AgriEngineering

Systematic Review
The Emerging Hemp Industry: A Review of Industrial Hemp
Materials and Product Manufacturing
Dolor R. Enarevba and Karl R. Haapala *

School of Mechanical, Industrial, and Manufacturing Engineering, Oregon State University,

Corvallis, OR 97331, USA; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +1-541-737-3122

Abstract: There is a growing need for resilient and renewable materials to aid society in global
sustainability. It is incumbent upon the agricultural and manufacturing industries to work together
to achieve this vision. In particular, the hemp plant has been identified as an emerging industrial crop
that will be pivotal in achieving the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. However, this
nascent industry has received an influx of research and development activity, resulting in various
methods and practices globally, challenging the repeatability of results, research advancement,
standards development, and sustainability assessment. A systematic literature review is conducted
to identify and document (1) the various practices for harvesting and converting industrial hemp into
materials and products and (2) existing hemp-derived products and those under development. Using
the PRISMA methodology, 5295 articles were identified, and 109 articles were included for review.
Unlike prior reviews focusing on specific hemp plant components, materials, or products, this study
systematically evaluates the utilization pathways of the whole plant (stalk, flower, leaf, and seed)
to traditional, industrial, and emerging products. Further, myriad opportunities for hemp material
and product applications, sustainability performance assessment, and future research are discussed.
This review will benefit future hemp research, advancing process technologies, developing novel
products, establishing policies and standards, and assessing sustainability performance.

Keywords: industrial hemp; resilient material; biobased; product manufacturing; sustainability

Citation: Enarevba, D.R.; Haapala,
K.R. The Emerging Hemp Industry:
A Review of Industrial Hemp
Materials and Product
1. Introduction
Manufacturing. AgriEngineering 2024,
6, 2891–2925. https://doi.org/ The way products are manufactured is steadily revolutionizing as industries globally
10.3390/agriengineering6030167 strive to meet the environmental principles of the United Nations Global Compact, which
is concerned with energy, climate change, food, water, and biodiversity [1]. There have
Academic Editor: Francesco
been concerted efforts globally by countries and industry stakeholders toward achieving
Marinello
common sustainability goals [2]. As the world population increases and the demand for
Received: 7 June 2024 products and services rises, industries face the challenge of sustainably meeting the market
Revised: 2 August 2024 demand for products and providing the infrastructure for services. Products that can create
Accepted: 12 August 2024 sustainable value chains, integrating the three pillars of sustainability—environmental,
Published: 14 August 2024 social, and economic—across their up-, mid-, and downstream activities, are in high
demand [3]. With the advances in technologies in the Information Age, there is greater focus
and interest in renewable and resilient materials to enable the development of innovative
products [2,4]. This is true for even some of the oldest industries, such as construction and
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
textile manufacturing, as they also need more sustainable alternative materials [5,6].
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
Renewable material sources with practical industrial applications and lower envi-
This article is an open access article
ronmental impacts are steadily gaining interest as potential feedstocks for a range of
distributed under the terms and
industrial processes and as alternatives to synthetic materials, driving the industry to be
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
more sustainable [4,7]. Manufacturers seek to improve their products’ green attributes,
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
exploring the use of multi-versatile, natural materials to produce more eco-friendly prod-
4.0/).
ucts instead of relying on conventional or synthetic materials derived from fossil fuels [8].

AgriEngineering 2024, 6, 2891–2925. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriengineering6030167 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/agriengineering

AgriEngineering 2024, 6 2892

The hemp plant fits the previous description well as it meets production and human food
needs, has environmental benefits, efficiently uses nonrenewable resources, and has good
economic viability and social benefits to the farmer and society [9]. The hemp plant has
been identified as a material for the future industry [7], while the hemp industry has been
noted as an emerging agricultural industry of the Fourth Industrial Revolution [5] that will
contribute to achieving a majority of the Sustainable Development Goals established by the
United Nations [9]. Sustainable agriculture is recognized as a critical need in achieving sus-
tainable development [9,10], with hemp ranked highly as an emerging source for producing
more sustainable products [11]. There has also been surging interest in hemp products
and their derivatives, as all parts of the plant can be utilized and processed into valuable
products [12], making it versatile in industries such as construction, automobile production,
packaging and paper, textiles, food, cosmetics, and personal care products [4,10].
Hemp is a short-season crop that uses less water, unlike other fiber plants like cotton
(hemp requires 2.5 times less water than cotton per unit cultivation area) [4]. It adapts well
to different climatic types and soil conditions [9,10]. Its cultivation benefits include the
absorption of heavy metals and carbon-sequestering properties [11,12]. It has also been
known to have nutritional benefits [4] and can be cultivated for its seed, fiber, cannabinoid,
or flowers [12]. Its myriad consumer and industrial applications, availability, and short life
cycle give hemp a good market value; its products can be economically competitive with
alternative materials [6,12]. It has a greater per-hectare yield and lower agricultural costs
(70% reduction) as an alternative to cotton in the textile industry [6]. It has advantageous
material and processing properties, making hemp paper seven times more recyclable
than wood pulp paper, and does not require bleaching, reducing relative environmental
impacts [7,12].
The industrial hemp market has seen rapid growth as the material has been evaluated
for a variety of industry applications [4]. A range of applications for hemp has emerged,
with over 25,000 hemp or hemp-based products and uses reported in the literature [13–18].
Hemp has been applied in filaments for 3D printing, as a harmonic steel cable net replace-
ment, as fiber reinforcement for automotive composite parts, and for the production of
carbon nanosheets as a replacement for graphene in supercapacitors [9]. However, the
utilization of hemp has not been fully developed globally due to the knowledge gap in its
cultivation and processing and insufficient data across its life cycle. In addition, there has
been a shortage of hemp production [12], a lack of process technology development [10],
market competition with alternative crops, and regulatory risks [19]. This underutilization
presents opportunities for innovation and industrialization [6] to create a sustainable and
resilient agriculture system for hemp [10].
Hemp was excluded during much of the Green Revolution, or the Third Agricultural
Revolution, in the U.S. due to the restrictions imposed to control the illegal use and
cultivation of cannabis [12]. This exclusion created a significant research and technology
gap for hemp relative to other industrial crops [6]. The passage of the 2014 and 2018
U.S. Farm Bills to legalize industrial hemp led to continuously increasing interest in its
cultivation and processing, reinvigorating research and development that had been paused
since the early 1970s [12]. The U.S. Farm Bills describe hemp as “Cannabis sativa L. and
any part of that plant, whether growing or not, with a delta-9 tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)
concentration of not more than 0.3 percent on a dry weight basis” [20]. The cultivation
of hemp gradually picked up after 2014 in Kentucky, Colorado, Vermont, and Indiana,
with 22 other States joining in hemp cultivation in 2018 [12]. Several programs have been
initiated to advance the hemp industry and address the variability in data, quality, cost,
and agricultural practices to bridge the research and technology gap, enabling informed
decisions about hemp production, processing, manufacturing, marketing, and policy [19].
These have included investments by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), for
instance, through recent funding of a project to establish a sustainable hemp economy
in the rural U.S. West and Tribal lands to the Global Hemp Innovation Center (GHIC) at
Oregon State University [21].
AgriEngineering 2024, 6, FOR PEER REVIEW 3

AgriEngineering 2024, 6 through recent funding of a project to establish a sustainable hemp economy in the rural 2893
U.S. West and Tribal lands to the Global Hemp Innovation Center (GHIC) at Oregon State
University [21].
These
These recent
recent policy
policy changes
changes correlate
correlate with
with aa growing
growing interest
interest inin hemp
hemp research
research over
over
time.
time.A Asearch
searchin inWeb
Webof ofScience
ScienceandandScienceDirect
ScienceDirect databases
databases for
for “hemp”
“hemp” over
over the
the last
last two
two
decades
decades is ispresented
presented inin Figure
Figure 1,
1,showing
showingonly onlylimited
limitedresearch
research interest
interest between
between 20002000 and
and
2007.AAslow
2007. slowupward
upwardtrend
trendfrom
from2008
2008toto2013
2013can
canbe beinferred
inferredtotoresult
resultfrom
fromglobal
globalinterest
interest
in hemp,
in hemp, especially in in the
theU.S.,
U.S.,asaschanges
changestotohemp
hempregulations
regulations were
werediscussed,
discussed, andandspecific
spe-
U.S. states cultivated it with a license for research purposes. A rapid increase
cific U.S. states cultivated it with a license for research purposes. A rapid increase in re- in research
publications
search was seen
publications wasannually from 2014
seen annually fromto2014
2017toafter
2017the passage
after of theof
the passage 2014
the U.S.
2014Farm
U.S.
Bill toBill
Farm legalize the cultivation
to legalize of hemp.
the cultivation of hemp. There
There has
hasbeen
beenananeven
evensteeper
steeper rise
rise since thethe
passage of
passage of the
the 2018
2018U.S.
U.S.Farm
FarmBill,
Bill,which
whichexpanded
expandedprovisions
provisions allowing
allowing forfor the
thecultivation
cultivation
of hemp
of hemp for for commercial
commercial use use [19,22].
[19,22].

