AQA GCSE SOCIOLOGY: SOCIAL

STRATIFICATION

NAME
CLASS
TEACHER

What are they key ideas in Social Stratification? R A G

● I can explain what is meant by social stratification, including different

types of stratification systems (i.e. slavery, caste, estates, class)
● I can explain what sociologists mean by socio-economic class

● I can describe functionalist views on social stratification, including role

allocation, meritocracy, and achieved status
● I can describe Marxist views on social stratification, including means
of production, capitalism, class conflict, polarisation, and communism
● I can describe Weber’s views on social stratification, including class,
status, and power

● I can describe what life chances are, with reference to family,

education, work, health, and crime
● I can describe life chances as they relate to social class, gender,
ethnicity, sexuality, age, and disability
● I can explain the views of different sociological perspectives on life
chances

● I can describe Devine’s research on the affluent worker, considering

whether embourgeoisement has taken place

● I can describe what poverty is, including the difference between

absolute and relative poverty
● I can describe how poverty is measured, including the state standard
of poverty
● I can describe sociological explanations of poverty, using
dependency theories, the culture of poverty, the cycle of deprivation,
and the economic system
● I can explain New Right views on the existence of poverty, referring to
the underclass and the creation of a dependency culture
● I can describe relative deprivation, including the work of Peter
1
Townsend
● I can explain the relationship between poverty and globalisation
 ● I can describe the emergence of the welfare state, including the role it
plays in relation to the alleviation of poverty
● I can explain the views of different sociological perspectives on the
welfare state

● I can explain what sociologists mean by ‘power,’ including reference to

political power and power relationships

Specialist key terminology

Absolute poverty

Achieved status

Affluence

Ageism

Ascribed status

Authority

Bourgeoisie

Capitalism

Cycle of
deprivation

Embourgeoisement

False class
consciousness

Feminism

Functionalism
2
Gender roles

Glass ceiling

Institutional racism

Life chances

Market situation
(Weber)

Marxism

Meritocracy

New Right

Patriarchy

Poverty trap

Relative poverty

Socio-economic class

Social control

Social mobility

Social stratification

State standard of
poverty

Underclass

Welfare state 3
Sociologist Perspective Research Key Findings
Method

Davis and Functionalist Secondary Social stratification is a universal necessity. It ensures that the most
Moore (1945): sources important roles (e.g., doctors, judges) are filled by the most capable people.
Theory of These roles are rewarded with higher pay and prestige to motivate
Social individuals to train for and perform them effectively. Inequality, therefore,
Stratification serves a functional purpose.

Marx: Theory Marxist Secondary Proposed that society is divided into two main classes: the bourgeoisie (who
of Social sources own the means of production) and the proletariat (who sell their labuor).
Class Stratification exists to maintain the economic dominance of the bourgeoisie.
It results in exploitation, alienation of the working class, and class conflict,
which Marx predicted would eventually lead to revolution and the overthrow
of capitalism.

Weber: Weberian Secondary Suggested that class is not only about economic resources but also involves
Theory of sources status (social prestige and honor) and party (the ability to influence
Social Class decisions through political power). This multidimensional view highlights that
power and privilege can come from more than just wealth.

Weber: Weberian Secondary Identified three forms of authority: traditional authority (based on custom,
Power and sources e.g., kings and queens), charismatic authority (based on personal qualities,
Authority e.g., revolutionary leaders), and legal-rational authority (based on formal
rules, e.g., elected officials). Authority helps maintain social order.

Devine N/a Unstructured Revisited the work of Goldthorpe and found that while the working class had
(1992): interviews adapted to modern society, it had not abandoned its identity. Many still
Affluent valued solidarity and community but aspired for better opportunities for
Worker themselves and their children. This challenges the idea that the working class
revisited had become entirely individualistic.

Townsend N/a Survey Introduced the concept of relative poverty, arguing that poverty is not just
(1979): about having no money but also about lacking the resources to participate
Theory of in the norms of society. His research showed that many people were
Relative excluded from social activities due to inadequate income, even if they were
Deprivation above the absolute poverty line.

Murray New Right Secondary Coined the term underclass to describe a group he claimed is dependent on
(1984): sources, welfare benefits and exhibits behaviours such as long-term unemployment,
Theory of including single parenthood, and crime. He argued that the welfare state creates a
the statistics culture of dependency, discouraging work and perpetuating poverty across
Underclass generations. His ideas have been criticized for blaming individuals rather
and Welfare than addressing structural inequalities.
Dependency

Walby (1990): Feminist Secondary Identified six structures of patriarchy that perpetuate gender inequality: 1)
Patriarchy sources Paid work (e.g., the gender pay gap), 2) Household labor (e.g., women doing
most domestic work), 3) Culture (e.g., stereotypes in media), 4) Sexuality
(e.g., societal control of female sexuality), 5) Male violence (e.g., domestic
abuse), and 6) The state (e.g., laws and policies that fail to adequately
protect women). Her work emphasizes how patriarchy intersects with other4
forms of stratification.
How can I use this study booklet?

Suggested Revision Tasks

● Read and highlight the information on the key sociologists you need to know.
● Create a summary mind map or revision cards trying to reduce the information into a few bullet points
with key phrases and sociological concepts. Use pictures / images if this is helpful to you.
● Create your own multiple choice quiz on all of the key thinkers. Create an answer sheet separately (so
someone else can test you).
● Get someone to test you on your multiple choice quiz. Repeat this process regularly.
● The following pages contain previous exam questions, separated by topic and then into Items (sources)
questions, followed by 3, 4 and 12 marker questions. Choose the ones you find hardest and practice those
first. Remember to aim for 1 minute per mark timewise.
● Create plans for 12 mark essay questions. Revise your plan (using the look, cover, say, check method or by
telling someone your plan out loud).
● Practice writing the essays in timed conditions (without your plan). There are sentence starters in this
booklet.

Writing a 12 mark response…

Below is a suggested structure. In the exam, you can arrange your paragraphs in a
way that suits you – but, remember, you need at least one paragraph agreeing with
the statement and another disagreeing. The third is up to you.

Question – Discuss how far sociologists would agree that…

NOTE:
● Sociologists disagree with each other! Do not state ‘all sociologists’...
● The essay should be two A4 sides
● You must use sociological theories (functionalism, Marxism, feminism, etc.) and/or sociological evidence
● Use connectives, e.g. firstly, consequently, similarly, however, therefore, comparatively, etc.

Introduction – this is where you set out your response

There is a difference in how far sociologists would agree that…

There are many reasons for this, such as…
This essay argues that…

Body Paragraph 1 – in support of the statement

Point – Make an opening point that supports the statement

Evidence – ‘There is evidence to support this such as ...’ ‘This demonstrates that...’
Evaluate – ‘However, this can be criticised because…’
Link – ‘Therefore, we can see that…’. (State how what you have written helps to answer the debate.)

Body Paragraph 2 – counterargument

Point – On the other hand / Although / ‘However, _________ would disagree that…’
Evidence – ‘There is evidence to support this such as ...’ ‘This demonstrates that...’
Evaluate – ‘However, this can be criticised because…’
Link – ‘Therefore, we can see that…’. (State how what you have written helps to answer the debate.)

Body Paragraph 3 – either agree/disagree depending on what other evidence you have

Point – Make a point that supports the statement

Evidence – ‘There is evidence to support this such as ...’ ‘This demonstrates that...’
Evaluate – ‘However, this can be criticised because…’
Link – ‘Therefore, we can see that…’. (State how what you have written helps to answer the debate.)

Conclusion – make a judgement

Your overall judgement will be based on whether you have provided more points in agreement or disagreement.
‘It could therefore be argued that…. This is because….’
5
What is Social Stratification?

Social stratification: This represents a process whereby different social groups are ranked higher or lower on some form
of scale, usually in terms of categories such as class, age, gender and ethnicity. Sociologically, Giddens (2001) defines
stratification as ‘structured inequalities between different groupings’.

Historically there have been a number of different types of stratification, involving major forms such as:

● Slave systems that have appeared throughout human history (from Ancient Greece and Rome to
eighteenth/nineteenth-century Britain and the USA). Slavery is one of the oldest (and most persistent) forms of
stratification that involves, according to Mazur (1996), a situation in which one group claims ownership over
another, such that the former take upon themselves ‘the right to use, abuse and take the fruits of the latter’s
labour’. The slave, therefore, is the property of the owner. Slave status is ascribed: children born to slave parents
became slaves. This is an example of closed system of stratification: no individual movement up or down.
● Caste systems (characteristic of some parts of South East Asia). The system involves the division of society into
five major caste groups (varna), each traditionally associated with a particular form of work. This is an example
of closed system of stratification: no individual movement up or down.
● Estates systems (characteristic of feudal or early modern societies). In agricultural (or feudal) societies, where
there are no factories or machines to produce goods, farming is the main economic activity, which makes land
the single most important commodity. To own land, therefore, is to be powerful, since you control something
vital to the lives of thousands, if not millions, of people. Land ownership was not distributed fairly or equally and,
in feudal Britain, land could not be legally owned; it was considered the property of God. Different levels in the
structure had different legal rights – serfs, for example, although not slaves, were under the control and
patronage of their feudal lord, who could impose restrictions on their behaviour: whom they could marry, where
they could live and so forth.
● Class systems, which characterise stratification in modern societies such as Britain. Economic relationships as
the focal point for our understanding of how individuals and groups are differentiated at a fundamental level –
one that sees the organisation of work as the most significant area of theoretical concern, mainly because it
represents an institution organised around the means of human survival. This is an open stratification system: it
is possible to rise and fall within the hierarchy.

TASK What is the difference between an estate and class system?

6
Socio-Economic Class

Socio-economic class refers to one’s position in society

based on a combination of economic and social factors,
such as income, education, occupation, and living
conditions. This is a little different to social class, which is
much broader focusing on status and power, alongside the
above.

The National Statistics Socio-Economic Classification

(NS-SEC)

1. Higher managerial, administrative and professional

occupations, e.g. court judge, chief executive
2. Lower managerial, administrative and professional
occupations, e.g. teacher, social worker
3. Intermediate occupations, e.g. call centre worker,
nursery assistant
4. Small employers, e.g. shop owner
5. Lower supervisory and technical occupations, e.g.
mechanic, plumber
6. Semi-routine occupations, e.g. postal worker,
security guard
7. Routine occupations, e.g. van driver, waitress
8. Never worked and long-term unemployed

Criticisms of socio-economic classifications

● Not everyone fits on this scale - what about authors

or actors?
● Is occupation the best way to measure social class -
what about those who have inherited wealth and do
not work?
● Feminists criticise the fact that classifications are
typically defined by men – just because a woman is
married does not mean she shares a class with her
husband

7
Functionalism

Functionalists believe in the organic analogy: each institution

contributes to the overall stability of the whole society.

Each institution serves a function, e.g. the family carries out primary
socialisation, work ensures that people can meet their basic needs, etc.

Individuals can work – and rise in their careers – when they have
specialist skills. These are taught in the education system.

Meritocracy success and status based on ability and effort.

According to Davis and Moore, society is a meritocracy and the most

talented should achieve the highest status and the greatest rewards.
One can achieve status through their hard work, allowing for social
mobility.

Davis and Moore (1945) argued that social stratification was a

‘universal necessity’ for all known human societies. They put forward
the idea of role allocation.

For a society to survive, the following must happen:

1. All roles in society must be filled.

2. Those roles must be filled by those who are best able to
perform them.
3. Necessary training must take place.
4. All roles must be performed well.

The ‘mechanism’ allowing these things to happen was a system of

social stratification that attached unequal rewards and privileges to
the different positions in society.

