in all-weather condition, day-night system and independent of solar
radiation.
• It uses both transmitter and receiver units to produce imagery, hence it requires high
energy levels.
• It mostly works in microwave regions of EMR spectrum, which can penetrate clouds and is
not affected by rain.
• The RADAR signal does not detect color information or temperature information, but it can
detect the roughness, slope and electrical conductivity of the objects under study.
• High initial and maintenance cost.

Passive RS
• A system that uses an existing source of energy e.g. sun rays is called a passive system,
such as taking photographs on a clear bright day.
• It generally consists of an array of small sensors or detectors, which records the amount of
electro-magnetic radiation reflected and/or emitted from the Earth’s surface.
• Thus, passive remote sensing relies on naturally reflected or emitted energy of the imaged
surface. Most remote sensing instruments fail into this category, obtaining pictures of visible,
near infrared and thermal infrared energy.
• It can acquire the data only in presence of solar light i.e. it depends upon good weather
conditions.
• It is relatively simple both mechanically and electrically and it does not have high power
requirement.
• The wavebands, where natural remittance or reflected levels are low, high detector
sensitivities and wide radiation collection apertures are necessary to obtain a reasonable
signal level. Therefore, most passive sensors are relatively wide band systems.

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• High initial and maintenance cost.

C. Based on Platform:
• The base on which remote sensors are placed to acquire information about the Earth’s
surface, is called platform.
• Platforms can be stationary like a tripod (for field observation) and stationary balloons or
mobile like aircrafts and spacecrafts.
• There are three main types of RS based on platforms:
1. Ground-based platforms: ground, vehicles and/or towers => up to 50 m
2. Airborne platforms: airplanes, helicopters, high-altitude aircrafts, balloons => up to 50
km
3. Spaceborne platforms: rockets, satellites, shuttle (aircraft) => from about 100 km to
36,000 km

Ideal remote sensing system:

• An ideal remote sensing system is illustrated in figure below, wherein electromagnetic energy
of all wave lengths and of known uniform intensity is produced by an ideal source, the
energy propagates from the source without loss to a homogeneous target and the energy of
various wave lengths selectively interacts with the target, resulting in a return signal of
reflected and emitted energy.
• The basic components of an ideal remote sensing system include:
1. A Uniform Energy Source: which provides energy over all wavelengths, at a constant,
known, high level of output
2. A Non-interfering Atmosphere: which will not modify either the energy transmitted
from the source or emitted (or reflected) from the object in any manner.
3. A Series of Unique Energy/Matter Interactions: at the Earth's Surface which generate
reflected and/or emitted signals that are selective with respect to wavelength and also
unique to each object or earth surface feature type.
4. A Super Sensor: which is highly sensitive to all wavelengths. A super sensor would be
simple, reliable, accurate, economical, and requires no power or space. This sensor yields
data on the absolute brightness (or radiance) from a scene as a function of wavelength.
5. A Real-Time Data Handling System: which generates the instance radiance versus
wavelength response and processes into an interpretable format in real time. The data
derived is unique to a particular terrain and hence provide insight into its physical
chemical- biological state.
6. Multiple Data Users: having knowledge in their respective disciplines and also in remote
sensing data acquisition and analysis techniques. The information collected will be
available to them faster and at less expense. This information will aid the users in various
decision-making processes and also further in implementing these decisions.

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 Fig.: Components of an ideal remote sensing system

Resolutions of Imagery:
• The term image resolution is applied to digital images, film images, and other types of
images and it describes the details that an image holds.
• Resolution can be broadly defined as ability of a remote sensor to capture and display
details of the ground features. In other words, resolution refers to the level of detail to which
a ground feature can be described and mapped.
• Resolution varies from sensor to sensor.
• Resolution is broadly described as coarse and fine. Data having coarse resolution have
coarser information whereas data with fine resolution provide finer details.
• Resolution characteristics of remote sensing data determine its application potential because
data of different resolutions provide different levels of details and hence are useful for
mapping particular features at a specific mapping scale.
• The image resolution also depends on the character of the scene that has been imaged,
apart from atmospheric conditions, illumination and experience and ability of an image
interpreter.
• Finer details can be seen in high resolution image. On the other hand, a coarse or low-
resolution image is one with large resolution size i.e., only coarse features can be observed in
the image (Fig.).