Figure
Figure 1.
1. Increase
Increasein
inglobal
global hemp
hemp research
research productivity
productivity (annually
(annually for 2000–2023).

The hemp
The hemp industry
industry isis currently
currently seeking
seeking standards
standards across
across its
its value
value chain. Although
chain. Although
there has
there has been
been aa growth
growthininhemphempresearch,
research,there is aisrelative
there a relativepaucity
paucityof review studies.
of review The
studies.
research literature has focused alternately on hemp cultivation, supply
The research literature has focused alternately on hemp cultivation, supply chains, mate- chains, material
processing,
rial and and
processing, market economics.
market Variation
economics. acrossacross
Variation these efforts in terms
these efforts inofterms
approaches,
of ap-
data, and findings has increased the challenges facing the
proaches, data, and findings has increased the challenges facing the emergingemerging hemp industry
hemp in- in
establishing standards and supporting environmental, economic, and
dustry in establishing standards and supporting environmental, economic, and social im-social impact assess-
ments
pact to better inform
assessments investors,
to better policymakers,
inform investors, and other and
policymakers, stakeholders. No reviewNo
other stakeholders. of re-
the
literature has been reported to systematically examine the emerging
view of the literature has been reported to systematically examine the emerging hemp hemp industry in its
totality, which would aid in refocusing production and research activities
industry in its totality, which would aid in refocusing production and research activities to meet globally
growing
to demands
meet globally on the demands
growing biobased on industry. Therefore,
the biobased a systematic
industry. Therefore,review of the litera-
a systematic re-
view of the literature on hemp product manufacturing is undertaken with the aim relevant
ture on hemp product manufacturing is undertaken with the aim of identifying of iden-
technologies and processes by analyzing review studies spanning more than twenty years
tifying relevant technologies and processes by analyzing review studies spanning more
of hemp research from 2000 to 2023. A meta-analysis of the selected articles is provided
than twenty years of hemp research from 2000 to 2023. A meta-analysis of the selected
to understand the current and future trends of hemp products and their production, as
articles is provided to understand the current and future trends of hemp products and
highlighted by previous review studies considering cultivation practices, production yield,
their production, as highlighted by previous review studies considering cultivation prac-
supply chain management, product sustainability performance, and industry standards
tices, production yield, supply chain management, product sustainability performance,
and governmental policies.
and industry standards and governmental policies.
This paper is organized as follows: Section 2 highlights the systematic literature
This paper is organized as follows: Section 2 highlights the systematic literature re-
review methodology and publication statistics of the final selected literature for review.
view methodology and publication statistics of the final selected literature for review. Sec-
Section 3 presents post-harvest activities, manufacturing processes, and applications of the
tion 3 presents post-harvest activities, manufacturing processes, and applications of the
hemp materials. Sections 4 and 5 discuss emerging hemp applications and sustainability
hemp materials. Section 4 and Section 5 discuss emerging hemp applications and sustain-
performance, respectively. Finally, future research opportunities and conclusions are
ability performance,
presented in Sectionsrespectively. Finally, future research opportunities and conclusions
6 and 7, respectively.
are presented in Section 6 and Section 7, respectively.
2. Methodology
This section presents the systematic approach used to conduct the literature review.
The research questions and Boolean search terms used across five major databases are also
AgriEngineering 2024, 6, FOR PEER REVIEW 4

AgriEngineering 2024, 6 2. Methodology 2894

This section presents the systematic approach used to conduct the literature review.
The research questions and Boolean search terms used across five major databases are also
presented. A
presented. A meta-analysis
meta-analysis was
was performed
performed onon the
the final
finalselected
selectedarticles
articlesto
toevaluate
evaluatetheir
their
publication statistics,
publication statistics, which helped
helped identify
identifythe
thevarious
variousapplications
applicationsofof
hemp
hempover thethe
over se-
lected timeframe.
selected timeframe.

2.1.
2.1. Systematic
Systematic Literature
LiteratureReview
Review
A
A systematic literaturereview
systematic literature reviewofofreview
reviewpapers
papersininhemp
hempproduct
productmanufacturing
manufacturingwas was
performed
performedtotoidentify
identifyqualitative
qualitativeand quantitative
and quantitativeinformation
information on on
thethe
existing technologies
existing technolo-
and
giesmanufacturing
and manufacturing processes reported
processes for for
reported hemp
hempproducts.
products. The
Thesystematic
systematicreview
reviewwaswas
guided by developing a research protocol [23], which includes (1) specifying
guided by developing a research protocol [23], which includes (1) specifying the review the review
questions,
questions,(2)(2)identifying
identifyingthethedatabases
databasestotobe
bequeried,
queried,(3)
(3)applying
applyinginclusion
inclusionand
andexclusion
exclusion
criteria, (4) evaluating selected papers for quality, and (5) presenting
criteria, (4) evaluating selected papers for quality, and (5) presenting results usingresults using the
the Pre-
Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses
ferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses (PRISMA) methodol- (PRISMA) method-
ology,
ogy, asasshown
shownininFigure
Figure 2 [24].
2 [24]. A checklist
A checklist according
according to the
to the updated
updated PRISMA
PRISMA 20202020 is
is pro-
provided
vided as as Supplementary
Supplementary Material[25].
Material [25].The
Thesystematic
systematicliterature
literature review
review aims
aims to
to answer
answer
the following five research questions (R1–R5):
the following five research questions (R1–R5):
•• R1:
R1:What
Whathemp
hempmaterials
materialsand
andproducts
productshave
havebeen
beenstudied?
studied?
•• R2: What manufacturing processes or technologies have been considered for the
R2: What manufacturing processes or technologies have been considered for the var-
various hemp materials and products?
ious hemp materials and products?
• R3: What are the emerging or newly developed hemp materials or products?
• R3: What are the emerging or newly developed hemp materials or products?
• R4: What is the state of the art in assessing hemp product sustainability performance?
• R4: What is the state of the art in assessing hemp product sustainability performance?
• R5: What future opportunities exist for the research and development of hemp materi-
• R5: What future opportunities exist for the research and development of hemp ma-
als, products, and process technologies?
terials, products, and process technologies?

Database search results

Identification

Google Scholar (n = 4294) Publication year:

# of records identified
ScienceDirect (n = 935) 01/2000 – 04/2023
through databases
Engineering Village (n = 46)
searching
Web of Science (n = 16) Total (n = 5295)
ASME Digital Collection (n = 4)

Duplication screening
Google Scholar (n = 4262)
# of records after
ScienceDirect (n = 933) Eliminated (n = 36)
duplicate removed
Engineering Village (n = 44) Included (n = 5259)
within each database
Web of Science (n = 16)
Screening

ASME Digital Collection (n = 4)

Title and abstract screening

Google Scholar (n = 70)
ScienceDirect (n = 43) # of title and abstract Eliminated (n = 5107)
Engineering Village (n = 30) screening for “hemp” Included (n = 152)
Web of Science (n = 9)
ASME Digital Collection (n = 0)

Other screening criteria

Duplications (n = 26)
Eligibility

# of studies excluded
Proceeding/Book (n = 5) Eliminated (n = 43)
for other screening
Dissertation/Thesis/Report (n = 4) Included (n = 109)
criteria (all databases)
Non-English Article (n = 1)
Irrelevant (n = 7)

Figure2.2.Selection
Figure Selectionprocess
processflowchart
flowchartusing
usingthe
thePRISMA
PRISMAmethodology.
methodology.

A comprehensive literature search was undertaken for all published articles between
January 2000 and April 2023 (sourcing of literature from databases commenced in May 2023,
followed by the subsequent comprehensive review). Articles were limited prior to 2000 due
AgriEngineering 2024, 6 2895

to hemp cultivation and use restrictions. Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, Engineering Village,
Web of Science, and ASME Digital Collection were targeted as major literature databases
for manufacturing and production-focused research.
Table 1 presents the Boolean search terms used to search the databases; the “+” in
Google Scholar searches filters out expansions of the root words (e.g., “product” would also
return “production,” whereas “+product” limits the search to only to those publications
where the word “product” appears). The option to search only review papers was selected
in all databases except Engineering Village, which did not have this filter. Restricting
the search to review papers returned a feasible number of papers for evaluation while
considering a wider range of publications on the subject matter within the identified review
papers. Google Scholar returned 4294 articles, ScienceDirect returned 935, Engineering
Village returned 46, Web of Science returned 16, and the ASME Digital Collection returned
4. Duplicated search results within each database and across all databases were removed,
as shown in Figure 2.

Table 1. Databases and the Boolean search terms.

Databases Boolean Search

(+review) AND (+hemp) AND (+product)
Google Scholar
AND (+manufacturing)
ASME Digital Collection, Engineering Village, review AND hemp AND product
ScienceDirect, and Web of Science AND manufacturing

Python codes were used to extract relevant articles from the downloaded databases for
articles with hemp in their titles (Table 2). Also, the downloaded databases were screened
using Python codes for the word “hemp” included in the abstracts, as shown in the table.
Abstracts of downloaded articles from Google Scholar were not screened, as only a snippet
of the abstract was available. For Google Scholar, all filtered articles with “hemp” in the
title were included for further screening. For ScienceDirect, Engineering Village, and Web
of Science, it was observed that all articles with “hemp” in their titles also had “hemp” in
their abstract; therefore, all articles with “hemp” in the abstract were considered for further
screening. Articles from the ASME Digital Collection were excluded since “hemp” did not
appear in any of their titles or abstracts.