By attaching rewards (status/income) to those functionally important

positions, Davis and Moore argued that people with the necessary
talent, drive and ambition would be encouraged to compete for them. AO3

★ What is ‘functional importance’

"In any society, there must be some means of determining who will – how can this be determined?
perform the different roles required for the survival of the group. The Can we really say that workers
system of stratification serves this purpose by ensuring that the most
on the shop floor or not as or
talented individuals are allocated to the most important positions.
The unequal distribution of rewards is a mechanism that motivates more important than owners?
individuals to strive for these roles, ensuring that the most capable ★ Is talent and ability always
individuals fill the roles that are most functionally important for the rewarded?
survival of society." ★ Education and training should
— Davis and Moore (1945) not justify lifetime inequalities -
simply by not getting the
grades as a student.
TASK What evidence is there to suggest education is meritocratic?
The core criticism is that there are not
equal opportunities, and therefore
those born into families with wealth
and status are more likely to succeed.

8
 DEEP READING: Functionalism Why do functionalists believe inequality is
inevitable?

Functionalists believe that social stratification and various

forms of inequality all serve an important, perhaps essential,
social function. They argue that inequality is a “functional
prerequisite” for society: in other words – inequality is required
to have a functioning society and a society where everyone is
equal cannot possible work.

The most significant inequalities of social status in capitalist

According to functionalists, what would happen
societies are related to inequalities of income and both types of
if all jobs paid the same wages?
inequalities reflect the functional importance of different
occupations. That is: a doctor is well paid and is accorded high
status in the community because the functional importance of
his/her work is widely recognised. Therefore these social status
differences are also functional for societies because they
provide another incentive for individuals to opt for difficult but
functionally important occupations. Higher-paid jobs tend to
require more training and taking on greater responsibility:
without incentives (such as better pay) people would not do
these jobs. What is the main difference between feminism
and Marxism?
Functionalists consider that social stratification has important
consequences for the operation of society. Davis and Moore
argue that this system is both functional and inevitable. They
make the following points:

1. Society must see to it that all positions are filled.

2. Some positions are more important than others are.
3. Most important positions must be filled by the most
qualified individuals. How do Marxists view the relationship between
4. Society must offer greater rewards to motivate social classes?
qualified individuals to occupy top positions. In general,
the greater the functional importance of an occupation,
the greater should be the reward attached to it.

Hence, the social stratification system allocates individuals to

jobs and rewards them according to the functional importance
of the job. This thesis implies that societies become more
productive as they approach meritocracy.
What is the fundamental difference between
Functionalist views are in sharp contrast with both feminist and the proletariat and bourgeoisie?
Marxist views. Both feminism and Marxism hold that inequality is
not essential or useful but artificially maintained and harmful to
the bulk of society. Feminists focus on the power-relations
between men and women, viewing society as a ‘patriarchy’
where power is organised around men and masculinity: this is
evidenced by imbalances both in the political and economic
spheres. Marxists, however, focus on the power-relations
between different social classes: the working-classes (the
proletariat) and the ruling-classes (the bourgeoisie). The
What evidence supports the feminist view that
fundamental difference between the proletariat and the
we live in a patriarchal society?
bourgeoisie, according to Marx, is that the bourgeoisie own ‘the
means of producing wealth’ (e.g. land, factories, offices and
places of employment) whereas the proletariat do not.
According to Marxist sociologists this results in an exploitative
dynamic that benefits the wealthy ruling classes who strive to
maintain the system and the class-distinction.
9
Marxism

Marxists view social stratification primarily through the lens of class conflict and economic power. According to
Karl Marx, social stratification is not merely about differences in wealth, status, or occupation, but is rooted in the
relationship individuals or groups have to the means of production.

Marxists argue that society is divided into two primary classes based on their relationship to the means of
production:

● Bourgeoisie: The capitalist class, owners of the means of production (factories, land, capital). They hold
economic and political power and profit from the labour of others.
● Proletariat: The working class, which does not own the means of production and must sell their labour to
the bourgeoisie to survive. The proletariat is exploited because the value of their labour is greater than the
wages they are paid, and the surplus value is appropriated by the bourgeoisie as profit.

Marxists emphasize the exploitation of the working class by the capitalist class. Workers are paid less than the
value they produce, creating a system where the bourgeoisie accumulates wealth at the expense of the
proletariat.

Alienation is another critical concept in Marxist thought. Workers become alienated from their labour because
they have little control over the production process, the product they produce, and their own lives. This alienation
is a form of social stratification, as it creates a system where the proletariat is distanced from the benefits of their
own labour.

Marxists believe that social stratification is inherently conflictual and leads to class struggle, which will eventually
result in revolutionary change. The proletariat, through class consciousness, will recognise their exploitation and
overthrow the capitalist system. This would lead to the establishment of a classless (communist) society in which
the means of production are collectively owned, eliminating social stratification based on class.

Marxists in our society recognise that class is more complicated than just two classes. The petty bourgeoisie
describes a social class that occupies a position between the proletariat (working class) and the bourgeoisie
(capitalist ruling class).

They typically own small businesses, farms, or property but do not have enough capital to dominate markets like
the bourgeoisie. They may employ a small number of workers but often work alongside them. They often aspire
to rise into the bourgeoisie but are economically vulnerable and at risk of falling into the working class if their
businesses fail. The dominance of the bourgeoisie means that their companies can dominate, leading to the
bankruptcy of smaller businesses.

Capitalism The capitalist class that owns and controls the means of production and profits
from the exploitation of the proletariat.

Alienation The feeling of disconnection or estrangement that workers experience when they
have little control over their work

Social A social class of small business owners and self-employed individuals

Stratification

Means of The ongoing conflict between different social classes

Production
The working class that sells its labor for wages and does not own the means of
Bourgeoisie production in a capitalist society.

An economic system where the means of production are privately owned and
Proletariat operated for profit

The resources, tools, and materials required for producing goods and services,
Petty Bourgeoisie
including factories, land, and capital.
10
Class Struggle The hierarchical arrangement of individuals or groups in society based on factors
like wealth, power, and occupation.
Marxism

TASK What does this image tell

us about capitalism?

TASK What does this image tell

us about the bourgeoisie and
proletariat?

AO3

+) Marxist theory provides

a clear focus on economic
inequality as the
foundation of social
stratification, highlighting
how wealth and power are
concentrated in the hands
of a few. This remains
relevant in analysing
income inequality,
corporate power, and the
concentration of wealth in
capitalist societies.

-) Marx’s theory tends to

view society as
fundamentally divided into
two antagonistic classes,
which underplays the
potential for social
mobility. In modern
capitalist societies, people
can and do move between
social classes, which
challenges the static view
of class relations in Marxist
theory.

11
Weber

Max Weber believed that social stratification was not based solely on economic class (as Karl Marx argued) but
on three key dimensions:

1. Class (Market Position):

○ Market position refers to a person’s ability to sell goods, skills, or services in the market.
○ People in a stronger market position have higher income, better job security, and more
opportunities.
○ For example, a highly skilled surgeon has a stronger market position than an unskilled labourer
because their expertise is in demand and commands higher pay.
○ Market position explains why people within the same "class" can have very different life chances
depending on their specific skills and the demand for those skills.
2. Status:
○ Refers to the amount of social honor or prestige an individual or group has.
○ Status is often linked to lifestyle, behaviour, occupation, or family background and is not always
related to wealth.
○ For instance, teachers might have high status due to their respected role in society, even though
they may earn less than other professionals.
3. Power:
○ Refers to the ability to influence decisions and policies.
○ This can involve membership in political parties, unions, or pressure groups.
○ People in positions of political influence can shape social hierarchies by promoting their interests.

Nurses are not paid particularly well, but they do have some power over the lives of those they care for. Nurses do
have status - they are well respected and thought of highly among the public.

● Our class may differ from our status

● Our status may differ from our power
● Our power may differ from our class

Weber thought that members of the same social class enjoyed similar lifestyles, education level, and the social
status of their family – so it is not enough to say ‘class’ is based on ownership (as Marx did).

TASK Outline two professions that have high status, but low
pay.

12
Essay Plans

‘Every society needs inequality’

FOR AGAINST

Conclusion reached…

‘The Marxist analysis of society is accurate’

FOR AGAINST

Conclusion reached…
13
What are the similarities and differences between functionalist and Marxist views of social stratification?

14
Life Chances

Life chances is a concept introduced by sociologist Max Weber,

referring to the opportunities and obstacles individuals have in
life to improve their quality of life, based on their social class,
education, employment, and other factors. Life chances are
shaped by a variety of social and economic conditions and
determine how successful someone is likely to be in achieving
their goals and improving their living standards.

In simpler terms, life chances refer to the likelihood that a

person will have access to important resources and
opportunities in life, such as education, healthcare, and jobs,
which contribute to their well-being and success.

Examples of Life Chances:

1. Access to Education:
○ A child born into a wealthy family is likely to
attend a well-funded school, receive private
tutoring, and have better access to higher
education, which increases their life chances.
○ In contrast, a child born into a low-income
family may attend underfunded schools, which
can limit their opportunities for higher
education and career advancement.
2. Healthcare:
○ A person with access to good healthcare is
more likely to live a longer, healthier life, have
access to treatments for diseases, and maintain
a better quality of life.
○ Someone without access to healthcare, or with
limited access due to social or financial barriers,
may experience worse health outcomes and a
shorter life expectancy.
3. Social Mobility:
○ A young person born into an affluent family
with access to higher education and job
opportunities will likely experience upward
social mobility and have better life chances.
○ A person born into poverty, without access to
quality education or job opportunities, may
have fewer chances to improve their social and
economic status, limiting their life chances.
4. Employment:
○ People with higher education and professional
qualifications tend to get higher-paying and
more stable jobs, increasing their life chances.
○ Those who experience discrimination based on
their gender, ethnicity, or disability may find it
harder to access equal job opportunities, thus
reducing their life chances.
5. Living Environment:
○ A child growing up in a safe, well-resourced
area with good schools, parks, and low crime
rates is likely to have better life chances than a
child growing up in a deprived area with high
crime rates and limited access to services.

15
 DEEP READING: Life Chances in Britain What factors influence a person’s life chances in
Britain?

Life-chances are the opportunities each individual has to

improve their quality of life; many people argue that in an ideal
society all individuals would have equal life-chances –
regardless of race, sex or the wealth of one’s parents. Such a
society might be described as a meritocracy in that wealth,
power and social standing are determined by an individual’s
merit – that is to say their skills, abilities and willingness to work
hard.

Britain faces a number of obstacles before it can claim to be

such a society. People are not born with equal access to
In what ways do women face systematic
opportunities to improve their life or gain power, authority and
discrimination in Britain?
wealth. Factors such as race, sex, age, sexuality, religion,
disability and social-class correlate with success in Britain: this
suggests that some have easier access to the means of
improving their life-chances.

Gender seems to impact one’s life-chances in the UK. On the

one-hand women seem to outperform men in the education
system: girls do better than boys at most levels of education
and Britain has 30,000 more women in university than men.
Moreover, men receive different treatment by the police (e.g.
they are fifteen times more likely to be stopped and searched
by the police) and the judiciary – receiving harsher punishments
and longer prison-sentences than women for comparable What is a meritocracy?
crimes. On the other hand there is a substantial pay-gap
between full-time male and female workers (of around 9%),
most high-paid business leaders are men and most offices of
political power are men. This suggests that, in various ways,
men and women are not being given the same opportunities
and both are subject to systematic discrimination as well as
systemic privilege.

Likewise one’s race and ethnicity can impact one’s life-chances

in modern Britain. According to The Office of National Statistics:
“In 2018, on average, employees from the Chinese ethnic group
earned 30.9% more than White British employees; while
employees from the Bangladeshi ethnic group, on average, How might you explain the favourable pay gap
earned 20.2% less than White British employees.”. Meanwhile enjoyed by those of Chinese ethnicity?
there are substantial gaps in performance in schools that
correlate with ethnicity: white working-class boys are one of the
most underachieving demographics in Britain with those of
Chinese ethnicity tending to outperform others.

In Britain, perhaps the biggest predictor of success in life is the

wealth of one’s parents. ‘Social mobility’ describes the ability for
a person born into poverty to lift themselves out of it: in a
country with high levels of social mobility a child born to poor
parents will be just as likely as a child born to wealthy parents
to succeed in life. Marxist sociologists believe that society is
intentionally structured to prevent social-mobility so that State one way in which social mobility could be
working-class people are destined to remain working-class so increased in Britain.
that they can be more readily exploited by wealthy elites.
Wealthy parents can ensure that their children are given
additional opportunities, privileges, securities and advantages
that poorer parents cannot: this reduces social mobility and
creates a cycle of ‘intergenerational poverty’ whereby a person
born into ‘the underclass’ doesn’t have the opportunity to
escape it.