Fig.: Schematics explaining concept of resolution.

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Types of Image Resolution:
• Image resolution can be measured in various ways like spatial, spectral, temporal and
radiometric. Based on these parameters image resolution is categorized into following four
types:
1. Spatial resolution – it refers to variations in the reflectance/emittance determined by
the shape, size and texture of the target
2. Spectral resolution – it infers changes in the reflectance or emittance as a function of
wavelength
3. Temporal resolution – it involves diurnal and/or seasonal changes in reflectance or
emittance and
4. Radiometric resolution – it includes changes in the polarization of the radiation
reflected or emitted by an object.

1. Spatial Resolution
• There are different definitions of spatial resolution but in a general and practical sense, it can
be referred to as the size of each pixel.
• It is commonly measured in units of distance, i.e. cm or m.
• In other words, spatial resolution is a measure of the sensor’s ability to capture closely
spaced objects on the ground and their discrimination as separate objects.
• Spatial resolution of a data depends on altitude of the platform used to record the data and
sensor parameters.
• This can be further elaborated by considering an example shown in Fig.

Fig.: Spatial variations of remote sensing data.

Note: the variations in resolution from 1 km to 1 m in the series of photographs. The

photograph taken from 1 km shows lesser details as compared to that at 1m.

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 Fig.: Understanding concept of spatial resolution

2. Spectral Resolution

• We all know that the Sun is a major source of electromagnetic radiation used in the
optical remote sensing. Different materials on the Earth’s surface exhibit different spectral
reflectance and emissivity. The differences (variations) in reflectance and emissivity are used
to distinguish features.
• However, the spectral signature does not give continuous spectral information and rather it
gives spectral information at some selected wavelengths. These wavelength regions of
observation are called spectral bands.
• The spectral bands are defined in terms of a ‘central wavelength’ and a ‘band width’. For
example, a sensor which is making measurements at green wavelength region (0.5 μm to 0.6
μm) will have central wavelength 0.55 μm and band width is 0.1 μm.
• Besides the location of the central wavelength and band width, total number of bands is also
another important aspect of spectral band selection. The number and dimension of specific
wavelength intervals in the electromagnetic spectrum to which a remote sensing instrument is
sensitive is called spectral resolution.
• The use of well-chosen and sufficiently numerous spectral bands is a necessity.
• The selection of spectral band location primarily depends on the feature characteristics. The
finer the spectral resolution, narrower the wavelengths range for a particular band as shown
in Fig. below and as you know the values of spectral reflectance of objects averaged over
different, well-defined wavelength intervals comprise spectral signature of the object or
feature by which they can be distinguished.

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 Fig.: Spectral reflectance signature of (a) different targets including (1) cloud, (2) snow, (3)
vegetation, (4) soil and (5) water along with location of IRS-P3 MOSA, B and C sensor channels and
(b) various rock types

Fig.: Spectral variations of remote sensing data.

NIR – near infrared, SWIR – shortwave infrared, NIR FCC – near infrared false color composite and
SWIR FCC – shortwave infrared false color composite

• Spectral resolution describes ability of a sensor to define fine wavelength intervals. The finer
the spectral resolution, the narrower the wavelength ranges for a particular channel or band.
• It can also be defined as the number and dimension of specific wavelength intervals in the
electromagnetic spectrum to which a remote sensing instrument is sensitive. High spectral
resolution means that sensor distinguishes between very narrow bands of wavelength.
• Spectral channels containing wide intervals in the electromagnetic spectrum are referred to as
coarse spectral resolution and narrow intervals are referred to as fine spectral resolution.
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• Black and white film records wavelength extending entire visible portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
• Color film has higher spectral resolution, as it is individually sensitive to the reflected energy
at blue, green, and red wavelengths of the spectrum.