Table 2. Screening results for the occurrence of “hemp” in the title and abstract.

Databases In Title In Abstract

Google Scholar 70 Not screened
ScienceDirect 15 43
Engineering Village 5 30
Web of Science 6 9
ASME Digital Collection 0 0

For this review study, additional exclusion criteria included unpublished work, in-
formal literature surveys and articles, articles not subjected to peer review, articles not
published in English, and the nonavailability of full-text or abstract. In the case of multiple
versions of the same publication, only the most recently completed version was considered
for inclusion. As a result, there were 109 articles included in the systematic review. An
independent evaluator examined the excluded and included articles to ensure the process
for article selection was as objective as possible. Next, publication statistics of the final
selected articles were evaluated, as presented in the next section.

2.2. Review Publication Statistics

The article title, author names, year of publication, journal title, country(ies) of the
author(s), and classification from the final selected articles were retrieved for publication
 process for article selection was as objective as possible. Next, publication statistics of the
final selected articles were evaluated, as presented in the next section.

AgriEngineering 2024, 6 2.2. Review Publication Statistics 2896

The article title, author names, year of publication, journal title, country(ies) of the
author(s), and classification from the final selected articles were retrieved for publication
statistics evaluation
statistics evaluation [26].
[26]. Articles
Articles were
were classified
classified according
according to to the
the product
product inin focus
focus for
for the
the
study. The
study. The authors’
authors’ countries
countries were
were retrieved
retrieved without
without double
double counting
counting (where
(where more
more than
than
one author
one author is is from
from the
the same
same country),
country), giving
giving an
an overview
overview of of the
the regions
regions where
where research
research
interest in hemp is ongoing. It can be observed from Figure 3 that the interest in
interest in hemp is ongoing. It can be observed from Figure 3 that the interest in hemp
hemp
research is
research is high
high ininAsia,
Asia,Europe,
Europe,and
andNorth
NorthAmerica,
America, with lesser
with interest
lesser in Africa,
interest Oceania,
in Africa, Oce-
and South
ania, America.
and South Historically,
America. hemp hemp
Historically, research and development
research and development was heavily focused fo-
was heavily in
Europe
cused in[27].
EuropeFor [27].
the past twopast
For the decades, however,however,
two decades, it can be itseen
canthat overthat
be seen 40%over
of authors
40% of
have published research from Asia, compared to about 30%
authors have published research from Asia, compared to about 30% from Europefrom Europe and about 20%
and
from the Americas.
about 20% from the Americas.

Asia (60 unique country-authors | 13 unique countries count)

Europe (45 unique country-authors | 14 unique countries count)
North America (30 unique country-authors | 2 unique countries count)
Africa (6 unique country-authors | 5 unique countries count)
Oceania (4 unique country-authors | 1 unique country count)
South America (1 unique country-author | 1 unique country count)

Figure
Figure 3.
3. Review
Review publication
publication statistics
statistics by
by country.
country.

The
The final
final selected
selected articles
articles were also evaluated to identify the conference
conference proceedings
proceedings
and
and journals
journals that
that had
had published
published the most hemp-related
hemp-related studies
studies (Figure
(FigureA1).
A1). It
It is
is observed
observed
that authors preferred
that authors preferredvenues
venuesrelated
related to fiber,
to fiber, food, food, energy,
energy, and sustainability,
and sustainability, which
which shows
shows the potential
the potential of the plant
of the hemp hempandplant and products
products in various
in various key research
key research areas. areas. Also,
Also, there
are noare
there conference proceedings
no conference or journals
proceedings generally
or journals preferred
generally for publishing
preferred hemp-related
for publishing hemp-
research;
related the highest
research; numbernumber
the highest of published works (three
of published workspapers)
(three could
papers)becould
foundbe infound
eight ofin
the 83ofpublication
eight venues identified.
the 83 publication venues identified.
Other key
Other key insights
insights can
can be observed from recent trends in the number number ofof publications
publications
for various
for various aspects
aspects ofof hemp
hemp research. The various
research. The various materials
materials and
and products
products explored
explored are are
reported in Figure 4, where articles considering the general use of the hemp
reported in Figure 4, where articles considering the general use of the hemp plant feed- plant feedstock
material
stock are classified
material as “hemp
are classified plant.”
as “hemp It is It
plant.” observed thatthat
is observed the the
application
applicationof hemp
of hempin
biocomposites consistently received research interest, with the most publications
in biocomposites consistently received research interest, with the most publications (11) (11) in
2022; however, no articles were captured for its application in early 2023
in 2022; however, no articles were captured for its application in early 2023 when the when the database
search was conducted. Hemp food products have also received interest. In 2023, hemp
food research generated the most articles (six), matching the same number appearing in
2022. Hemp applications for buildings and supercapacitors witnessed the next highest
interest from researchers. As shown in Figure 5, hemp applications have gained recent
interest in biocomposites, food, building materials, textiles, and energy research.
 database search was conducted. Hemp food products have also received interest. In 2023,
database search was conducted. Hemp food products have also received interest. In 2023,
hemp food research generated the most articles (six), matching the same number appear-
hemp food research generated the most articles (six), matching the same number appear-
ing in 2022. Hemp applications for buildings and supercapacitors witnessed the next high-
AgriEngineering 2024, 6 ing in 2022. Hemp applications for buildings and supercapacitors witnessed the next high-
2897
est interest from researchers. As shown in Figure 5, hemp applications have gained recent
est interest from researchers. As shown in Figure 5, hemp applications have gained recent
interest in biocomposites, food, building materials, textiles, and energy research.
interest in biocomposites, food, building materials, textiles, and energy research.

Figure4.4. Publication
Figure Publication statistics
statisticsby
byhemp
hempapplication
application(year
(yearvs.
vs. classification).
classification).
Figure 4. Publication statistics by hemp application (year vs. classification).

Figure 5. Publication statistics by hemp application (classification vs. year).

Figure 5.
Figure 5. Publication
Publication statistics
statistics by
by hemp
hemp application
application (classification
(classification vs.
vs. year).
year).

3. Overview of Hemp Cultivation, Processing, and Applications

Hemp cultivation involves two main components: field operations and plant growth.
Field operations include soil preparation, fertilization, testing, sowing, mechanization, and
harvesting, while plant growth covers germination, development, and maturity. Effective
field preparation requires high organic matter (3.5%) and adequate fertilization to produce
high-quality fiber [6]. Hemp thrives in deep, well-drained clay or silt-rich soils with a
AgriEngineering 2024, 6 2898

neutral pH and struggles with high salinity, acidity, and compaction [12]. Hemp can
germinate at low temperatures (1–2 ◦ C) but thrives above 10 ◦ C. Optimal germination
and development depend on appropriate seeding dates, soil temperature, moisture, and
photoperiod. Plant spacing varies by hemp type (i.e., seed, fiber, and cannabinoids). Hemp
seeds are typically sown at 2–2.5 cm depth and 2–3 cm spacing [6]. For fiber, 1.9–3.2 cm
depth and 7.6–17.8 cm row spacing to promote tall and slender plants. Maturity and
harvesting are discussed in respective sections for fiber, seed, and flower.
The term hemp is most commonly used in connection with the Cannabis sativa plant [28].
The term is also used for other fiber-bearing plants not related to Cannabis sativa, such
as Manila hemp (Musa textilis) or Sisal hemp (Agave rigida). However, hemp is generally
accepted in reference to the Cannabis sativa plant and derivative products. The hemp plant
has mainly been cultivated for its fiber extracted from the stem (Figure 6), which contains
fibrous tissue (fiber) and a woody core (hurd or shive) [29,30]. Other parts of the plant are
the seeds, flowers, and leaves. Hemp fiber comprises cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin,
all in varying percentages depending on the cultivar. In agricultural practice, hemp can be
rotated with potatoes, flax, sugar beet, and oats [31], in addition to cereals or, preferably,
a legume, as an oilseed crop, or after any other crop when grown for fiber [12]. Hemp
cultivation has become more appealing to farmers than flax due to its lower propensity for9
AgriEngineering 2024, 6, FOR PEER REVIEW
crop failure [11].

Figure 6. Field of hemp plants (left) with a closeup view of its flower (center) and stalk showing
Figure 6. Field of hemp plants (left) with a closeup view of its flower (center) and stalk showing
fibrous and woody hurd parts (right).
fibrous and woody hurd parts (right).