Britain has relatively low levels of social mobility and relatively

high levels of economic inequality when compared to other
countries.
16
 Social Inequality in the UK
For each statistic, state which group and which type of discrimination/inequality is being described

In 2022, households in the In a study, researchers applied for Only half of lesbian, gay and bi
bottom 20% of the population over 1,200 personal assistant and bar people (46 per cent) and trans
had on average an equivalised jobs as both an older and a younger people (47 per cent) feel able to be
disposable income of £13,218, worker, using CVs that were identical in open about their sexual orientation
whilst the top 20% had £83,687. every way apart from the date of or gender identity to everyone in
birth. The 51-year-old applicant was their family.
EXAMPLE: Lower social class invited to interview less than half as
limits economic freedom, often as the 25-year-old.
enhancing the likelihood of
generational poverty

Racially motivated Hate Crimes On average, two women a week are More than six of every 10 people (63
are the highest reported type of killed by a violent partner or per cent) said the Covid-19 crisis
Hate Crime in the UK. A total of ex-partner in the UK. widened the gap between rich and
109,843 racially aggravated poor people, according to a study
offences were recorded in by charity Turn2us, with
2021/2022 – an increase by 19% redundancies, lost work hours and
increased living costs pushing
people deeper into hardship.

Black suspects had the highest The main finding confirms that one of Out of all ethnic groups, the highest
proportion of arrests that the biggest groups of underachievers rates of overcrowding were in
resulted from stop and search, is the White Working Class. The data Bangladeshi (22.5%), Arab (17.1%),
accounting for 23% of total shows that at GCSE, 32% of White black African (16.3%), and Pakistani
arrests, which has increased British pupils eligible for free school (13.5%) households. The lowest rate
from 17% in 2016/17. meals achieved 5+A*-C, compared with of overcrowding was in white British
65% of pupils who were not eligible. households (1.7%)

Just 7.2% of looked-after children Care leavers make up 25% of the

A study by Stonewall found that achieved the grade 5 ‘good pass’ adult homeless population. Almost
over the previous year half of threshold in English and mathematics 25% of the adult prison population
LGBTIQ+ people had experienced GCSEs, compared to 40.1% of have previously been in care,29 and
depression, and three in five had non-looked-after children; across the nearly 50% of under 21-year-olds in
experienced anxiety board, children in residential care at contact with the criminal justice
age 16 scored over six grades less at system have spent time in care.
GCSE than those in foster care.

Disabled people aged 16 to 64

years in the UK were less likely to
own their own home (40.9%) than
non-disabled people (53.4%), and
more likely to have rented social
housing (at 24.9% compared with
7.8%) (year ending June 2020).

17
Life Chances: Social Class

What is the likelihood these people will

end up in a high-paying occupation, earn
status and power, and live a healthy
lifestyle?

Class Inequality: the higher the class, the more likely you are to… The Poverty and Social Exclusion
studies in the UK (conducted in the
Family Inherit substantial amounts of capital. Have higher 1990s and 2000s) explored how social
social status. Access social networks. Have access to class impacts access to basic needs
educational tools (computers, etc.). Have greater
access to consumer / household goods (eg. washing and resources. The studies
machine, home PC). highlighted how poverty, as a result
of social class, affects life chances in
Health Live longer. Have lower child and infant mortality rates terms of:
/ childhood physical / mental illnesses. Avoid
debilitating disease.
● Education: Children from
Wealth Own significant quantity of shares. Have substantial low-income families are less
savings and disposable income.Have higher levels of likely to attend university or
pay. Rising income. receive a quality education.
● Housing: Those in lower social
Welfare Avoid living on state benefits. Avoid poverty.
classes are more likely to live
in overcrowded or
Work Have higher status work. Control over others. Personal
autonomy. Be employed / avoid unemployment.
substandard housing, which
impacts health and quality of
Crime Avoid a criminal record and less likely to be a victim of life.
crime. ● Social Participation: Those in
lower social classes are often
Politics Understand politics and use your vote.
excluded from activities that
higher social classes take for
Education Have access to computer technology. Complete your granted, such as socialising
schooling (less risk of exclusion). Leave school at 18.
Achieve higher level qualifications (GCSE, A-level, with peers in more affluent
Degree). Attend: Private or Grammar school; University; settings or accessing
High status University (Oxbridge). technology and other
resources.
Housing Live in better quality housing. Have greater privacy.
18
Life Chances: Social Class

Key Findings from Sociological Research on Social Class and Life Chances:

1. Educational Achievement: Research shows that individuals from higher social classes are more likely to
succeed in education, secure higher-paying jobs, and live in healthier conditions, all of which increase their
life chances. Conversely, those from lower social classes face more barriers to educational success, which
limits their life opportunities.
2. Health Inequalities: Social class strongly influences health outcomes. People from lower social classes
tend to have poorer health, shorter life expectancy, and higher levels of stress, which directly affect their
life chances.
3. Economic Opportunities: People born into wealthier families have better access to economic
opportunities, such as well-paying jobs, stable employment, and financial security. Those in lower social
classes often experience job insecurity, low wages, and limited career advancement, restricting their life
chances.
4. Intergenerational Transmission of Inequality: Life chances are often passed down from one generation
to the next. Children from disadvantaged social classes are more likely to stay in those social classes as
adults, perpetuating the cycle of inequality.
Life Chances: Social Class

The Black Report (1980) was a groundbreaking study in the UK that

examined health inequalities and the relationship between social class
and health outcomes.The report demonstrated a clear link between
social class and health outcomes. People in lower social classes had
significantly worse health and higher mortality rates compared to those
in higher social classes.

● Life expectancy was lower for individuals in lower social classes.

Office for National Statistics (ONS) data shows a clear gradient:
men in the most deprived areas of the UK live, on average, 10
years less than those in the least deprived areas.
● Infant mortality rates were higher among lower social classes. What was one finding of the Black
Children born into poorer households were more likely to die in Report?
infancy compared to those from wealthier families.
● Diseases like cardiovascular conditions, diabetes, and respiratory
illnesses are more prevalent in lower social classes due to
lifestyle factors (smoking, diet, and exercise), but also structural
issues such as poor housing and environmental hazards.
● Lower social classes experience higher rates of mental health
conditions, such as depression and anxiety, driven by stressors
like job insecurity, financial strain, and poor housing conditions. Why are working-class people less
● Children in lower socio-economic groups are more likely to suffer likely to live longer?
from malnutrition, obesity, and developmental delays. Poor
health in childhood often affects educational attainment,
perpetuating a cycle of inequality.
● Dangerous and physically demanding jobs are
disproportionately held by individuals in lower social classes,
leading to higher rates of workplace injuries and long-term
health problems.
What was one reason for disparities
The report identified several factors contributing to health disparities: in social class differences in health?

● Material Deprivation: Poor housing, inadequate nutrition, and

unsafe working conditions were more common among lower
social classes.
● Access to Resources: Although healthcare was free under the
NHS, access to and utilization of healthcare services varied by
social class, with wealthier individuals often benefiting more.
● Lifestyle Factors: Smoking, poor diet, and limited physical activity What was one recommendation the
were more prevalent in lower social classes, contributing to Black Report made?
poorer health outcomes. However, these lifestyle factors were
influenced by socioeconomic conditions.

The report made over 30 recommendations to address health

inequalities, including:

1. Improving Housing and Living Conditions: Enhance the quality of

housing for lower-income groups. How does social class impact life
2. Reducing Income Inequality: Introduce policies to redistribute chances?
wealth and reduce income disparities.
3. Promoting Health Education: Increase awareness about healthy
behaviors, particularly in disadvantaged communities.
4. Targeted Healthcare: Provide more resources and support to
areas with higher levels of deprivation. 20
Life Chances: Gender

Gender can significantly limit life chances through social structures and cultural norms that perpetuate inequality.
Sociological research highlights how patriarchy, gender roles, and systemic biases in areas such as the workplace,
education, and family life shape opportunities and outcomes for men and women differently.

SPOTLIGHT: Gender and the Workplace

The Glass Ceiling: This metaphor describes the invisible barriers that prevent women from reaching top positions
in their careers, despite having the qualifications and abilities to do so.

● Research by Cotter et al. (2001) confirmed the persistence of the glass ceiling, showing that women are
underrepresented in leadership roles across industries, even in fields where they are well-represented in
lower levels of the hierarchy.
● Vertical segregation refers to how men dominate higher-paying, prestigious jobs, while women are
concentrated in lower-paying, less secure roles.

Gender Pay Gap: Women earn less than men on average, even when doing comparable work. According to the
Office for National Statistics (ONS) in the UK, the gender pay gap persists, especially in senior roles. Horizontal
segregation also plays a role, as women are more likely to work in lower-paid sectors such as education, care,
and retail, while men dominate higher-paid industries like engineering and finance.

Double Burden: Women are more likely than men to work part-time due to caregiving responsibilities. This limits
their career progression, income, and access to benefits like pensions.Oakley highlighted how traditional gender
roles push women into unpaid domestic labour, which reduces their ability to participate equally in the workforce.

21
Life Chances: Gender

In education, gender stereotypes and biases can

limit life chances by influencing subject choices,
career aspirations, and teacher expectations.

Gendered Subject Choices: Boys are more likely

to choose STEM (science, technology,
engineering, and maths) subjects, while girls are
encouraged into traditionally "feminine" fields
like arts or caregiving, which often lead to
lower-paying careers.

● Francis (2000) argued that schools

reinforce gender norms, with teachers
sometimes unconsciously directing boys
and girls into traditional subject areas.

Hidden Curriculum: Sociologists like Sue Sharpe

found that societal expectations for women to
prioritise marriage and family over careers
influence their educational aspirations. Her
research in the 1970s and 1990s showed a shift,
with girls in the 1990s aspiring to careers more
than marriage, but traditional expectations still
linger.

22
Life Chances: Ethnicity BAME may face barriers such as language differences, lower
expectations from teachers, or systemic discrimination.

The relationship between ethnicity and

life chances in sociology examines how
BAME may have different health outcomes due to discrimination
an individual's ethnic background can
in healthcare, e.g. black women are more likely to die during birth
influence their access to opportunities,
resources, and outcomes in various
areas of life, such as education,
employment, health, and housing. BAME may face higher stop-and-search rates or harsher
sentencing, reflecting systemic biases in the criminal justice
As of 2021, 82% of people in England and system.
Wales are white, and 18% belong to a
black, Asian, mixed or other ethnic group BAME are more likely to live in overcrowded or poor-quality
(ONS). housing due to economic inequality or discrimination in housing
markets.
Educational Attainment: Ethnic
disparities in education often influence
BAME often experience higher unemployment rates, lower wages,
life chances, as educational achievement
and workplace discrimination compared to majority groups.
is closely linked to employment and
income.Gillborn and Youdell (2000)
identified institutional racism in schools,
where Black students were
disproportionately placed in lower ability
groups and less likely to be entered for
higher-tier exams, limiting their
opportunities for success.They found
that found that teachers frequently
perceived Black boys as disruptive,
leading to higher rates of exclusion and
lower academic expectations.

Workplace Discrimination: Ethnic

minorities often face barriers to
employment, including discrimination in
hiring, lower wages, and limited
opportunities for promotion. Heath and
McMahon (2005) found that ethnic
minorities in the UK experience
significant disadvantages in the labour
market. For example, Black and South
Asian workers are more likely to be in
lower-paid and less secure jobs
compared to White workers.