3. Radiometric Resolution

• As the arrangement of pixels describes spatial structure of an image, the radiometric

characteristics describe actual information content in an image. The information content in an
image is determined by the number of digital levels (quantization levels) used to express the
data collected by the sensors.
• In other words, a definite number of discrete quantization levels are used to record
(digitize) the intensity of flow of radiation (radiant flux) reflected or emitted from ground
features.
• The smallest change in intensity level that can be detected by a sensing system is called
radiometric resolutions.
• The quantization levels are expressed as n binary bits, such as 7 bit, 8 bit, 10 bit, etc. 8 bit
digitization implies 28 or 256 discrete levels (i.e. 0 to 255). Similarly, 7 bit digitization
implies 27 or 128th discrete levels (i.e. 0 to 127).
• The radiometric resolution of an imaging system determines its ability to discriminate very
slight differences in energy. Coarse radiometric resolution would record a scene using only a
few brightness levels (i.e. at very high contrast) whereas fine radiometric resolution would
record the same scene using many brightness levels.
• A 7 bit data is considered having coarse radiometric resolution in comparison to a 8 bit or 10
bit data. The higher the radiometric resolution of a sensor the more sensitive it is in detecting
small differences in reflected or emitted energy.

Fig.: Images showing the effect of degrading the radiometric resolution

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4. Temporal Resolution

• In addition to spatial, spectral and radiometric resolution, it is also important to consider the
concept of temporal resolution in a remote sensing system.
• One of the advantages of remote sensing is its ability to observe a part of the Earth (scene) at
regular intervals. The interval at which a given scene can be imaged is called temporal
resolution.
• Temporal resolution is usually expressed in days. For instance, IRS-1A has 22 days temporal
resolution, meaning it can acquire image of a particular area in 22 days interval, respectively.
• Low temporal resolution refers to infrequent repeat coverage whereas high temporal
resolution refers to frequent repeat coverage.
• Temporal resolution is useful for agricultural application (Fig. below) or natural disasters like
flooding (Fig. below) when you would like to re-visit the same location within every few
days.
• The requirement of temporal resolution varies with different applications. For example, to
monitor agricultural activity, image interval of 10 days would be required, but intervals of
one year would be appropriate to monitor urban growth patterns.

Fig.: Temporal variations of remote sensing data used to monitor changes in agriculture, showing
crop conditions in different months

Fig.: Showing the importance of temporal resolution.

View of the flood situation at Brisbane, Australia (a) pre-flood and (b) post flood

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LiDAR in Remote Sensing Survey:

LiDAR:
• LiDAR stands for Light Detection and Ranging.
• It is a ranging technology in which the distance of an object is measured by firing beams of
light at the object and using the time as well as the wavelength of the reflected beam of light
to estimate the distance. These light pulses – when combined with other data help in
generating high-resolution, accurate 3D information of the object.
• Captured using special sensors, from the air or the ground, it results in a set of “dots”
suspended in a three-dimensional space. These dots can be displayed in special software or
converted into a 3D mesh for use in many modern 3D software packages, such as 3D Studio
MAX, Maya and Sketchup.

Basic Principle of LiDAR:

• LiDAR follows a simple principle. A laser light is thrown at an object on the Earth’s surface
and the time it takes for the light to return to the LiDAR source is calculated.

Distance= (Speed of Light x Time of Flight)/2

o Mostly, a LiDAR instrument comprises:

i. a laser,
ii. a scanner, and
iii. a GPS receiver.
iv. photodetector and
v. optics.
o Helicopters and airplanes are generally used to acquire LiDAR data over broad areas.
o Considering the speed of light, the process of determining the precise distance using
LiDAR is incredibly fast.