Over
Hemp500 constituents
feedstock have been
applications canidentified in hemp—some
have significant ecological,ofindustrial,
the secondary metab-
and societal
olites are cannabinoids, flavonoids, stilbenoids, terpenoids, lignans,
value, making it an essential crop in achieving a circular economy [18]. Hemp can also be and alkaloids, anda
rapidly
suitable crop for bioenergy, as it requires low inputs to produce high biomass yieldsThe
growing interest has been seen for the valorization of these metabolites [33]. [6].
The highproduct
primary volumecategories
of biomasswith market potential
production from hemp are has
fiber, oilseed,
been and pharmaceuticals
attributed to its ability to
[36].
growApplications
under variousfor hemp canmaking
conditions, be grouped intoand
it resilient traditional,
an emergingindustrial,
crop forand emerging
utilization in
(novel)
the Fourthapplications
Industrial[13]. Hemp era
Revolution andtoitsachieve
derivatives
more have been used
sustainable for traditional appli-
production–consumption
cations,
systemssuch[32].asHemp
baskets, ropes,
yield animalonbedding,
depends biomass,
the variety clothing, and
and harvesting paper For
period. pulpinstance,
[37,38],
and in industrial applications, such as building materials, foods,
it has been reported that oil yield decreases with later harvesting dates, while flowerbiofuel, oil, cosmetics,
skincare products,
production pharmaceuticals,
is increased when pollination automotive
is preventedmaterials,
[33]. Hemppackaging
has beenmaterials,
used for and
soil
sporting goods [13,35,39].
phytoremediation Some emerging
or rehabilitation of mining applications
excavations, areand
its use in supercapacitors,
purifying sem-
soil and air while
iconductors,
being resistant biomaterials, composites,
to various forms and cellulosepollution
of environmental nanofibril bioproducts
[7,34]. [30].shown to
It has been
reduceTophytopathogenic
organize the pastnematodes,
research, publications
fungi, bacteria, were classifiedmites,
protozoans, according to the [34]
and insects key and
foci
discussed in each paper,
suppress competing weeds resulting
[12]. Hempin three
plantsprimary categories:
can absorb material
heavy metals processing
such as cadmiumand
product
(Cd), leadapplications
(Pb), and zincof hemp fibercontaminated
(Zn) from and hurd (Section 4), material
soil, storing them processing
in the plantandwithproduct
higher
applications
concentrations of in
hemp seeds
the root andthe
than flowers
leaves(Section
and shoots5), and sustainability performance eval-
[7,35].
uation of hemp materials and products (Section 6). The information presented is exclu-
sively gathered from the 109 articles selected for final review. Section 4 contains a meta-
analysis of the articles responding to research questions R1–R3, while Sections 5 and 6
focus on questions R4 and R5, respectively.
AgriEngineering 2024, 6 2899

Over 500 constituents have been identified in hemp—some of the secondary metabo-
lites are cannabinoids, flavonoids, stilbenoids, terpenoids, lignans, and alkaloids, and
rapidly growing interest has been seen for the valorization of these metabolites [33]. The pri-
mary product categories with market potential are fiber, oilseed, and pharmaceuticals [36].
Applications for hemp can be grouped into traditional, industrial, and emerging (novel)
applications [13]. Hemp and its derivatives have been used for traditional applications,
such as baskets, ropes, animal bedding, biomass, clothing, and paper pulp [37,38], and
in industrial applications, such as building materials, foods, biofuel, oil, cosmetics, skin-
care products, pharmaceuticals, automotive materials, packaging materials, and sporting
goods [13,35,39]. Some emerging applications are its use in supercapacitors, semiconduc-
tors, biomaterials, composites, and cellulose nanofibril bioproducts [30].
To organize the past research, publications were classified according to the key foci
discussed in each paper, resulting in three primary categories: material processing and
product applications of hemp fiber and hurd (Section 4), material processing and product
applications of hemp seeds and flowers (Section 5), and sustainability performance evalua-
tion of hemp materials and products (Section 6). The information presented is exclusively
gathered from the 109 articles selected for final review. Section 4 contains a meta-analysis
of the articles responding to research questions R1–R3, while Sections 5 and 6 focus on
questions R4 and R5, respectively.

4. Hemp Fiber and Hurd

Fiber can be extracted from hemp stalks through decortication, often after retting to
loosen the fibers from the hurd [40]. Researchers have demonstrated that hemp stalks can
be separated into hurd, which makes up 65–75% of the stalk, fibers (20–35%), and dust
(5%) [14,41]. This section highlights the cultivation and harvesting of hemp plants, as well
as the extraction and pretreatment processes for the bast fiber and woody core (hurd). It
also discusses various applications for hemp fiber and hurd in the textile, pulp and paper,
construction, biocomposites, and packaging industries, as well as emerging applications.

4.1. Hemp Stalk Harvesting, Pre-Treatment, and Fiber Extraction

In this subsection, various pretreatment techniques after harvesting are discussed as
retrieved from the reviewed articles. Hemp fiber and hurd extraction processes depend on
end use and available technology to separate the fiber from hurd.

4.1.1. Hemp Stalk Harvesting and Pre-Treatment

During or after the harvest, the stalk can be separated from the other parts of the
plant (e.g., the flower and seed), as shown in Figure 7. Depending on the harvesting
equipment used, hemp seed and fiber may be harvested separately [42]. Typical hay-
making machinery is commonly used for harvesting hemp [12]. However, as the demand
for hemp has increased, dual-purpose machines have been designed to assist in efficiently
harvesting hemp [42]. Research is also ongoing to design machines for co-harvesting
high-quality seeds and stalks [41]. To increase hemp fiber content, the Bredemann method
for optimizing the crop fiber content has been successfully applied [30]. Further, the timing
of the harvest of hemp plants significantly impacts fiber quality [12].
Retting, or breaking down of the pectin binding the fibers to the hurd, reduces the
effort required for subsequent fiber separation [42]. The quality and quantity of fibers
yielded strongly depend on the degree of retting [28,43]. In practice, hemp stalks can
be retted to straws by field (or dew) retting, water retting, enzyme retting, or chemical
retting [28]. The method will primarily be determined by location and the requirements
of the target end use. A comparison of these retting methods is presented in Table 3 and
discussed further below.
 ment used, hemp seed and fiber may be harvested separately [42]. Typical hay-making
machinery is commonly used for harvesting hemp [12]. However, as the demand for hemp
has increased, dual-purpose machines have been designed to assist in efficiently harvest-
ing hemp [42]. Research is also ongoing to design machines for co-harvesting high-quality
seeds and stalks [41]. To increase hemp fiber content, the Bredemann method for optimiz-
AgriEngineering 2024, 6 2900
ing the crop fiber content has been successfully applied [30]. Further, the timing of the
harvest of hemp plants significantly impacts fiber quality [12].

Figure 7. Hemp plant indoor drying (left) and hemp stalks (right).
Figure 7. Hemp plant indoor drying (left) and hemp stalks (right).

Retting,
Field (oror breaking
Dew) Retting:down of theretting,
In field pectin or binding the fibers
dew retting, hemp to the hurd,
stalks are reduces
laid on thethe
efforttorequired
field allow fungi for and
subsequent
bacteria to fiber separation
naturally degrade[42].andTheloosen
qualitytheand quantity
adhesion of pectin
of the fibers
yielded strongly
binding the fiber todepend
the hurd on [28].
the degree of retting
This retting process[28,43]. In practice,
depends hemp stalks
on the location, can be
the degree
retted to straws by field (or dew) retting, water retting, enzyme retting,
of retting required, and subsequent use of land space. Typically, harvested stems are left on or chemical retting
[28].field
the Thefor method will primarily
2–8 weeks. be determined
They are routinely turned by location
to allow even and the requirements
exposure of the
to light, moisture
targetand
(rain enddew),
use. Aand comparison
temperature of these retting The
conditions. methods
stemsisare presented
assumed into Table 3 and dis-
be sufficiently
cussedwhen
retted further below.
their color is an even dark grey throughout. Manual handling can also be
used Field (or Dew)
to examine the Retting:
ease andIn field retting,
cleanliness withorwhich
dew retting,
the woody hemp core stalks are laid
and fibers on the
separate.
fieldmajor
The to allow fungi and bacteria
advantages to naturally
of field retting are its degrade
simplicityand loosen
and low thecost.
adhesion of theretting
The field pectin
binding the fiber to the hurd [28]. This retting process depends on the location, the degree
of hemp is the most commercially viable method for a fiber hemp crop. The significant
disadvantages
of retting required,of theand fieldsubsequent
retting of hempuse ofarise
landfrom
space.a comparative lack of control
Typically, harvested stemsover the
are left
retting process,
on the field land
for 2–8 occupancy,
weeks. They are androutinely
variableturned
fineness, such as
to allow length,
even strength,
exposure andmois-
to light, color
within
ture (raina sample,
and dew),compared to water retting
and temperature and chemical
conditions. The stems retting. Greenhouse
are assumed to beretting, frost
sufficiently
retting,
retted whenand other
their forms
color is of an
field retting
even darkaregreycommonly
throughout. practiced
Manual at an experimental
handling can alsoscale
be
and in Nordic countries [44].
used to examine the ease and cleanliness with which the woody core and fibers separate.
Water advantages
The major Retting: Water retting
of field gives
retting aretheits best separation
simplicity and low andcost.quality
The in theretting
field shortestof
time [28]. Depending on the climate, most water retting
hemp is the most commercially viable method for a fiber hemp crop. The significant is carried out in sealed or open
dis-
tanks and may
advantages be arranged
of the field retting in aofseries
hemp orarise
cascadefrom layout. Using cold
a comparative water
lack in a tank-based
of control over the
system, retting will
retting process, landtake only 7–14and
occupancy, days to complete;
variable fineness,retting
suchtime can bestrength,
as length, further reduced
and color to
4–5 days using warm water (30–40 °C). It is rare to include chemical
within a sample, compared to water retting and chemical retting. Greenhouse retting, frost additives to enhance
the process
retting, and as theyforms
other additionally increase
of field retting the
are environmental
commonly impacts
practiced at anof the process.scale
experimental The
primary benefit of this
and in Nordic countries [44]. method is that it can be controlled and evenly applied to hemp
stems, producing
Water Retting:a superior fiber quality
Water retting compared
gives the to field retting.
best separation and qualityIn addition, this method
in the shortest time
is
[28]. Depending on the climate, most water retting is carried out in sealed or volumes
not dependent on weather conditions; however, downsides include high open tanks of
water consumption andin resulting 3
and may be arranged a serieswaste-product
or cascade layout. effluent. Typically,
Using 20 m in
cold water of water is used
a tank-based
per ton of straw, and another 10 m3 /ton is used for rinsing. Drying is also required for
water-retted straw, incurring significant energy costs. Water consumption can be reduced
by recycling water indefinitely by introducing effluent aerobic bacilli into the water and
keeping the tank aerated.
Chemical Retting: Chemical retting is commonly performed using an aqueous sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) solution, sometimes with a chelating agent, such as ethylenediaminete-
traacetic (EDTA) acid, to improve retting efficiency [28]. Other chemicals, like sodium
carbonate (Na2 CO3 ) or sodium sulfite (Na2 SO3 ), can also be used in retting solutions. The
main factors determining the effectiveness of chemical retting solutions include chemical
concentration, solution acidity (pH value), stem-to-liquor ratio, temperature, duration of
treatment, and degree of agitation. This method possesses the advantages of water retting,
AgriEngineering 2024, 6 2901