Over-Policing: Ethnic minorities,

particularly Black individuals, are
disproportionately targeted by police.
Black people in the UK are nine times more
likely to be stopped and searched by
police than White people, according to the
Home Office. Institutional Racism: The
Macpherson Report (1999), following the
murder of Stephen Lawrence, highlighted
institutional racism within the Metropolitan
Police and how it affects the treatment of 23
ethnic minorities.
Life Chances: Ethnicity

SPOTLIGHT: Workplace Discrimination In their study, Wood et al. (2009) investigated the role of ethnicity in the
hiring process, focusing on how ethnic minority applicants are treated compared to White applicants.

Wood et al. found evidence of racial discrimination in the hiring process. They sent out simulated job applications
(also known as "correspondence testing") to real job vacancies using fictitious CVs. The CVs were identical except
for the names, which indicated different ethnic backgrounds.

They found that ethnic minority

applicants were less likely to be
called back for an interview
compared to their White
counterparts. Applicants with
“White-sounding” names were
more likely to receive a positive
response than those with
names commonly associated
with ethnic minorities, such as
those reflecting Black or Asian
backgrounds.

What is institutional racism?

a) Individual prejudice against
people from different ethnic
groups
b) A form of racism embedded in
laws, policies, and institutions
c) Unconscious biases held by
individuals
d) Cultural traditions that promote
equality among ethnic groups
Which sociological concept refers
to the disproportionate targeting
of ethnic minorities by police,
such as stop-and-search
practices?
a) Moral panic
b) Institutional racism
c) Labelling theory
d) Over-policing
According to the Macpherson
Report (1999), what was a key
finding about the Metropolitan
Police following the Stephen
Lawrence case?
a) The police were efficient in
handling racial crimes.
b) There was no evidence of
systemic bias in the police force.
c) The police force demonstrated
institutional racism.
d) Ethnic minorities were
overrepresented in the police
force.
What is the term used to describe
the overrepresentation of Black
people in the prison population
compared to their percentage in
the general population?
a) Cultural bias
b) Stop-and-search
c) Racial profiling 24
d) Disproportionate representation
Life Chances: Sexuality

Sexuality can limit life chances due to

systemic discrimination, cultural stigmas,
and institutional barriers faced by
individuals who identify as LGBTQ+
(Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender,
Queer/Questioning, and others).

● Impact of Bullying: LGBTQ+

students often face bullying and
harassment in schools, which can
affect their academic performance
and mental health. Rivers (2000)
studied the long-term effects of
homophobic bullying on young
people and found that victims
often experienced lower
self-esteem, depression, and
difficulty completing their
education. The Stonewall School
Report (2017) found that nearly
half of LGBTQ+ students in the UK
experienced bullying, with many
reporting a lack of support from
teachers.
● Family Rejection: Many LGBTQ+
individuals experience rejection
from their families, which can lead
to homelessness and economic
hardship. Research by Albert
Kennedy Trust (2015) found that
LGBTQ+ youth make up a
disproportionately high
percentage of homeless young
people in the UK, often due to
family rejection.
● Legal Discrimination: While
progress has been made in some
regions, LGBTQ+ individuals in
many parts of the world still face
legal barriers, including
criminalization of homosexuality
and lack of legal recognition for
same-sex relationships. In the UK,
Section 28 (introduced in 1988 and
repealed in 2003) prohibited the
"promotion" of homosexuality in
schools, perpetuating stigma and
limiting LGBTQ+ representation.
● Workplace Inequality: LGBTQ+
individuals often face workplace
discrimination, including hiring
biases, lack of promotion
opportunities, and harassment.
Stonewall UK found that one in five
LGBTQ+ employees experienced
workplace discrimination, and a
significant number reported
concealing their sexual orientation
or gender identity to avoid stigma. 25
Life Chances: Age

Sociological research highlights how societal attitudes, policies, and structural factors create advantages or
disadvantages for individuals at different stages of life.

Elderly Youth

● Older adults are more likely to experience ● Young workers are often seen as inexperienced
poverty, particularly women who have spent or uncommitted, leading to lower pay, fewer
less time in paid employment due to caregiving opportunities for advancement, and exploitation
responsibilities. in entry-level positions.
● Older workers are often perceived as less ● Young people face significant mental health
adaptable or technologically savvy, limiting challenges, often exacerbated by societal
their career opportunities. pressures and a lack of support. Studies by the
● Vincent (2003) discussed how ageism in the Prince’s Trust (2020) found that young people in
workplace and healthcare system limits older the UK report high levels of anxiety and
adults’ life chances, contributing to social depression, often linked to job insecurity and
exclusion. Older adults often face stereotyping, economic precarity.
with assumptions about their abilities and ● Young people are often stereotyped as
contributions to society leading to diminished rebellious, lazy, or unmotivated. Media
opportunities. representations frequently show youth
● Older people may be less likely to receive engaging in antisocial behavior, such as
aggressive or comprehensive treatments vandalism or drug use, reinforcing these
because healthcare professionals might assume negative perceptions.
they have a limited life expectancy or that they
are "too old" for certain procedures.

26
Life Chances: Disability

Disability can significantly affect life chances, as individuals with disabilities often face multiple forms of
disadvantage that limit their opportunities in various areas of life.

● Impact on Attainment: Studies show that students with disabilities are more likely to experience lower
academic attainment, face exclusion from mainstream education, or be placed in lower-track schools,
limiting their opportunities for higher education or skill development.
● Employment Discrimination: People with disabilities are often discriminated against in the labor market,
leading to lower employment rates and lower wages. Even when they are employed, they are often limited
to lower-status jobs or part-time positions that offer fewer benefits and less job security.
● Social Stigma and Discrimination: People with disabilities often face social stigma, prejudice, and
discrimination, which can affect their self-esteem, social participation, and overall well-being. This
discrimination can manifest in stereotyping (e.g., assumptions about people with disabilities being less
capable), exclusion from social activities, or even physical isolation.
● Limited Civic Engagement: People with disabilities may find it difficult to participate in political processes
due to physical, logistical, or informational barriers (e.g., inaccessible polling stations, lack of sign
language interpreters, or other support). As a result, they may have a diminished voice in decisions that
affect their lives, including laws and policies related to disability rights.

"Being disabled in Britain: A journey less

equal"
● Across the UK, 18.4% of disabled
people aged 16-64 were
considered to be in food poverty
compared with 7.5% of
non-disabled people
● Disabled people over the age of
65 were twice as likely as
non-disabled people in the same
age group to be in food poverty
● Disabled people face problems in
finding adequate housing, due to
a shortage in accessible housing
across Britain
● Disabled people were less likely to
own their own home.
● Disabled young people (aged
16-24) and disabled women had
the lowest median hourly earnings
● Families in the UK with a disabled
member were more likely to live in
relative poverty than non-disabled
families.

27
 Life Chances TASK For each identity
category, outline how it
“...refers to an individual's opportunities to improve their chances of ‘doing well’ for affects life chances. Use
themselves and improve their quality of life. This can include their life expectancy, statistics and evidence from
health, educational outcomes, career prospects, or mental health, among other things.” your lesson notes to do this.

Social class

Gender

Ethnicity

Sexuality

Age

Disability

28
Life Chances: Perspectives

FUNCTIONALISM AO3
● Meritocracy: Functionalists argue that life chances are largely determined Life chances are not based on
by merit—individuals can achieve success based on their talents, hard work, merit – but on factors like
and abilities. This means that a person's position in society is earned and class, ethnicity, and gender.
reflects their contributions to society. There are not equal
● According to functionalist theorists Davis and Moore (1945), social opportunities in society while
stratification (the hierarchical arrangement of society) exists because it there is classism, racism, and
motivates people to work hard and take on more important roles in society. sexism.
The unequal distribution of resources, such as wealth, education, and
status, is seen as functional because it ensures that the most talented Functionalists argue that social
individuals fill the most important roles (e.g., doctors, teachers, etc.), which stratification is necessary for
in turn helps society to function smoothly. the functioning of society,
● Social Roles and Stability: Parsons viewed life chances as influenced by the implying that inequality is
individual's social role within society, and social stability is achieved when justified. However, this
individuals perform roles appropriate to their status and resources. viewpoint can be used to
legitimise exploitation, as it
presents an acceptance of
systems that benefit the few at
the expense of the many.

MARXISM AO3
● Class and Economic Resources: According to Marx, life chances are directly Critics argue that Marxism
linked to the material conditions in which people live. Bourgeoisie control focuses too heavily on class
the means of production, while the proletariat sells their labour to survive. and economic factors, and
The capitalist system perpetuates inequality by ensuring that the working underestimates the role of
class has limited access to resources like education, healthcare, and wealth other social factors like
accumulation. gender, ethnicity, or individual
● Social Class and Opportunity: Marxists argue that social class determines agency in shaping life chances
one's access to essential resources, opportunities for education, and health,
which in turn shapes life chances. People born into working-class families Marxists fail to recognise the
are less likely to have the same opportunities as those born into wealthier, complexity of social class –
capitalist families.Working-class people are more likely to have reduced life and the possibility of social
chances. This is not a result of their lack of effort – but an unequal mobility. Today, there are
capitalist society. multiple different social
● Exploitation and Alienation: Marx emphasized that the working class is classes, and greater
exploited for its labor, and the resulting alienation leaves them with fewer opportunity through education
opportunities to improve their life chances. The ruling class uses its control to rise through the social class
over resources to maintain its position, limiting the working class's access to hierarchy (achieved status).
opportunities and reinforcing social inequality.

FEMINISM AO3
● Gender and Inequality: Feminists emphasize that gender inequalities limit Feminism has had a huge
the life chances of women. Women often face discrimination in education, influence on modern life – the
employment, and political representation, which restricts their access to struggles of feminists have
opportunities. This includes the gender pay gap, limited access to resulted in changes in the law,
leadership positions, and higher rates of unpaid domestic labour. such as the Divorce, Reform
● Domestic Labour: This is primarily performed by women, is often Act (1969), Equal Pay Act
undervalued in society. Women’s life chances are limited by expectations (1970), and Sex Discrimination
that they will fulfill caregiving roles, leading to lower participation in the Act (1975).
workforce and limiting their economic independence. Oakley (1974) argue
that the unequal division of domestic work affects women’s opportunities Despite legal changes, women
for education, career advancement, and social mobility. still face barriers to equality.
● Patriarchy and Structural Inequality: Feminists view the patriarchy as a key
system of power that privileges men over women, limiting women’s access
to resources, autonomy, and life opportunities. Women's life chances are
therefore shaped by their position within a patriarchal society, which
maintains gender-based divisions of labour, unequal access to education,
and workplace discrimination.
● Glass Ceiling is a metaphor for the invisible barriers that prevent women
from reaching the highest levels of leadership and decision-making,
particularly in business and politics. Resultantly, there is a wage gap
between men and women, which restricts women’s economic opportunities 29
and life chances.
Essay Plans

‘Every individual has a fair chance to succeed in life’

FOR AGAINST

Conclusion reached…

‘Social class is the biggest source of division in society’

FOR AGAINST

Conclusion reached…
30
Discuss how far sociologists would agree that Britain today is a meritocracy. (12)

31
Homophobia Prejudice, discrimination, or negative attitudes toward people who identify
as lesbian, gay, bisexual, or queer (LGBTQ+). Can manifest as social
exclusion, harassment, or violent behavior aimed at LGBTQ+ individuals.
For example, a workplace that refuses to hire openly gay people or an
individual making derogatory remarks about someone's sexual orientation.

Sexism
Prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism directed at someone of a different
race based on the belief that one’s own race is superior. Racism can
manifest in personal behaviour, institutional policies, and societal practices.

Ageism
The opportunities individuals have to achieve economic success, health,
education, and social mobility based on their social position (e.g., class,
race, gender)

Racism
Discrimination, prejudice, or stereotyping based on a person’s sex or
gender, often leading to unequal treatment between men and women.

A qualitative research method where the researcher immerses themselves

Gender Pay in a community or social group to study its behaviours, interactions, and
Gap culture

Discrimination or prejudice against individuals or groups based on their

Life Chances age, often directed at either younger or older individuals. Ageism can result
in marginalisation, stereotyping, or exclusion from certain opportunities or
activities.

Ethnography The average difference in earnings between men and women in the
workforce. A range of factors contribute to this such as unconscious bias,
career breaks, and women doing more part-time work.