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 Figure: Working principle of LiDAR

Applications of LiDAR Technology:

• LiDAR Technology has immense applications in wide-ranging areas. Some of the important
applications are:
1. LiDAR uses light across different wavelengths including ultraviolet, visible, or near-
infrared light to image objects and it’s, as such, able to detect all kinds of material
compositions, including non-metals, rocks, rain, chemical compounds, aerosols,
clouds and even single molecules.
2. Airborne LiDAR is installed on a helicopter or drone for data collection.
3. Terrestrial LiDAR systems are installed on moving vehicles or tripods on the earth
surface for collecting accurate data points. These can be further classified into static
LiDAR and mobile LiDAR.
4. The technology is mostly used for ground-based surveys and the production of high-
resolution maps.
5. LiDAR technology is used in some applications (Laser Imaging) to create a 3D
representation of the object.
6. The aerial LiDAR survey technique, for the first time for any railway project in India,
was adopted for the Mumbai-Ahmedabad High Speed Rail Corridor owing to its high
accuracy.
7. The technology is used when the definite depth of the ocean’s surface needs to be
determined to locate the object in the event of a maritime (oceanic) accident or for other
research purposes.
8. It is used for calculating phytoplankton fluorescence and biomass in the surface of the
ocean.
9. Geoscientists use this technology for unearthing secrets related to geomorphology.
10. The LiDAR technology is also used in carrying out security operations.

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Limitations of LiDAR:

• Some of the limitations of LiDAR are as under:

1. LiDAR systems perform poorly in heavy rain, fog or snow conditions.
2. Pulses fired in certain kinds of LiDAR become ineffective at certain altitudes. It has a low
operating altitude of between 500 meters and 2000 meters.
3. It is not suitable to be used in dense forests and thick vegetations.

Types of LiDAR
1. Airborne LiDAR:
o Most airborne LiDAR systems are made up of the LiDAR sensor, a GPS receiver, an
inertial measurement unit (IMU), an on-board computer and data storage devices.
o The LiDAR system pulses a laser beam onto a mirror and projects it downward from
an airborne platform, usually a fixed-wing airplane or a helicopter. The beam is
scanned from side to side as the aircraft flies over the survey area, measuring between
20,000 to 150,000 points per second. When the laser beam hits an object it is reflected
back to the mirror.
o The time interval between the pulse leaving the airborne platform and its return to the
LiDAR sensor is measured. Following the LiDAR mission, the data is post-processed
and the LiDAR time-interval measurements from the pulse being sent to the return
pulse being received are converted to distance and corrected to the aircraft’s onboard
GPS receiver, IMU, and ground-based GPS stations.
o The GPS accurately determines the aircraft’s position in terms of latitude; longitude
and altitude which are also known as the x, y and z coordinates.
o The LiDAR sensor collects a huge amount of data and a single survey can easily
generate billions of points totaling several terabytes.
o An IMU is used to determine the attitude of the aircraft as the sensor is taking
measurements. These are recorded in degrees to an extremely high accuracy in all
three dimensions as roll, pitch and yaw – the vertical and horizontal movements of the
aircraft in flight.

Figure: Airborne LiDAR

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 2. Ground-based (Terrestrial) LiDAR:
o Ground-based LiDAR systems are very similar, only that an IMU is not required as
the LiDAR is usually mounted on a tripod which the LiDAR sensor rotates 360
degree around.
o The pulsed laser beam is reflected from objects such as building fronts, lamp posts,
vegetation, cars and even people.
o The return pulses are recorded and the distance between the sensor and the object is
calculated.
o The data produced is in a ‘point cloud’ format, which is a 3-dimensional array of
points, each having x, y and z positions relative to a chosen coordinate system.
o The structure of ground based LiDAR is shown below (Figure):

Figure: Ground based LiDAR

Data Collection Techniques:

LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) surveying is a remote sensing method that uses laser
pulses to measure the distance to objects on the Earth's surface. Here are the main data collection
techniques used in LiDAR surveying:

1. Airborne LiDAR: In airborne LiDAR, lasers are emitted from an aircraft or helicopter.
The LiDAR sensor measures the time it takes for the laser pulses to bounce back from the
Earth's surface, allowing for the calculation of distance. This technique covers large areas
relatively quickly and is particularly useful for terrain mapping, forestry management,
and urban planning.