but the process is accelerated to just a few hours. Although the chemical retting of hemp
has generally resulted in very good fiber quality and yield, it is usually too costly for many
end uses and not eco-friendly due to the chemicals used [28,37].

Table 3. Comparison of retting methods.

Field Retting Water Retting Chemical Retting Enzyme Retting

Chemicals such as
Naturally by Water and decaying
Degrading Agent NaOH, Na2 CO3 , Enzymes (bacteria)
microorganisms microorganisms
and Na2 SO3
7–14 days (4–5 days A few days to a few
Duration 2–8 weeks Hours to a few days
using warm water) weeks
Controlled process, very Same advantages as
Controlled process, best
good for fiber quality water retting without its
Advantages Ease, low cost separation and quality,
and yield, not disadvantages,
not weather-dependent
weather-dependent eco-friendly
High water consum-
Minimum control over
ption, waste product
process and land
Disadvantages effluent, malodor, and Costly, not eco-friendly Costly
occupancy,
energy required for
weather-dependent
drying straw

Enzyme Retting: Enzyme retting has only shown success on a laboratory scale and
produces fiber quality equivalent to water retting without its drawbacks (water consump-
tion, effluent waste, and malodor) by using bacterial enzymes to facilitate fermentation [28].
The use of pectinase from Fusarium oxysporum (fungi) has also been demonstrated for
enzymatic retting [45]. This method can be practiced in all seasons and avoids the concerns
associated with other retting methods, though considered very costly due to the enzymes
and equipment needed [28,29]. The enzymatic process is more eco-friendly and reduces
fiber damage [45].

4.1.2. Hemp Fiber Extraction

After retting, the stalk is dried to a suitable moisture content in preparation for fiber
extraction [28]. The traditional processing of hemp straw involves breaking it with rollers,
scutching it to separate the long fiber (bast) from the short fiber (tow) and hurds, and
hackling of the bast fiber through a series of combs to further remove tow and hurd [29].
Alternatively, the straw can undergo mechanical processing, known as decortication. The
hemp straw is subjected to repeated mechanical forces, separating the bast fiber from the
hurd [29,42]. There are two main types of decortication methods: hammer milling and
roller milling. Recent work has reported that hemp stalks can be decorticated without
retting; however, they would need to undergo a degumming process [44]. These two main
processing methods are described in detail below, with descriptions of common supporting
processes provided in Table 4.
Hammer milling uses rotating drums with plates or hammers to beat the fibrous part
into smaller particle sizes able to pass through the mesh screens; fibers can also be pneu-
matically collected in this method. Hammer milling provides a high hourly throughput
of about 5–15 tons of straw input with a limitation of fiber length control (output fiber
length ranges between small- to medium-sized fibers of 1–10 cm) [29]. Throughputs of
3–4 tons/hour have been reported for unretted hemp stalks [28]. Fiber damage can result
from mechanical impacts on the fiber, leading to inconsistency in fiber properties, which
limits its use in textile and non-woven products. Dislocation, node, or slip plane damage
types have been defined [46]. Hammer milling is always preferred when high yield is
required, but low fiber quality must be acceptable [42], e.g., for paper making [28].
Roller milling has improved long-fiber length control (between 30–60 cm) and main-
tains better fiber quality but exhibits a lower throughput of about 1–3 tons/hour of straw
AgriEngineering 2024, 6 2902

input [28,29]. Roller milling uses long corrugated cylindrical rollers that gradually open the
straw and collect fiber through slotted screens using continuous agitation. This process has
a lower risk of damaging the fiber than hammer rolling; it may not be capable of processing
unretted stalks, especially those with moisture content exceeding 15% [28].

Table 4. Description of common techniques for processing industrial hemp.

Processing Technique Description

Fluted and smooth rollers, arranged either horizontally or vertically, crush and break the straw open
Breaking along its length, forming long, thin strands [28]. The output quality of bast fiber from the breaking
stage depends on the degree of retting.
Bast fiber passes through rotating turbine blades to open the fiber further [28]. Most of the hurd is
Scutching removed by scutching except those closely adhering to the bast fiber. Hurd, dust, and scutched tow
are co-products and can be used for textiles, yarns, or ropes.
Dust and hurd are removed from the tow or bast fiber by feed rollers covered in pins of different
Fiber opening pitches, producing finer fiber strands [28]. Drawing, slivering, doubling, and winding are other
processes used based on the quality and intended use of the fiber.
An alternative to fiber opening, though more expensive, where the bast fiber passes through single or
multiple opening cycles, carding efficiently extracts fiber from the tow [28]. Carding is used for
Carding
thicker yarns like upholstery or woven, nonwoven, and technical products [44]. Optimization has
improved anisotropy and hemp fiber content [13].
Further processing of bast fiber into workable, fine, and soft (cottonized) forms, in which the viscous
Degumming non-cellulosic (lignin) content is significantly reduced from 8–10% to as little as 0.2%, suitable for
weaving, spinning, and blending [45,47].
Bast fiber is cleaned using various combinations and sequences of cleaners (comb shaker table, step
cleaner, or tambour turbine), depending on the degree of cleaning required [28]. Cleaning is similar
Fiber cleaning
to hackling; however, the literature has ascribed hackling to manual or traditional fiber extraction.
Tow at this stage is referred to as hackled tow.
Fibers are spun into different yarn types depending on the uniformity of fineness, quality, length, and
Hemp fiber spinning cleanliness [28]. Generally, longer fibers are spun into finer yarns and tow into coarse yarns. Hemp
spinning can be wet or dry; wet spinning produces finer yarns [48].
Hemp fiber is combined with cotton or artificial fibers in fabrics to reduce the environmental impacts
Blending
of textile production [11,28,45], appealing to environmentally conscious consumers.

Figure 8 presents a high-level system model of the extraction steps for traditional and
mechanical processing of fiber and its co-products according to the reviewed literature,
without the optional steps of fiber opening, carding, drawing, slivering, doubling, and
winding. Also, further processes or steps like spinning, weaving, and blending were
not included.

4.2. Applications of Hemp Fiber and Hurd

There is a growing demand for hemp-based products as alternatives to synthetic fibers
and products [39] due to environmental laws resulting from the end-of-life treatment of
synthetic materials (e.g., composites) and the development and improvement of manu-
facturing techniques for bio-fibers [49]. Technical applications have gained interest in
industrial design, construction, transportation (e.g., automobile, aerospace, and railway),
and packaging industries [16,17,41,50–52]. Hemp fibers and hurd can also be used for
animal bedding, energy, and low-quality papers [14]. Hemp-derived composites can be
designed into various forms like foams, fabrics, and film membranes, leading to even more
applications, such as replacements for synthetic materials, including glass fiber [18,53].
Some key drivers for hemp-based composites are the robust acoustic performance of non-
woven fabrics and sound absorption of fiber-reinforced composite products [12,52], as well
as their high impact and electrical resistance [54]. It has been reported that a 10–30% density
reduction can be achieved by replacing metallic parts with natural fibers like hemp [49].
 AgriEngineering 2024, 6 2903

AgriEngineering 2024, 6, FOR PEER REVIEW 13

Compared to flax, hemp has thicker, stiffer, longer, and coarser fibers, leading to favor-
able mechanical properties [13]. Depending on the hemp material and manufacturing
process, its antimicrobial, pesticide, and insect-repellent attributes make it less vulnerable
Figure 8 presents
to biological damage,aresulting
high-level
in system
a longermodel of the
lifespan [12].extraction
Generally,steps for traditional
benefits derived fromand
mechanical processing
exploring hemp in theof fiber and industry
composites its co-products according
relate to to the reviewed
cost, performance, quality,literature,
supply
without the optional
chain resilience, steps of fiber regulations
and environmental opening, carding, drawing, slivering,
[49]. Mathematical models fordoubling, and
the thermal
winding. Also,
effects have further
been processes
developed or steps
to assist like spinning,
in optimizing processweaving, and
conditions, blending were
manufacturing not
costs,
and time for hemp fibers [55].
included.