Quantitative Data that can be measured and expressed numerically, e.g. statistics,
Data structured interviews, questionnaires.

32
Affluent Worker

Goldthorpe and Lockwood (1960s) conducted research on the affluent worker Key terms
in Luton, examining how increased wages and consumerism affected
working-class identity. While the traditional working class was communal, Affluence Having a
interested in solidarity as a class and was critical of capitalism (and higher income and
access to high-end
supportive of trade unions and the labour movement), they argued that new
consumer goods
working class was quite different. This class, they suggested was much more
individualistic, supportive of capitalism and aspirational for themselves and
their families. Skilled manual workers were becoming more privatised, New working class
adopting middle-class aspirations and lifestyles (home ownership, car Manual workers who,
ownership, and leisure activities). This led them to propose the idea of the despite having more
"new working class", which was more instrumental in its approach to work, ‘affluence’, retain
focusing on individual mobility rather than class solidarity. This kind of working-class values
privatised, home-centred lifestyle was associated with the middle-class, and
Goldthorpe and Lockwood saw evidence of this in the new working class.
Embourgeoisement
Devine (1992) revisited this study in Luton, exploring the question, ‘Are the The idea that the
working-class are
working-class becoming more privatised like the middle-class are?’ Despite
becoming more
changes in working-class lifestyles, she found that class identity had not
middle-class through
disappeared as much as Goldthorpe and Lockwood had suggested. She
their values, behaviour,
argued that working-class families still valued community ties and collective and lifestyle
experiences. Indeed, many of her participants resented the privileges of the
middle-class and valued community, even if they were no longer associated
with trade unions and the Labour party. Privatised
instrumentalism
● Devine concluded that working-class lifestyles, norms and values have Focusing more on
not changed as much as Goldthorpe & Lockwood's affluent worker personal success and
study suggested achievement (i.e. work
● She also rejected the idea of the ‘new working class’ and suggested promotions) rather
that affluent workers were critical of capitalism than collective class
interests (i.e. trade
● There was limited evidence to support the idea of embourgeoisement
unions, protesting, etc)
and privatised instrumentalism.

TASK How did Devine’s

research differ from
Goldthorpe and Lockwood’s
findings?

33
What is Poverty?

Absolute poverty refers to an individual’s inability to afford basic needs, such as food, clothing, and shelter.

Relative poverty refers to an individual whose standard of life falls below the majority of the population. For
example, someone might satisfy their basic needs, but not have access to the Internet – which is common
amongst the majority.

The rate of poverty depends on whether we look at absolute or relative.

● The state standard of poverty is used: households are living in poverty if their income is ‘less than 60% of
the national median.’
● Median income is the point at which half of households have lower income and half have higher income -
so, this can change year-on-year.
● The median income is currently £33,000. This means that the state standard of poverty is £19,800 (and
below). This is just below the minimum wage of someone working full time (40 hours per week).

Seebohm Rowntree was a British sociologist and social reformer. His study,
"Poverty: A Study of Town Life," was one of the first systematic attempts to
measure and understand the extent and causes of poverty in an urban
setting.

Rowntree defined poverty as the inability to afford the minimum standard

of living, which included basic needs such as food, clothing, and shelter. This
definition was different from earlier views that saw poverty simply as a lack
of wealth. Rowntree introduced the concept of a "poverty line", which
classified people as living in poverty if their income fell below the threshold
needed to meet these basic needs.

Rowntree’s research revealed several key factors that contributed to

poverty. Low wages were a primary cause, with many working-class
families earning insufficient income to cover their living costs. Rowntree
found that even those working long hours in factories were often paid far
too little. Unemployment also contributed to poverty, as losing a job could
instantly plunge families into hardship. Furthermore, illness and disability
could push people into poverty, especially if they were unable to work or
had to pay for medical treatment. Lastly, overcrowded housing was an
issue, as many working-class families lived in poor conditions that led to ill
health and further financial strain.

Rowntree found that about 27% of York's population lived in poverty at the 34
time of his study. This was a significant percentage, revealing that poverty
was not just a problem for a few individuals, but a widespread issue.
Explaining Poverty

Dependency Theories Culture of Poverty

…benefits discourage the poor from taking The culture of poverty theory argues that poverty is not just
responsibility for their own welfare; the poor are about a lack of money or resources, but about a set of cultural
stuck in a poverty trap because employment pays values and behaviors that are passed down from one
less than the benefits they would lose if they generation to the next. According to this theory, people who
entered the workforce. However, the government live in poverty develop a distinct culture with beliefs, values,
has attempted to address this via increases to the and behaviours that perpetuate their poverty. These may
national minimum wage; in addition, universal include a sense of fatalism, lack of ambition, or lack of trust in
credit combines in-and-out of work benefits institutions like education or government.

In this view, children who grow up in poverty may learn

behaviors and attitudes that limit their opportunities later in life,
such as not prioritising education or not believing that they can
change their situation. For instance, they may accept poor
living conditions or low-wage jobs as "normal" because it has
been the experience of previous generations.

Cycle of Deprivation Economic System

The cycle of deprivation theory suggests that Marxists who focus on the economic system argue that poverty
poverty is self-reinforcing. This means that people is a direct result of the way the capitalist economic system is
born into poverty are more likely to remain in structured. In capitalist economies, there is a focus on
poverty throughout their lives because they lack maximising profits, often at the expense of workers. This leads
the necessary resources, opportunities, and to inequality in wealth and resources. The economic system
support to break free. For example, being born tends to create social stratification, where the rich get richer
into a poor family might mean having limited and the poor get poorer. The working class, for example, is
access to quality education, which leads to limited often paid low wages and has few opportunities for
job prospects, and ultimately to low-paying work. advancement, while the rich control the means of production
This keeps the cycle going, as the next generation and accumulate wealth.
inherits similar disadvantages.

In a capitalist society, large corporations and the wealthy elite

A child growing up in a low-income family may often control much of the economy, including land, resources,
not have access to quality schooling, which and capital. Meanwhile, low-wage workers may struggle to
reduces their chances of getting a good job. As an make ends meet despite working long hours. Because the
adult, they may end up in a low-paying job, which capitalist system is driven by profit, it does not necessarily
limits their income and opportunities to move out create an equal distribution of wealth, which results in social
of poverty. Their children, in turn, may face similar inequality and poverty for large segments of the population.
disadvantages, continuing the cycle of The rich continue to accumulate wealth, while the poor remain
deprivation across generations. trapped in low-paying jobs or unemployment.

Wo o n
rk cati
What impact Edu
does poverty
have on…
n He
dre alt
Chil h

35
Explaining Poverty

FUNCTIONALISM AO3
Poverty is seen as a necessary part of society. Davis and Moore (1945)
argued that social stratification, which often results in poverty, is a
functional necessity for society. They believed that inequality is
important because it ensures that the most important roles in society
are filled by the most qualified individuals. In this view, poverty serves
to motivate individuals to work harder, achieve higher education, and
aspire for better jobs, as those at the top of the social hierarchy are
rewarded with wealth and prestige. Furthermore, poverty ensures the
division of labour, where lower-status jobs are filled by those in
disadvantaged positions, maintaining the smooth functioning of society.
In this way, functionalists argue that poverty contributes to social
stability, as it creates a clear distinction between roles and reinforces
the values of ambition and merit.

The functionalists, Herbert Gans, argued that the existence of poverty

helps to reinforce social norms and values, particularly the work ethic.
The poor are often seen as "lazy" or "undeserving," reinforcing the
belief that success comes from hard work and that those who fail to
succeed are somehow to blame. This, in turn, supports a meritocratic
belief system in which people are judged based on their ability to work
and contribute to society.

MARXISM AO3
Marxists, based on the ideas of Karl Marx, explain poverty as a direct
result of the capitalist system. They argue that poverty arises from the
exploitation of the working class by the capitalist class. In a capitalist
society, the bourgeoisie (capitalists) profit from the labour of the
proletariat (workers), paying them less than the value of what they
produce, which perpetuates economic inequality and poverty. Marxists
emphasise that the capitalist system is inherently unequal, leading to
class conflict, where the rich get richer, and the poor get poorer. The
alienation felt by workers, due to their lack of control over their work
and its rewards, further deepens their poverty and lack of upward
mobility.

FEMINISM AO3
Feminists explain poverty as a result of gender inequalities in society.
They argue that poverty is not only a class issue but also a gendered
one. Women, particularly those in marginalised groups, are
disproportionately affected by poverty due to structural and cultural
barriers. Feminists highlight the gendered division of labour, where
women are more likely to occupy low-wage, part-time, and temporary
jobs, as well as face a persistent gender pay gap. The patriarchal
structure of society also means women are often tasked with unpaid
domestic and caregiving roles, limiting their opportunities for paid work.
Additionally, intersectionality is key, as women of colour, immigrant
women, and single mothers often experience higher rates of poverty
due to overlapping forms of discrimination and oppression.

36
Explaining Poverty: Consolidation Questions

According to Davis and Moore, why is inequality considered a necessary function of society?

From a functionalist perspective, how does poverty contribute to social stability?

What is the relationship between poverty and meritocracy in functionalist thought?

According to Marxists, how does exploitation lead to economic inequality?

How does the capitalist system prevent social mobility?

According to feminists, why are women more likely to experience poverty?

Why are feminists concerned about the gender pay gap?

37
Explaining Poverty

The New Right is more of a political approach, than a sociological theory. It is closely associated with the President
Ronald Reagan (USA) and the Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher (UK) in the 1980s. The New Right believe in the
individual - by this, they mean that individuals should take responsibility for their own decisions and circumstances.
Therefore, those in poverty are seen to be responsible for getting into poverty and getting out of it. It should not be
the responsibility of those who did well in education and now have high-paying jobs to support those in poverty
through their taxes. The New Right, including Charles Murray, are against the benefits system - they believe that this
only incentivises people not to work, and ‘rewards’ them for making bad decisions, such as failing education.

What is a dependency culture?

This is situation where an increasing number of people depend on the government to satisfy their basic needs. This
has created an underclass, a group of people who rely on benefits, have little or no incentive to work, fail to take
care of their families, and are more likely to commit crime. Murray said this group is made up of inadequately
socialised, dependent, and depraved individuals. The underclass, because it does not conform to what the majority
is doing, is excluded from society – not working, stuck in poverty, and dependant on the government to survive. As
such, the New Right is critical of benefits because they mean that those who worked hardest are punished by
‘mopping up’ after the poor.

Charles Murray proposed three "laws" about the effects of national welfare programs, arguing that they create
long-term dependency and have negative social consequences. These laws are:

1. The Law of Unintended Rewards Welfare programs intended to help the poor actually reward irresponsible
behavior (e.g., benefits incentivise worklessness).
2. The Law of Net Harm Over time, welfare programs cause more harm than good, as they create dependency
and weaken personal responsibility, leading to long-term social problems.
3. The Law of Imperfect Selection – Welfare programs cannot perfectly distinguish between those who truly
need help and those who exploit the system, leading to inefficiency and misuse of public funds.

AO3

Strengths Weaknesses

● Encourages Self-Reliance Murray argues that ● Ignores Structural Causes of Poverty Murray
welfare can create dependency by reducing the overlooks systemic issues such as low wages,
incentive to work. Reducing benefits could discrimination, and lack of opportunity, which
encourage individuals to seek employment and contribute to poverty. Reducing benefits may
become more self-sufficient, rather than relying punish people who are in poverty due to factors
on state support. beyond their control.
● Reduces Government Spending By cutting ● Increases Hardship for Vulnerable Groups
welfare benefits, the government could reduce Cutting welfare could worsen the living
its financial burden, leading to lower taxes and conditions of vulnerable individuals such as the
potentially better allocation of resources to elderly, disabled, or single parents, making it
other areas like education or infrastructure. harder for them to afford basic needs and
● Prevents Generational Dependency Murray potentially increasing homelessness and food
claims that welfare can create a culture of insecurity.
dependency that is passed down from one ● Fails to Acknowledge the Temporary Nature of
generation to the next. By reducing welfare, Welfare Dependency Most people rely on
society may break the cycle of long-term benefits temporarily during periods of crisis
poverty and promote the value of hard work (e.g., job loss, illness). Welfare helps individuals
and self-sufficiency. get back on their feet rather than trapping them
in long-term dependency.