2. Terrestrial LiDAR: Terrestrial LiDAR involves mounting the LiDAR sensor on a tripod
or a stationary platform on the ground. The sensor emits laser pulses in a 360-degree field
of view, capturing highly detailed point clouds of the surrounding environment. This
technique is commonly used for capturing data in urban environments, archaeological
sites, building interiors, and small areas where high-resolution data is required.

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 3. Mobile LiDAR: Mobile LiDAR systems are mounted on vehicles such as cars, trucks, or
boats. These systems can quickly collect data along transportation routes or bodies of
water, making them ideal for applications like road and infrastructure management,
coastal mapping, and hydrographic surveys.

4. Topographic LiDAR: Topographic LiDAR is used to create highly accurate digital

elevation models (DEMs) and terrain models. By measuring the elevation of the Earth's
surface with precision, this technique is valuable for applications such as flood risk
assessment, land-use planning, and environmental monitoring.

5. Bathymetric LiDAR: Bathymetric LiDAR is specifically designed to measure

underwater topography and water depth in coastal and inland water environments. It
utilizes green or blue lasers that penetrate water to depths of several meters, allowing for
the mapping of submerged features like riverbeds, coral reefs, and underwater terrain.

Point Cloud Generation:

Point cloud generation is a fundamental step in LiDAR data processing, enabling users to extract
detailed spatial information from raw laser scan data and derive actionable insights for a wide
range of applications.

1. Data Acquisition: LiDAR sensors emit laser pulses towards the Earth's surface and
record the time it takes for the pulses to return after hitting objects. This process generates
millions of data points, each representing a specific location in space along with its
corresponding XYZ coordinates and intensity values.

2. Data Preprocessing: Before point cloud generation, the raw LiDAR data may undergo
preprocessing steps to remove noise, correct for atmospheric conditions, and align
multiple scans if collected from different positions or angles. This ensures that the
resulting point cloud is accurate and reliable.

3. Point Classification: Once the data is preprocessed, point cloud generation begins by
classifying each data point based on its characteristics. Common classes include ground
points, vegetation points, building points, and noise points. Point classification helps
distinguish between different types of objects and features in the surveyed area.

4. Point Cloud Generation: The classified data points are then organized into a point
cloud, which is a set of 3D points representing the surveyed terrain and objects. Each
point in the cloud corresponds to a specific location and contains information about its
elevation, intensity, and classification. Point cloud generation algorithms may use
techniques such as interpolation, filtering, and clustering to create a smooth and detailed
representation of the surveyed area.

5. Visualization and Analysis: Once the point cloud is generated, it can be visualized using
specialized software tools for further analysis and interpretation. Users can navigate
through the point cloud, extract features, measure distances, and perform various spatial

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 analyses to extract valuable information for different applications such as urban planning,
infrastructure design, environmental monitoring, and disaster management.

Application of remote sensing:

1. to monitor environmental pollution and record data.
2. for reconnaissance and detailed exploration of rocks and non-renewable resources like
minerals and fossil fuels.
3. to plan and regularize the rapidly changing land use and land cover pattern.
4. to identify the risk prone area, to provide specific warning and assess the damage in case of
natural resources thereby helping in minimizing the affect and thus help rescue and aid
operations.
5. for space research.
6. to recognize the archeological patterns of pre-historic land and objects.
7. Agriculture: Vegetation, crop type classification, crop condition assessment (crop monitoring,
damage assessment), crop yield estimation, soil, mapping of soil characteristics, mapping of
soil type, soil erosion, soil moisture, mapping of soil management practices, compliance
monitoring (farming practices)
8. Forest mapping: can identify and delineate various forest types and species
9. Assessment and monitoring of vegetation types and their status.
10. Monitoring and planning of water resources and groundwater exploration.
11. Geographic information
12. Urban planning.
13. Weather and agricultural forecasts and assessment of environment and natural disasters.
14. Laser film writing and printing.
15. Satellite imagery can provide the visible boundaries of soil types, while remote sensing
provides for a shallow penetration of soils. Additional physical data can be obtained from
spectral signatures for the soil surfaces.
16. Remote sensing allows for classification of soils, which can be interpreted from the remote
sensing images and the spectral signatures.

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