(a) Mechanical Processing

Hemp Hemp Crushed Inner
Hurd
Plant Stalk Woody Core

Unretted Outer Fiber

Harvesting Decortication
Stalk Surface

Long Fiber
Degumming
(Bast)

(b) Dust Dust

Hemp Hemp
Plant Stalk Hurd Hurd

Short Fiber Short Fiber

Harvesting Retting
(Tow) (Tow)

Hemp Fiber Long Fiber

Decortication Cleaning
Straw (Bast) (Bast)

(c) Traditional Processing

Fiber Long Fiber
Scutching Hackling
Hemp Hemp (Bast) (Bast)
Plant Stalk Scutched Hackled
Tow Tow
Harvesting Retting
Hurd Hurd

Hemp
Breaking Dust Dust
Straw

Figure
Figure 8. Hempfiber
8. Hemp fiber extraction
extraction processes:
processes: (a) mechanical
(a) mechanical processing
processing ofstalk,
of unretted unretted stalk, (b)
(b) mechanical
mechanical
processing processing of retted
of retted straw, straw,
and (c) and (c)processing
traditional traditionalofprocessing
hemp fiber.of hemp fiber.

4.2.1.
4.2. Application
Applications of Hemp
of Hemp FiberFiber in the Textile Industry
and Hurd
Primary
There is a characteristics
growing demand of hemp fiber include
for hemp-based its flexibility,
products comfort, to
as alternatives breathability,
synthetic fi-
durability [56], adaptability, sturdiness, water resistance [12], resistance to
bers and products [39] due to environmental laws resulting from the end-of-life treatmentmolds and UV
light [16], and comparatively higher strength than other natural
of synthetic materials (e.g., composites) and the development and improvement of fibers, such as nettle,
man-
cotton, and linen [12]. These characteristics make it an excellent raw material for the textile
ufacturing techniques for bio-fibers [49]. Technical applications have gained interest in
industry. However, the industrial use of hemp fiber for textiles requires higher purity with
industrial design, construction, transportation (e.g., automobile, aerospace, and railway),
no hurd present [46]. It is spun to create various hemp fiber products, followed by weaving
and packaging industries [16,17,41,50–52]. Hemp fibers and hurd can also be used for an-
or knitting to make fabrics, cordage, yarns, and carpets [12]. The fabrics can be processed
imal bedding, energy, and low-quality papers [14]. Hemp-derived composites can be de-
into clothing and accessories, bags, pillowcases, blankets, shoes, upholstery, wall decor,
signed into various
and ornamental formsHemp
items. like foams, fabrics,
has been and film membranes,
demonstrated as an excellentleading to even
furnishing more
fabric,
applications, such as replacements for synthetic materials, including glass fiber [18,53].
Some key drivers for hemp-based composites are the robust acoustic performance of
nonwoven fabrics and sound absorption of fiber-reinforced composite products [12,52],
as well as their high impact and electrical resistance [54]. It has been reported that a 10–
30% density reduction can be achieved by replacing metallic parts with natural fibers like
AgriEngineering 2024, 6 2904

especially for drapes [47]. In jeans and sportswear, it has been used in 100% hemp fabric
or blended with cotton, wool, flax, or synthetics. In response to the COVID-19 pandemic,
face masks made from hemp fabric were reported to offer multiple layers of protection,
showing the potential of its utilization in healthcare, biotechnology, and safety [57].

4.2.2. Application of Hemp Fiber in Pulp and Paper Industry

When cultivating hemp for pulp and paper, harvesting time has a limited influence
on biomass characteristics, and late harvest only maximizes biomass production [46]. In
addition to harvesting time, one study indicated that pulp quality and yield can be affected
by location, breeding, and biomass variation [11]. Paper production using 100% hemp fiber
or hurd is rare; it is often blended with wood pulp or other substances to enhance paper
properties. Recent studies have demonstrated that incorporating the pulp of hemp woody
core into hardwood yields enhances tensile index, bursting strength, and softness without
sacrificing water absorbency, making it an optimal choice for hand tissues. Furthermore,
hemp hurd or fiber can be combined with pine and eucalyptus fiber, resulting in longer
and stronger fibers in the pulp and leading to more robust paper. Utilizing hemp waste
for pulp and paper is a potential path for achieving a circular economy within the hemp
industry [58].
Hemp paper has unique characteristics that differentiate it from other paper types: it
has a long shelf life (it can survive hundreds of years [11]), and though it yellows with time,
hydrogen peroxide can be used for whitening rather than bleach, mitigating the release
of toxins such as dioxin [12,16]. The chemical processing used in manufacturing hemp
paper is less hazardous when compared with regular wood pulp paper [16]. A significant
advantage of hemp-based paper is its recyclability; it can be reused 7–8 times, whereas
pulpwood paper can only be recycled up to three times [12,16]. Hemp paper is known
for its high tear strength and wet strength, which makes it an ideal choice for various
applications such as currency paper, art paper, bible sheets, tea bags, office paper, specialty
nonwovens, and grease-proof paper [11,12].
A novel process identified in the literature for pulp and paper production from hemp
fiber is the organosolv pulping process [11]. This technique uses organic solvents to
dissolve the lignin and hemicellulose in hemp fibers, resulting in high-strength paper.
Adding 2% nanocellulose hemp increases a paper’s breaking force [48]. This process
allows for the recovery of high-quality lignin, eliminates the use of harmful sulfur, saves
water, and avoids the need for chlorine bleach in the production of hemp paper. The
organosolv pulping process of whole hemp stalks produces paper as strong as commercial
hardwood and softwood pulps. The BioRegional MiniMill technology has been reported
to be a process with relatively low environmental impacts for small-scale pulp and paper
production, with the potential for zero-emission output.

4.2.3. Application of Hemp Fiber and Hurd in the Construction Industry

Hemp hurd can be used to create a variety of sustainable building products for the
construction industry. In particular, hemp-based building materials have been shown to im-
prove indoor environments due to hemp’s breathability [18,59]. These materials also have
been reported to perform well in regulating heat, moisture, and humidity [60,61] and can
be resilient to natural disasters like earthquakes and flooding [12]. With careful control of
production and use cycles, hemp-based materials are also amenable to circularity, minimiz-
ing manufacturing process wastes and maximizing the recoverability of end-of-life product
materials [34]. Hemp concrete, commonly called hempcrete, combines hemp hurd, binder,
and water and has been gaining popularity in building construction. It has been used for
non-load bearing walls (blocks, panels, bricks, or formwork for hempcrete) [17,58], flooring
screed, roof and window insulation, pavement, mortar, plaster, and fillers, mainly due to its
lightweight, thermal insulating, acoustic, and moisture buffering properties [7,18,41]. The
properties and range of hempcrete products depend on binder type, aggregate-to-binder
ratio, size and porosity of the aggregates, and level of compaction [11,12].
AgriEngineering 2024, 6 2905

Spraying, molding, or manually mixing and tamping the mixture are common tech-
niques for pre-manufactured or onsite production [11,13]. Most hempcrete is made with
lime as the binder [11] due to its low emissions and abundant availability [60]. The
hempcrete manufacturing setup usually consists of a lime hopper, hemp hoppers, and a
water pump. Dry lime and hemp hurd are fed into a chamber using pressurized air, and the
mixture is then combined with water and projected into formwork or block molds through
a nozzle. Process modifications and operator skills can significantly affect properties like
fast dry ability and visual appearance. The use of planetary or helical mixers has been
reported for off-site hempcrete manufacturing [38]. With lime binders, curing can take
between 28 and 45 days, which may be an impractically long time for typical construction
projects [60]. The reported density for hempcrete products is 250–350 kg/m3 for wall
insulation, 200–250 kg/m3 for roof insulation, and 375–500 kg/m3 for floor slab, which is
determined by the mix ratios of hemp, binder, and water.
Both synthetic and natural binders can be classified as hydraulic (require water to
harden) and non-hydraulic (harden with air) [14]. Natural binders include bio-based
binders, such as lignin-based, starch-based, plant-protein-based, and paper pulp-based
binders [62]; plant-based binders, such as cornstarch (used for panel board) [51,61]; and or-
ganic binders, such as sapropel clay which provides good sound absorption properties [13].
Synthetic binders include cement and aluminum sulfate binders, which provide higher
compressive strength [11]. Other synthetic binders have been used for hempcrete, such
as magnesium-based binders, cenosphere binders (an alternative to lime binders) [11],
and pozzolanic binders, such as pulverized fuel ash, silica fumes, and ground granu-
lated blast furnace slag [61]. Additives have also been reported to improve strength and
durability [58], and treatment with a sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution enhances crys-
tallinity by hydrolyzing amorphous compounds, resulting in increased rigidity of the
composites [63].
Other hemp plant parts can be used to reinforce the hempcrete. Introducing hemp
fibers into the hempcrete mixture can increase the flexural and tensile strength, and the
hemp flower could delay hydration, therefore enabling the controlling of the hempcrete
setting [18]. Façades, curtain walls, and building skins have been reported to be developed
from hemp fiber-reinforced composite sandwich panels [61]. Hemp-based products, like
plywood reinforced with short hemp fibers bonded with lignin–phenol–formaldehyde
adhesives prepared by a hot-pressed method, can be processed into various building
products, such as wall claddings, sheathing, ceilings, and cabinets [64]. Hemp mortars
and finer plaster utilizing shorter and thinner particle sizes ranging from 2 to 15 mm and
binder-less hemp particle boards have been reported [51]. Preliminary 3D-printing research
shows that hempcrete is printable with a density as low as 660 kg/m3 , with adequate
buildability and compressive strength for individual walls [4].
Some challenges with hempcrete include variation in density, poor freeze-thaw re-
sistance, incomplete decomposition at end-of-life due to composite mineralization, the
limitation for load-bearing applications, and difficulty of onsite production in cold re-
gions [15,60]. Data referring to the fire resistance of hemp mortars are limited, potentially
due to the high cost of testing, which further leads to a lack of standardization [51].