38
39
Perspective What causes poverty? Impacts of poverty Who is most affected by
poverty?

Functionalism

Marxism

Feminism

New Right

Discuss how far sociologists would agree that society will always be unequal. (12)

• Functionalist theory, eg the work of Davis and

Moore, that stratification is a universal necessity.
• Marxist theory, eg that capitalism is based upon
inequality, so as long as it persists inequality will
continue.
• Feminist theory, eg that society is patriarchal,
benefitting men and exploiting women.
• New Right, eg Murray argued that without
welfare reform and incentives to work, the
working majority will always have to ‘mop up’
after the underclass
• Unequal life chances, eg evidence relating to
inequality of opportunity, with regards to
education, health etc.
40
41
Relative Deprivation

Via the use of questionnaires, Peter Townsend developed a new way

to measure poverty in the UK which he argued was more appropriate
and useful than the official measures.

Townsend identified three ways of defining poverty:

1. The state’s standard of poverty on which official statistics
are based. This was calculated on the basis of an individual
entitlement to claim certain benefits and Townsend believed
this to be arbitrarily determined by the government of the
day. The government can choose to change eligibility for
benefits.
2. The relative income standard of poverty based on identifying
those households whose income falls below the average for
similar households. Again, he believed this measure to be
arbitrary, potentially misleading (it did not account for the
level of welfare payments available from a government at
any one time) and inadequate (it did not account for the
lifestyles available to those who are relatively materially
disadvantaged).
3. Relative deprivation, his preferred measure. Townsend
believed that individuals, families and groups fall into relative
poverty when they lack the resources to obtain the types of
diet, participate in activities and have the living conditions that Why did Townsend reject the state
are widely available in the society in which they live.
standard of poverty and the relative
In our time, you could consider the following… income standard of poverty?

● Can your family afford to send you to university?

● Do you live in overcrowded living spaces where you cannot
revise?
● Do you struggle to afford new items when you need them?
● Can you afford to go on educational trips, e.g. museums,
holidays? What method did Townsend use in his
research?
“Individuals can be said to be in poverty when they lack the
resources to obtain the types of diet, participate in the activities
and have the living conditions which are customary in their society.”
Outline two criticisms of the method
Townsend used his preferred definition to measure the extent of
Townsend used in his research.
poverty in the UK. His research was based on questionnaires issued to
over 2,000 households and more than 6,000 individuals located in
various geographical areas in the UK. He devised a deprivation index
covering a large number of variables including diet, fuel, clothing,
housing conditions, working conditions, health, education and social
activities. Each household was given a score on this deprivation index
and Townsend then calculated a threshold for levels of income below
which the amount of deprivation rapidly increased. On this basis, he
believed more than 22% of the population to be living in poverty in How might relative deprivation impact
1968–69, this compared to just over 6% using the state standard and life chances?
a little over 9% using relative income.

Townsend’s methods and conclusions have been criticised by those

who argue that his index was inadequate and produced potentially
misleading results, for example the absence of fresh meat and cooked
meals might not be an indicator of poverty but of individual choice.
Also, to generalise to the whole population he needed to be very
confident that his sample was representative - official measures are
based on a lot more data.

42
43
Globalisation and Poverty

What is globalisation?

…the process by which the world has become more

interconnected:

● Movement of people and ideas

● Jobs across the world and companies operating
internationally
● Improved, quick transport
● Technology

Consequently, global companies shift production to places where

labour costs are low. This is known as outsourcing, and can
explain why so many of the products we buy in the UK are made
in other countries, such as China. This has helped other countries
as the increase in jobs has alleviated poverty. However, labour
costs being low also mean that wages are low – and in some
countries, workers are paid as little as £2 per day. Additionally,
moving labour has devastated some communities in the UK, such
as those that relied on the steel industry.

Critics of globalisation

In most industries, a ‘job for life’ is increasingly rare, as workers

today suffer from poor job security, low pay, and few work
benefits as businesses drive down costs in an attempt to remain What is the link between globalisation
globally competitive – in other words, to make more profit. and poverty?

Employment in manufacturing industries in developed countries

has declined (deindustrialisation) and those workers previously
employed in this industry have been unable to find adequate
replacement, leading to an increase in poverty in the UK. Despite
a low unemployment rate in the UK, many new jobs are
temporary, part-time, and low pay – meaning that this figure
obscures the existence of in-work poverty.
Why might the growth in UK jobs
Globalisation has also encouraged the movement of people. Many
actually increase poverty?
immigrant workers come to the UK for work, which has benefited
the economy by filling jobs with skill-shortages (e.g. doctors).
However, in other cases, business have exploited the work of
immigrants by paying them low wages – and sometimes illegally
employing them to pay below the minimum wage. Some
sociologists, such as Marxists, believe that businesses’ drive for
profit has led to the exploitation of immigrants, who are willing to
Why are migrant workers particularly
work for less pay than British citizens. This reduces their life
prone to poverty?
chances.

What is a zero-hour contract?

● Amazon is a multinational company, with profits of £450

billion pounds.
● Amazon cuts costs by employing people on zero-hour
contracts - the employer is not obligated to provide any
hours; workers pick up hours when they are available.
● In low-skilled, low-paid jobs, such as those from Amazon, 44
people live paycheck-to-paycheck and in fear that they
will receive no hours.
Explain two ways in which globalisation may increase poverty in the UK. (4 marks)

Topic Area Impacts of poverty on individuals

Family

Education

Crime

45
Understanding poverty

● What is poverty? How is poverty measured?

● How do sociologists explain poverty?
● Is the welfare state effective at reducing poverty?

Poverty and the welfare state Dispelling the myths Paul Spicker [extracts]

Measuring complex problems is usually done, in social science, through the

use of “indicators”. The term “indicators” was chosen to emphasize that the
kinds of official statistic produced for this sort of exercise were not
conclusive proof of anything; they were signposts. Indicators do not have to
be precise, but they have to point the way; over time, it should be possible at
least to say whether problems are getting better, worse or staying about the
same. Indicators need to be accessible, reasonably comprehensible and
persuasive.

Explanations for poverty can be classified into four main schools of thought.

1. Individual explanations try to explain poverty in terms of the

personal characteristics of poor people. Poverty is seen as the result
of laziness, personal inadequacy or some kind of shortcoming or
handicap; people are poor because they have made the wrong
choices, had children at the wrong time, failed to work and so forth.
2. Familial explanations suggest that poverty runs in families, either
through genetic inheritance or through inheritance, upbringing and
education. This was central to an argument made by Sir Keith
Joseph in the 1970s, described as the “cycle of deprivation”. Although
this argument was comprehensively demolished by research
evidence, the argument is still on the scene politically today. The
government’s National Action Plan for the UK, for example, declares: What are some of the ways
“Breaking the cycle of deprivation and ending the intergenerational sociologists measure poverty?
transmission of disadvantage from parent to child must lie at the
heart of any effective strategy for tackling poverty and social
exclusion.”
3. Subcultural explanations also see poverty as a pattern of
behaviour, but one that is brought about by circumstances rather
than personal choice. The best-known arguments are probably those
relating to the “culture of poverty” of the 1960s and the “underclass”
of the 1980s, but both of these concepts have been tinged with
sensationalism and the moral condemnation of the poor. The
strongest case has been made about the relationship of economic
How does family breakdown increase
marginality and family structure. Where men are not in stable
economic circumstances, it has a devastating effect on their social the likelihood of experiencing poverty?
relationships: the men cannot fulfil conventional social roles,
especially the role of the breadwinner, and women cannot afford to
commit themselves permanently to such men. William Julius Wilson,
in the United States, has argued that economic factors are
fundamental to family breakdown. The marginality of men implies
higher rates of relationship breakdown, illegitimacy, serial
relationships rather than stable partnerships, and fragile family
structures. How do Marxists explain poverty?
4. Structural explanations identify poverty as the product of the
society in which it takes place. This is often interpreted in terms of
social divisions, class, status or power, but all that is needed for an
explanation is inequality. Wherever there are inequalities, someone
will be at the bottom; and in an economy which does not produce
enough work for everyone who wants it, or where the labour market
is divided between people in secure employment and others in
precarious employment, someone is going to be left out. The wider
the range of inequality, the more likely it is that people at the bottom
will be poor.
46
Discuss how far sociologists would agree that poverty remains an issue in Britain today. (12)

47
UK Poverty Facts

● Income Inequality: The gap between the rich and poor has been growing in recent decades. While the
richest households have seen their incomes rise, those on lower incomes have often experienced
stagnation or decline. Many people struggle to meet basic living costs despite being employed, which has
led to the rise of "in-work poverty."
● Child Poverty: Around 1 in 3 children in the UK live in households that are considered to be in poverty,
according to some reports. Children from low-income families face long-term challenges, including poor
health, lower educational attainment, and limited access to opportunities.
● Housing Crisis: Housing costs, particularly in cities like London, are a significant barrier to escaping
poverty. High rent prices and low availability of affordable housing mean that many people, even those in
full-time employment, find themselves struggling with housing insecurity.
● Food Insecurity: Food poverty is also a major concern. Many people are relying on food banks to feed
themselves and their families. According to the Trussell Trust, the UK’s largest food bank network, the
demand for food banks has been consistently rising.
● Social Services and Benefits: Cuts to welfare spending, like the reduction in Universal Credit, have left
some vulnerable groups struggling to make ends meet. The implementation of Universal Credit has been
controversial, with critics arguing that delays in payments and stringent eligibility criteria cause additional
hardship

TASK What is the relationship between poverty and

educational achievement?

48
Welfare State

The “welfare state” was founded in 1948. Although it built on the services that had
Why do you think a welfare
existed before the war, it was seen as a radical departure from the system that
came before it. It offered social protection to everyone, as a right of citizenship. It state needed after the second
aimed to offer services at the best level possible. It was going to offer a network of world war?
services, providing a foundation of support for everyone. Above all, the Welfare
State was not going to be like the system that had come before it. It was not just
for poor people, and it was not going to be provided at a minimal level. The
Beveridge report on social insurance was seen by many as the cornerstone of the
welfare state – more because of its rhetoric than because of the proposals.
Beveridge wrote of the battle against the “five giants” of Want, Idleness, Ignorance,
Squalor and Disease. He proposed a “comprehensive” system of social insurance,
which was seen as covering people from cradle to grave.

From the 1970s onwards, a series of selective benefits were introduced, aimed
specifically at people on low incomes. When benefits were retrenched, the benefits
that bore the brunt of that retrenchment were universal – benefits like sickness
benefit, maternity grant, death grant, and earnings-related unemployment benefit.
The basic means-tested benefit, Supplementary Benefit, was reformed more than
once; it became Income Support in 1988. It is Income Support (and it's more recent
offshoot, the Job Seekers’ Allowance) that attracts the bulk of criticism about
benefits – accusations of dependency, fraud, and unwillingness to work.

Why, despite the welfare state, are people still poor? The persistence of poverty
is not something that social protection alone could have ended. There are issues
that welfare systems do not address. The welfare state does not prevent people
from being disadvantaged in the labour market. It does not end inequality. Welfare
systems do not guarantee full employment or stable marriages. There are limits to
what we should expect. The welfare state should, however, have helped to prevent
What are the consequences of
poverty. Social protection should mean that people are not materially deprived,
not having a welfare state?
and it should reinforce basic security. Social protection in Britain has never been
adequate to do this. Benefits are limited, and there are holes in the welfare net. If
there is a criticism of the welfare state in this country, it is that it has never done
enough.

Welfare and the Poor

“The great debilitating myth afflicting all discussions of the welfare state is that
welfare is for the poor. The welfare state was never designed for the poor. It was
designed to stop people becoming poor, which is very different. Benefits confined
to the poor cannot prevent poverty – because people have to become poor before
they can claim them.