4.2.4. Application of Hemp Fiber and Hurd in Biocomposites

Biodegradable, sustainable, and recyclable materials are in high demand in the com-
posites industry [65]. In fact, about 25% of hemp fibers produced globally are used for
composites in the automotive, aerospace, construction, textile, or sports industries [39].
Composites reinforced with hemp fiber have been processed into products used for auto-
mobile interior linings, door frames, seatbacks, dashboards, trunk covers, engine covers,
sun visors, air filters, and spare tire covers [29,50]; products used for luggage boxes, carpets,
floor mats, package trays, headlining, storage tanks, bath tubes, toilet seating, wing box
geotextiles, insulation mats, and furniture [16,66]; and other consumer products [51,60,65].
Hemp has also been used in high-value products, including protective armor for ballistic
AgriEngineering 2024, 6 2906

applications, e.g., bulletproof vests and helmets [50,67], and functional automobile parts,
such as brake pads [68,69]. Hemp fiber spun into continuous yarn and utilized in woven
or nonwoven fabrics can be used as preforms [29] for processing into bio-composite prod-
ucts using resin transfer molding [70], press molding [16], compression molding, sheet
molding [37], injection molding [8], pultrusion [71], and hand lay-up [72], depending on
the matrix used. Hemp has also been used to replace fiberglass as a biofiber additive
in plastic recreational sports products for skis, snowboards, canoes, bike frames, tennis
racquets [11,27], and orthotic devices [11,73]. Additionally, hemp fillers have been added
to polymer composites for prostheses to mitigate bacterial attachment [74]. Costs of manu-
facturing natural fiber composites are reduced by more than 30% compared to synthetic
fiber composites due to reductions in processing time, process energy use, and equipment
maintenance [37].
The use of hemp fibers in reinforced composites has been shown to reduce weight and
improve availability, eco-friendliness, and biodegradability over synthetic fibers [13,37].
Hemp bio-composites have been reported to have favorable mechanical properties, in-
cluding strength and durability [16], ability to withstand high mechanical and thermal
stresses [51], ease of fabrication, and excellent structural rigidity [46,70]. Natural materials
have been utilized in an array of applications to replace non-biodegradable fiberglass and
carbon fiber. Hemp fiber also has good waterproofness and heating and cold endurance in
the summer and winter [12,34]. It is also considered to be thermally stable [11], and its re-
sistance to fire depends on the composite density and binder used [51,61]. A well-designed
hemp fiber-reinforced polymer composite may have better energy absorption when com-
pared with metals [70]. Blending the properties of hemp fiber and hurd at various ratios
changes the polymerization degree to produce hemp material for the desired end use [31].
However, increased moisture content with hemp-based composites leads to decreased
tensile and flexural properties [37]. Retted and treated hemp feedstocks are preferred to
overcome some of the challenges of using hemp materials for composite [11,15].
The matrix used for hemp fiber composites can be classified as thermoplastic, ther-
moset, and biodegradable polymeric resins [65,75]. Hemp fiber-reinforced thermoplas-
tic composites are flexible and rigid, have a higher modulus, and have good mechan-
ical strength [13]. Hemp thermoplastic matrix composites have been reported to have
better performance when compared with hemp thermoset matrix composites accord-
ing to cost, specific strength, recyclability, corrosion resistance, and design capability,
with only temperature as a drawback—thermoplastic composites begin to degrade above
150 ◦ C [11]. Thermoplastic matrix material can be reused in granulated form for injection
molding or extrusion processes, while thermosetting matrix composites can be reused
as fillers [76]. Compression molding can be used for hemp thermoset and thermoplastic
molded components [49,77]. Fully (100%) bio-based composite products are often made
using plant-based resins, ensuring a more eco-friendly hemp-based composite [51,61].
Bio-based resins are preferred due to their low cost, lightweight, high specific strength and
modulus, and renewable source [43]. Biodegradable polymers used for hemp-reinforced
composites include cashew nut shell liquid, polylactic acid, starch, cellulose ester, and
euphorbia oil, and, when combined with other fibers, lignin-based epoxy, soy-based resins,
and epoxidized linseed and soyabean oil can be used [13,39,65]. To further improve the
fire-resistant properties of hemp, hemp fire retardants like phosphoric acid, sol-gel coating,
and ammonium polyphosphate are added to the hemp fiber composite [78].
The major challenges of fibers for high-value applications are their inherited hy-
drophilic nature, lower thermal instability, and higher variation in properties compared
with synthetic fibers [72]. The properties of hemp fibers can be improved for better surface
quality, dimensional stability, biological, ultraviolet exposure, and chemical resistance [49].
To address these inherent limitations, fiber for bio-composite applications can be treated
using hybridization, physical, and chemical treatment methods [65,72]. Hybridization
combines one or more resins with more than one filler material, using them in engineering
applications due to the resulting high strength-to-weight ratio [77]. The physical approach
AgriEngineering 2024, 6 2907

improves the mechanical bonding of fiber to polymer without changing the chemical com-
position of fibers; these methods are stretching, steam explosion, clantering, cold plasma
treatment, and corona treatment [65,69,77].
Steam explosion as a hemp stalk pre-treatment process has been reported to have a sim-
ilar effect as water retting [44], though exhibiting higher efficiency and lower energy [48].
In addition to its application for pre-treatment of hemp stalks, steam explosion has also
been reported as an osmotic degumming treatment for hemp straw and fiber [79]. Chemical
treatment involves using a reagent (with or without a catalyst) to create surface compatibil-
ity between the hydroxyl groups of the fiber and the polymer resin’s functional groups,
commonly using the alkalization method [65]. In addition, propionylation, acetylation, and
coupling agents, such as maleated polypropylene (MAPP) treatments, have been reported
to reduce hydrophilicity [11,80]. Other efficient chemical treatments are also available
for hemp fiber modification [37,72]. Extracted hemp fiber can be further improved using
physico-chemical treatments [39,48]. Researchers have explored reverse genetics to un-
derstand improvement options for hemp fiber [29]. While genetic development of new
cultivars and optimization of hemp genotypes have been studied to improve fiber quality
like fiber elongation and other properties [30,46,56], the development of new varieties using
conventional breeding methods takes a significant amount of time, about 7–12 years [81].
Combining hemp with other fibers or synthetic materials has been explored to generate
various desired properties [82]. Hemp hurd with polyvinyl alcohol solution has been
reported to give UV-shielding to a hemp bio-composite [48], while hybridized hemp
fiber mats and aluminum sheets with epoxy resin have been observed to have good
electromagnetic interference shielding properties [11]. An increase in fiber content (>11%
fiber volume) resulted in increased tensile strength [65]. Combining hemp and bagasse fiber
with a polymeric matrix made with the hand lay-up method has been used for automobile
composites [66]. Hybrid composites of hemp fiber have been observed to have better
properties than unhybridized fibers [83,84], and improvements in strength and stiffness
properties have been reported for hybridized hemp composites [29].
Hemp has been used to reduce the environmental impacts of fossil-based products;
for instance, recycled polyester has been blended with hemp fiber to produce reinforced
composites [13]. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)–hemp fiber composites also have been
reported to be processed with injection molding [85]. Crushed hemp yarn–epoxy composite
tubes prepared using pin filament winding were observed to have high strength and
modulus [70]. The wrapping spinning process has been used for hemp fiber, lyocell, and
polylactic acid (PLA) composites, while compression molding techniques have been used
for hemp fiber and PLA [48]. The hand lay-up method is commonly adopted for hemp fiber
when using epoxy resin, and other processing techniques reported are vacuum-infused
and hot-pressed methods [55].