Social welfare in Britain has shifted back towards provision for the poor. General
housing subsidies are now focused on individual, means-tested benefits. Old people The welfare state cannot
with capital resources are required to pay for nursing care formerly delivered free prevent poverty. Why not?
in hospitals. Provision for unemployed people who have alternative sources of
income – and particularly for married people with a working spouse – has been
radically reduced. Protection for mortgage payments has been substantially
eroded, and home-owners are mainly expected to rely on optional private
insurance to safeguard themselves against homelessness.

Services for the poor are problematic. They are likely to be stigmatised, they are
kept at a very low level, they often fail to reach the people they are intended to
help. This generates the arguments that are today made against welfare – that it
breeds dependency, that people are unwilling to work, that benefits have to be
kept low to give the right messages, that it is misdirected. But they are never heard 49
in relation to universal services, like health care or education, that are not seen as
services for the poor, but as services that we all (or most of us) need. In short, the
welfare state helps everyone – but it does not necessarily prevent poverty.”
Welfare State

Based on proposals by Lord Beveridge, the UK's Welfare State was founded after World War Two, with the aim to
provide a comprehensive system of social insurance from 'cradle to grave'.

This meant that everyone in the country would be taken care of from the time of their birth, until their death. The
protection provided was funded through National Insurance contributions made by all working people.

Today there are five main parts to the UK's Welfare State:

● Social protection including social security benefits – Social protection covers many areas of spending
including out-of-work benefits, pensions, and supporting people who are at risk of exclusion from society,
such as those on low incomes or refugees.
● National Health Service (NHS) – The NHS was established to provide comprehensive, universal, high
quality healthcare that was free at the point of use and allowed patient choice. The NHS has largely kept
to its original aims.
● Comprehensive education – State education services run from nursery, through primary and secondary
school, and into further and higher education. In the main, educational standards are reasonably good.
However, there are many criticisms including poor quality school buildings, poor attainment amongst
some groups and shortages of staff and equipment. In 2023-24, £131 billion was spent on education across
the UK.
● Social housing – Social housing is accommodation that is rented from local authorities or housing
associations, which aims to provide for people who can’t afford to rent or buy a home. Most often, social
housing is built with government funding support.
● Personal social services and services for children – Services in this area include care services to the elderly
in their own homes. Services for children include fostering and adoption services.

TASK Research each of the following policies and how they have tried to tackle poverty.

Universal Credit

Child Benefit

Tax Credits

Disability Living
Allowance

Income Support

Free School Meals

Government Furlough
Scheme 50
 Perspectives on the Welfare State

NEW RIGHT
The New Right perspective is anti-welfare: it relies on everyone’s taxes
(whether or not they use it) and it encourages dependency. There are few “We tried to provide for
issues the New Right have: the poor and produced
more poor instead. We
● Immorality - income is “forcibly redistributed from taxpayers to those tried to remove the
who are believed to deserve it by politicians”. The government can barriers to escape
choose to tax more to fund the welfare state, and make decisions on poverty, and
behalf of people – whether or not this is what is needed.
inadvertently built a
● Welfare Dependency - the creation of “a class…permanently dependent
on the state for all their major decisions.” In Murray’s words, this
trap. “
creates an underclass of people who will never actively try to better
their situation Charles Murray, New
Right
Government welfare reforms in American society led to a dependency culture
and a growing underclass Increased benefits led to:
1. Discouragement of self sufficiency
2. More single parents
3. Young people losing interest in getting a job

CENTRE-LEFT As the bourgeoisie have a

Capitalism causes unemployment and poverty because the rich are only huge amount of wealth, they
interested in creating profit. In this economy, wealth is concentrated in the are able to control other
hands of the rich. Therefore, the poor can only be helped through the welfare institutions – such as the
state. This involves the government taxing the rich more and redistributing this media. The beourgeosise use
money to the poor. the media to transmit the idea
that poverty exists because
The centre-left fear that without adequate benefits and health care, ordinary
people will no longer care about society, and might turn to crime in order to people do not work hard
survive. The centre-left agree with the welfare state. enough. This creates a false
class consciousness because
MARXISM people begin to believe that
Marxists criticise the capitalist system because it exploits the proletariat. They their poverty is a result of
believe that the welfare state is actually a mechanism that preserves their own personal failings,
capitalism because, while it helps the poor, it still creates a divide between the rather than the capitalist
proletariat and the bourgeoisie.
system. If they did realise this,
they might revolt to create a
The welfare state creates a sense of false class consciousness. This is a state
where the proletariat cannot see the truth and are brainwashed into accepting communist society. As such,
their position in society. The welfare state is seen as something the proletariat the bourgeoisis use their
should be grateful for – when really it is the bare minimum for survival. wealth to control the minds of
Therefore, the welfare state prevents a revolution that would change society. people.
Marxists disagree with the welfare state.

FEMINISM
Most feminists are positive about welfare programmes since they help women
survive. The ‘feminisation of poverty’ is a huge issue that welfare helps
overcome. For women in lone-parent families, child benefit policies support
them to raise children.

However, welfare policies tend to support the traditional nuclear family. In

some countries, married couples are taxed jointly, which may benefit the
traditional male breadwinner-female homemaker model. This can create
economic incentives for women to stay at home and care for children, rather
than participate equally in the workforce. Some countries offer additional
benefits or credits for married couples with children. These benefits are often
structured around the assumption that the primary caregiver will be the
mother, rather than allowing both parents to share childcare responsibilities
equally. Additionally, the government pays for 15 hours of free childcare, but
this typically means that mothers have to care outside of this, or work
part-time. Also, benefits paid to lone mothers typically keep these women in 51
poverty. Feminists agree and disagree with the welfare state.
Discuss how far sociologists would agree that the welfare state has been successful in
reducing poverty (12)

New Right eg that the welfare state Centre-left eg that the welfare Feminist eg the welfare state is
is not effective as it has created state is effective because without effective because it helps women
dependency culture and interferes adequate healthcare and benefits, survive; but it also supports the
with an individual's right to choose. people might turn to deviant traditional nuclear family, thus
measures to support themselves maintaining patriarchy

Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation

52
53
Power

● Formal power takes shape through written ● Informal power is expressed in everyday
rules and laws. interactions, where norms and values shape how we
● Formal agents of social control shape understand someone else’s social position.
behaviour through legal consequences, e.g. ● Informal agents of social control have this power,
a fine, community order, or prison e.g. schools enforce a behaviour policy, parents
sentences. enforce boundaries, etc.

What is authority? Authority is having the power to give orders

and make decisions. In society, some groups have more power,
control, and authority than others. Authority is exercised over
people when they willingly agree to obey an individual or group
because they see it as the right thing to do. Force is
unnecessary because people consent to power being exercised
over them.

Weber argued that an individual or group exercises power

when they get what they want, despite any opposition. Power is
based on either coercion or authority.

● Traditional Authority
This authority is based on custom and tradition, e.g. the
monarchy is a hereditary system meaning that by simply being
born in the Royal Family, you will acquire ascribed status of the
nobility. Britain’s Queen Elizabeth, for instance, occupies a
position that she inherited based on the traditional rules of
succession for the monarchy. People adhere to traditional
authority because they are invested in the past and feel
obligated to perpetuate it. Even the Prime Minister’s power is
checked by the ‘monarch’ to give royal approval!

● Charismatic Authority
This authority is gained through someone’s personality and
ideas, e.g. Martin Luther King, Gandhi, Adolf Hitler, or Jesus
Christ. Each of these people had ideas that spread and were
largely accepted by a significant number of people. Because so
few women have held dynamic positions of leadership
throughout history, the list of charismatic female leaders is
comparatively short.

● Rational Authority
This authority is gained through having ‘gone through the
system’ and been chosen for the role which gives authority, e.g.
someone who gets a job on the merits of their CV, such as the
England football manager Gareth Southgate. The authority to
influence does not fall on individuals themselves, but instead
falls on specific, structured, offices, and individuals holding
specific positions have the authority to act in the name of such
positions. Military officers are also said to have rational
authority because they have been promoted to the position
and have the authority to give orders. Failure to obey an order
can result in sanctions, e.g. taking away free time.

54
Power Authority that is based on custom and tradition, e.g.
British monarchy

Coercion
Authority that is based on the position held, e.g. an
elected prime minister, a promoted boss

Authority

When power is gained through the use of force, i.e. we

obey someone as we feel we have no other choice

Traditional
authority When people get what they want in spite of opposition

When power is gained through consent or agreement, i.e.

Charismatic we obey someone because we think it’s the right thing to
authority do

Rational Authority based on personality and personal qualities

authority that inspire us, e.g. Gandhi leading the struggle for India’s
independence from Britain

55
Political Power

The idea of political power is on one level very simple: some groups in society have the power to make decisions while
others (the majority) have to live with those decisions. However, the simplistic view hides a much more complicated
reality, particularly when we consider the nature of decision making in democratic societies and the ‘power’ of the
majority to overturn the established order by voting for radical alternative solutions. The key questions are:

1. Who makes the decisions?

2. Who controls the agenda (who decides what can be discussed)?
3. Who has the ability to manipulate the wishes of others

State refers to the system of government and institutions that exercise power and control over a country or territory. It
includes the government, laws, and the agencies responsible for maintaining order, such as the police and the military.
The state also has the power to create laws, enforce them, and regulate various aspects of life, including the economy,
education, and welfare. The state often has a monopoly on the use of force, meaning it is the only entity that can legally
use force to maintain order (like policing or military action).

In a broader sense, the state is an institution that organizes and controls resources and ensures that society functions in
a way that supports its laws and policies. The state can be seen in different forms depending on how power is
distributed and exercised

Democracy Political power is in the hands of the people. This is done through regular, free, and fair elections where
citizens vote to choose their leaders and decide on important policies. In a representative democracy, citizens vote for
representatives (like Members of Parliament or Congress) who make decisions on their behalf. This is the most common
form of democracy today. For example, in the UK, people elect Members of Parliament (MPs) to represent their interests
and vote on their behalf in Parliament.

Key features of a democracy include:

● Political freedoms: People have the right to express their opinions, join political parties, and protest if they
disagree with the government.
● Free elections: Leaders are chosen by the people through voting, and they are held accountable to the people.
● Rule of law: In a democracy, everyone, including the leaders, is subject to the law. The government is expected
to act fairly and respect the rights of its citizens.

Dictatorship is a system of government where power is concentrated in the hands of one person (a dictator) or a small
group. In dictatorships, leaders often gain and maintain power through force, manipulation, or by eliminating political
opposition. Unlike democracies, there are usually no free or fair elections, and leaders do not have to answer to the
people.

Key features of a dictatorship include:

● Centralized power: Power is held by one individual or a small group, and they make decisions without consulting
the public.
● Lack of political freedoms: There are often strict limits on freedom of speech, press, and assembly. People may
be punished for criticizing the government or organizing opposition.
● No regular elections: If elections do happen, they are often manipulated or rigged to ensure that the dictator or
ruling group stays in power.

Summary

● In a democracy, power comes from the people, leaders are chosen through free elections, and there are
protections for individual rights and freedoms.
● In a dictatorship, power is concentrated in the hands of a single ruler or small group, and the government often
limits political freedoms, such as the right to protest or speak out against the leader.
● The state is the overall structure that governs society and enforces laws, but how power is exercised within the
state varies greatly between democratic and dictatorial systems.
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 Perspectives on Power and Authority

Functionalism Functionalists see power as necessary to maintain order in society. Power is not just about
control or dominance, but about ensuring that society functions smoothly and that roles are
clearly defined. Institutions like the government, schools, and the family help regulate behavior
and ensure that individuals fulfill their roles in society. In a meritocratic society, some will achieve
higher status and this means they will have more power and authority – as such, they do have
legitimate authority over others.

Marxism Power and authority are viewed through the lens of class struggle and economic inequality. For
Marxists, power is not evenly distributed, but concentrated in the hands of the ruling class (the
bourgeoisie), who control the means of production. Marxists argue that economic power is the
most significant form of power in society. The bourgeoisie hold power because they control
wealth and resources, which allows them to shape political, cultural, and legal institutions in their
favor. The proletariat (working class) is at a disadvantage because they depend on selling their
labour to survive. To Marxists, authority is viewed as a tool used by the ruling class to maintain
their power and control. Marxists argue that the state (whether democratic or dictatorial) is a
tool of the bourgeoisie, created to protect their interests and ensure the continuation of
capitalism. The state's role is to protect private property and the social order that benefits the
wealthy. Thus, authority is often seen as illegitimate, as it is used to suppress the working class
and prevent revolutionary change.

Feminism Feminists examine how power and authority are distributed based on gender, focusing on the
inequality between men and women, and how patriarchal structures maintain male dominance in
various spheres of society, including politics, the family, and the workplace.Feminists argue that
power is heavily gendered and that men hold most of the power in society. This power is
institutionalized through patriarchy, which structures society in ways that benefit men and
disadvantage women. For example, men dominate leadership positions in politics, business, and
religion, while women are often relegated to subordinate roles.

Weber Weber’s approach differs to the structural explanations, suggesting that power is derived from a
number of different sources in society. He focuses on how individuals interpret their position in
society and the actions of those that wield power over them. Power can be derived through the
characteristics of individuals (charismatic authority), through the rules of institutions (rational
authority), and through traditions in society (traditional authority).

Describe one way in which the ruling class has power over the working class. (3 marks)

57
Power Relationships

Power can be exercised in relationships between people in everyday settings such as the home, workplaces and
classrooms. People enter into power relationships when they try to control or influence other people’s behaviour,
or when others try to control them.

Marxists explain power differences by saying that society is divided into two main classes: the bourgeoisie (owners
of businesses and resources) and the proletariat (the working class). The bourgeoisie hold power because they
control the economy, owning the factories, land, and resources needed to produce goods. They also use ideas
and institutions like the media and schools to shape people's beliefs and keep the system in their favor. The state,
including laws and the police, is seen as a tool that protects the interests of the rich and keeps the working class in
check. Marxists argue that workers are exploited because they create more value than they are paid for, with the
extra value (called surplus value) going to the capitalists. This leads to a power imbalance, where the rich get
richer while the working class struggles to get by.

Identity Most Powerful Least Powerful

Social
Class

Gender

Ethnicity

Age

Sexuality

Disability

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Power Relationships

Writing from a feminist perspective Walby (1990) argues that Why does Walby’s theory constitute a
the concept of patriarchy is central to our understanding of ‘feminist’ theory?
society. She described six patriarchal structures which restrict
women and help to maintain male domination of society:

1. Paid work: whilst in theory the state supports equality

between men and women (the Equal Pay and Sex
Discrimination Acts) women continue to be
disadvantaged in the labour market with their
How might a functionalist criticise Walby’s
opportunities restricted by cultural values (eg
theory?
expectations regarding the roles of wives and mothers).
2. Patriarchal relations of production: men exploit women
by gaining benefit from their unpaid labour in the home.
3. Patriarchal culture: whilst women have gained more
freedom they continue to be subject to social
expectations which apply different standards to the
behaviour of men and women.
4. Sexuality: whilst women have greater freedom to
express their sexuality they do so whilst subject to
What do feminists mean by ‘patriarchy’?
double standards (for example men with multiple
partners are often admired by other men whilst women
with multiple partners are frequently condemned).
5. Male violence towards women: the use or threat of
violence discourages women from challenging
patriarchal authority.
6. The state: whilst the state is not as patriarchal as it used
to be it continues to do relatively little to protect women According to Walby, how has the nature of
from patriarchal power in society eg. women still patriarchy changed?
generally receive lower wages than men and equal
opportunities laws are seldom enforced.

Walby argued that the nature of patriarchy in Western society

has changed, in the past private patriarchy involved the direct
control of women by their fathers or husbands. Whilst in
contemporary Western society a form of public patriarchy
exists, women have access to public life but they are generally
segregated into low paid, low status jobs where they are
Which of Walby’s six points is the strongest
collectively exploited by male- dominated society.
and why?

‘Patriarchy’ is a concept at the heart of feminist sociological

literature; in this context the term refers to a system of society
or government in which men hold the power and women are
largely excluded from it. This perspective can be criticised in
Marxist terms: a Marxist sociologists might argue that whilst
most power is in the hands of men – most men (being members
of the working-classes) are excluded from power. Pay-gaps
between men and women are often failing to account for the
different career- choices made by men and women and ignore Aside from sexism, what might explain the
the realities that stem from those choices. For example, men gender pay gap?
often work more dangerous jobs – in 2019 the HSE (Health &
Safety Executive) reported that, in Britain, men are 23 times
more likely to die in a workplace accident than women.
Moreover, it could be argued wealth and class are far-better
predictors of life-chances than gender: a woman born into a
very wealthy family is likely to have significantly better
life-chances than a working-class man.
59
60
Discuss how far sociologists would agree that a glass ceiling for women still exists in British society. (12)

FOR AGAINST

● Walby’s research on patriarchy, using example ● Sex discrimination legislation eg the Equalities
of unequal pay and feminisation of poverty, etc. Act 2010 or Equal Pay Act (1970), outlawing all
● Glass ceiling – women face significant barriers forms of gender discrimination.
to progressing at work ● Initiatives, such as Girls into Science and
● Triple shift – women engage in paid work, but Technology and Women into Science and
are still burdened with domestic and emotion Engineering, have given girls role models to
work in the family progress into top paid professions

Conclusion reached…

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62
Mark Scheme

From Item D, identify and describe one group that Marx believed had failed to benefit from the development
of industry, including what you know of his perspective on these events. (4)

• Writing in nineteenth century Britain (whilst exiled from his native Germany), Marx used the term bourgeoisie to
describe wealthier members of society who controlled the means of production (factories, mines etc). This group
had power over the workers (the proletariat) that they employed and generally benefited from the growth of
modern industry (capitalism).
• The term petty bourgeoisie is used by Marx to describe small scale, self-employed producers who were
vulnerable to competition from more powerful large-scale industrial concerns. The petty bourgeoisie feared what
a modern sociologist would describe as downward social mobility (loss of income and status) that they were
powerless to prevent.
• Marx believed that the capitalist economic system would create the conditions for revolutionary change and the
emergence of a more equal communist society.

Describe one example of social stratification (3)

• Class eg socio-economic class, based on economic inequality and commonly found in urban, industrial societies.
• Ethnicity eg based on cultural differences between different ethnic groups.
• Gender eg based on sex and the associated life chances of men and women.
• Slave, caste, estate systems, etc.

Identify and describe one example of a social group who are more likely to experience poverty. (3)

• Women eg less likely to have the earning power of men and more likely to live in ‘hidden poverty’.
• Groups within ethnic minorities eg certain groups less likely to do well in school, live in high poverty areas etc.
• Young people eg there are high levels of youth unemployment

Identify and explain one way in which social class at birth can influence an individual’s future life chances (4)

• Members of lower socio-economic groups tend to have worse health.

• Members of lower socio-economic groups tend to do less well in school.
• Members of lower socio-economic groups tend to have fewer employment opportunities.
• Members of lower socio-economic groups tend to earn less on average.

Describe one example of a barrier that may limit or prevent social mobility (3)

• Limited prospects eg a lack of growth in the economy and as a consequence fewer secure well paid job
opportunities.
• Limited access to further or higher education eg students from working class backgrounds are less likely to
attend university than their middle class peers.
• Graduate earning potential eg working class graduates still tend to earn less than their middle class peers.

From Item C, examine one strength of the research. (2)

• Source, eg the data is from a reputable source (House of Commons Library).

• The reliability and validity of the data can be easily established.
• The data can be used to reveal patterns and trends, eg the gender breakdown of the House of Commons.

From Item C, examine one strength of using official statistics to research life expectancy (2)

• As the data is collected by the government, it could be considered a trustworthy source providing accurate life
expectancy averages to a useable number of decimal places. The government have access to the national
population to gather data from so sample sizes are significantly larger than an individual researcher would be
able to gather.
• As the data is easily accessible online, it will allow sociologists to compare with their own research, draw
conclusions and suggest further areas for research on life expectancy, eg identifying that there is a one year gap
in life expectancy amongst men in the East Midlands compared to the West Midlands but the life expectancy for
women is similar in both areas.
• As there are different geographical areas, it will allow for comparisons to be drawn and trends in life expectancy
to be identified, eg life expectancy for both genders is lower in the North of England than the South.

From Item C, examine one strength of the research. (2) 63

• A national statistic, based on a large representative sample.
• Easily accessible secondary resource available online.
• Several years of data can reveal trends over time.
Mark Scheme

Identify and explain one factor which may account for the relatively low number of students from some minority
ethnic backgrounds attending university, as referred to in Item C (4)

• Some minority ethnic groups achieve poorer educational outcomes.

• Low earnings mean that some minority ethnic students are put off from going to university and accruing more debt.
• Recruitment practices of universities can institutionally discriminate against minority ethnic groups.
• Lack of minority ethnic senior academics results in minority ethnic students thinking it is ‘not for them’.

Identify and explain one advantage of using ethnography as a research method to investigate life chances (4)

• Researchers are often embedded with the same group over a long period of time.
• Researchers can reveal high quality direct experiences of life chances.
• Researchers can examine different social and cultural influences and their impact on life chances.

Identify and explain one way in which age continues to divide British society. (4)

• The minimum wage is set at a lower rate for young people, which can mean that they have less disposable income.
• Older people tend to be negatively stereotyped, and can be seen to be less able or versatile.
• Younger people are less likely to vote in elections; as a result political parties may be less likely to try to engage their
vote.

From Item D, identify and explain one reason why Murray believed that welfare reform was needed, including what
you know of his perspective on this issue. (4)

• Impersonally managed national welfare programmes exclude people who should be included. Murray described this as
the ‘law of imperfect selection’.
• People gain incentives to behave badly and no longer suffer the consequences of their own bad behaviour eg failing to
work hard at school. Murray described this as the ‘law of unintended rewards’.
• National welfare programmes tend to support rather than end social problems eg, long term unemployment. Murray
described this as the ‘law of net harm’.

Identify and explain one factor that can lead to an individual becoming dependent on the welfare system. (4)
• Low levels of educational attainment make individuals less attractive to employers and increase the risk of low paid
and insecure employment.
• Prolonged periods out of the labour market can lead to a, ‘deskilling’, damaging future employment prospects.
• Those who are considered to have a disability or who become chronically ill can find employment opportunities harder
to come by.

From Item C, examine one weakness of the research. (2)

• Use of a questionnaire eg its length may have led to a relatively low response rate or limited possible responses.
• The reliability of the data eg the data uses a relatively small sub sample of individuals.
• The use of self-assigned class eg inaccurate self-assignment may undermine the validity of the data (in his book
Townsend defends this and comments that most individuals accurately assigned themselves to a socio-economic
group).

Identify and explain one factor that may lead to a person experiencing poverty as referred to in Item C. (4)
• Living on benefits can lead to not being able to afford basic goods and services, as well as social stigma.
• Low earnings mean that individual cannot afford to buy the basic goods and services required for an adequate
lifestyle.
• Overcrowded or substandard living conditions can lead to ill health, meaning ability to work is affected.
• Ill health/disability impacts upon an individual’s ability to work/attend school

Identify and describe one form of authority according to Weber. (3)

• Traditional eg the authority of a member of the aristocracy.

• Legal rational eg the authority of an officer in the armed forces.
• Charismatic eg authority arising from the personal qualities of a religious or political leader.

From Item D, identify and describe one patriarchal structure in society as identified by Walby, including what you
know of her perspective of gender inequality. (4)

• Writing from a feminist perspective, Walby believes that patriarchy is central to our understanding of society.
• The household eg women leaving relationships can push them into poverty.
• Paid work eg many women are in lower paid work than men.
• The state eg an inadequate welfare system disadvantages women. 64
• Sexuality eg sexual double standards for men and women.
• Male violence towards women eg the state does not intervene to protect women.
• Cultural institutions eg the media show women as housewives or sexual objects