4.2.5. Application of Hemp Fiber and Hurd in Packaging

In the packaging industry, special interest has been seen in applying hemp fiber and seed
oil to design and develop packaging materials with advanced properties and performance [48]
and antimicrobial properties [74]. With active antibacterial constituents like alkaloids,
flavones, and saponins found in hemp fiber, it is effective against pathogenic bacteria such as
Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa [11]. Other reported active
packaging materials use artificial chemicals or substances to provide antibacterial properties
for packaging, while hemp active packaging can be processed without these additives [74].
Hemp packaging eliminates the risk of chemical substances migrating into the contained
product if used for human consumption. The injection molding process can manufacture
hemp packaging to contain foods like salads, meats, and ready-made food products. A recent
application of hemp is for mycelium-based composites, which have applications in pack-
aging and construction [18]. Bio-based plastics can be laminated with cast hemp paper for
eco-friendly and sustainable packaging solutions. Hydrothermal and mechanically generated
hemp hurd nanofibers are utilized for sustainable barrier coatings and films [4].
AgriEngineering 2024, 6 2908

Composite packaging films made by combining alkali-treated hemp fiber with polyethy-
lene or polypropylene have been reported to have high mechanical stability and low water
vapor transmission rate [48]. Finer hemp hurd obtained during the fiber extraction process
can be used as cushioning packaging material. The hurd particle size, foaming agent, and
type of adhesive used affect packaging properties. Hemp polymeric composites can be
processed for packaging by combining hemp tow with a heated thermoplastic matrix in
a radial flow (turbulent) mixer, which is subsequently rolled into a sheet or other forms.
Current packaging processes and compatible materials with hemp feedstock reported in
the literature are shown in Table 5.

Table 5. Hemp packaging materials manufacturing processes or technologies [48].

Packaging Technologies or Processes Hemp Feedstock and Compatible Materials

Injection molding or extruder Hemp fiber and polypropylene, PLA, or potato starch
Lamination Hemp fiber and epoxy resins, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) solution, or PLA
Hemp fiber and wheat gluten, hemp fiber and cashew nut shell liquid matrix,
Compression molding hemp fiber and poly benzoxazine, hemp fiber and polyester, and hemp fiber
and polyethylene
Hemp seed oil cake, hemp fiber PLA and polybutylene succinate (PBS), hemp
Solvent casting
hurd, and PVA solution
Melting processing Hemp fiber and cornstarch
Resin transfer molding Hemp fiber and unsaturated polyesters
Hydraulic hot-press Hemp fiber and polybenzoxazine
Extrusion and thermoforming Hemp hurd powder and PLA for food packaging

4.2.6. Application of Hemp Fiber and Hurd as Mulch and Bedding

Hemp produces horticultural mulch, primarily for garden surface treatment of vegeta-
bles, flowers, and ornamental plants grown in containers [12]. Hemp mulch is lightweight,
retains moisture effectively, and helps suppress weed growth. It is biodegradable and
contributes to soil humus as it decomposes, enriching the soil and making it pH-neutral.
Hemp-based fleeces or mulch cloth are biodegradable and can be used as weed-control
mulching mats. These hemp products are environmentally friendly and effective substi-
tutes for plastic mulching. In addition, hemp has gained popularity as an animal bedding
option owing to its water absorption capacity (it can collect up to five times its mass in
moisture) and non-allergenic properties. Hemp hurds give a sturdy base to animals while
being dust-free, reducing microbial growth, causing less irritation than other bedding
options, and decomposing quickly. Though hemp bedding is more expensive, it offers
better function, which helps to justify the cost [18]. A summary of hemp products processed
from fiber and hurd is presented in Table 6.

Table 6. Hemp fiber and hurd products.

Industry Products References

Skiing, snowboarding, and canoeing equipment, bike frames, and
Sports [11,27]
tennis racquets
Medical applications Orthotic devices and wound dressings [11,73,74]
Ballistic applications Protective armor, such as bulletproof vests and helmets [50,67]
Transportation Brake pads, automobile interior linings, door frames, seatbacks,
(automobiles, aerospace, dashboards, trunk covers, engine covers, sun visors, air filters, spare [15,27]
and railway coaches) tire covers, and roof headlining
AgriEngineering 2024, 6 2909

Table 6. Cont.

Industry Products References

Fabrics, preforms (woven or nonwoven), cordage, yarns, carpets,
clothing, ropes, sportswear, jeans, hats, bags, pillowcases, blankets,
Textile [12,29,61]
socks, shoes, hemp jewelry, upholstery, wall decor, ornamental items,
façades, curtain walls, and building skins
Currency notes, specialist artistic paper, specialty nonwovens, Bible
Paper and pulp sheets, grease-proof paper, handcrafted papers, cigarette paper, tea and [11,12]
coffee bags, office paper, and carbon tissue.
Wall insulation, roof insulation, floor slab, blocks, panels, bricks,
window insulation, pavement, mortar, plaster and fillers, hemp
Construction and
binder-less particle boards, wall claddings, sheathing, ceilings, cabinets, [4,7,17,18,41,51,59,60,64]
building materials
composite and floor mats, storage tanks, and 3D-printed products
and structures
Animal bedding Animal bedding, hemp-based fleeces or mulch cloth, and weed-control
[12,14]
and mulch mulching mats
Bioenergy Biogas, biofuel, biohydrogen, bioethanol, and biomethane [41,86,87]
Package trays for food (salads, meats, and ready-made food products),
Packaging [4,18,74]
drinks (wine), electronic products, and barrier coatings/films
Luggage boxes, carpets, bathtubs, toilet seats, wing box geotextiles,
insulation mats, furniture, 3D printing filament, nano carbon sheets,
Others [9,16,17,40,41,51,52]
supercapacitors, and hybrid supercapacitor batteries for portable and
wearable applications

4.3. Emerging Applications of Hemp Fiber and Hurd

Details presented in this section are based on a meta-analysis of the 109 selected
articles relevant to emerging areas and applications for hemp in response to question
R3. The depletion of fossil fuels and the need for more environmentally friendly, clean,
and sustainable energy storage systems have made manufacturing supercapacitors with
hemp an emerging area of research [12,88]. Due to its hydrophilic nature and porosity,
hemp cellulose can be embedded with noble metals such as silver and gold nanoparti-
cles for catalysis, optoelectronics, photovoltaics, packaging, electronics, and biomedical
(antimicrobial) applications [89]. Hemp biomass can be transformed into activated car-
bon through either chemical or physical carbonization and activation processes [40,88].
Additionally, hemp-based activated carbon can incorporate transitional metal oxides as
electrode materials to improve energy storage performance in hybrid supercapacitors [88].
Hemp-derived activated carbon has potential applications in supercapacitor cells [55] for
electric vehicles, machine power sources, turbocharging, and cordless devices [12]. These
supercapacitors have the advantage of being lightweight, portable, foldable, and disposable.
They can operate efficiently across temperature ranges of −40 to 150 ◦ C and withstand
severe environmental conditions, making them potential candidates for applications in
space exploration, military, communications, and satellite systems [88]. The automotive
and electronics sectors are expected to be pivotal drivers in the further development of
this technology.
Additionally, hemp is gaining interest as a potential material for creating textile-based
electrochemical energy storage devices [40]. These include textile-based supercapacitors
and hybrid supercapacitor batteries that can be used for portable and wearable applications.
Enzymes, macromolecules, and some polymers can also modify natural cellulose for specific
end uses [89]. Hemp fibers have been chemically activated using ZnCl2 or H3 PO4 at varying
concentrations and temperatures [40,88]. Hemp hurd can also be activated chemically using
KOH at 700–800 ◦ C or hydrothermal processes. The electrodes developed from the latter
method are recommended because they perform better than those from hemp fibers [88].
An alternative method for transforming hemp hurd is the thermochemical method, which
AgriEngineering 2024, 6 2910

involves processing it under an inert argon atmosphere at 450–550 ◦ C with lengths ranging
from 0.25 to 1 mm. Hemp-based activated carbon can be used as negative electrodes. In
contrast, hemp-based materials infused with transition metal oxides can serve as positive
electrodes in hybrid supercapacitors to improve the overall specific capacitance, cyclic
performance, energy density, and power density delivery of the supercapacitor.
Graphene has superior performance to biomass-activated carbon; however, hemp
biochar-activated carbon’s cost and environmental benefits make it an attractive alterna-
tive [88]. Another study reported improved energy storage performance using hemp-based
carbon nanosheets in ionic liquid electrolytes, surpassing that of activated graphene or
carbon-based supercapacitors [40]. Nevertheless, there are still challenges to be addressed
in the preparation of hemp active electrode materials, capacitive retention, and the imple-
mentation of hemp-based electrochemical energy storage devices on a larger scale, which
could support the increase in the demand for the production of wearable and portable
flexible/non-flexible devices, its materials development, power management interface,
recycling, biodegradability, and circular economy [40].

5. Hemp Seeds and Flowers

Hemp seeds and extracts can be physically and chemically processed into functional
food and non-food products, while the whole hemp plant is a source of fats, proteins,
fibers, and many bioactive compounds [32,48,90]. Some hemp plants cultivated for special
medicinal purposes have been reported to be grown indoors to ensure the production
cycle all year round; however, there are ongoing studies to understand how the quality
differs from field hemp plants, especially the effect of pesticide or fungicide [91]. Hemp
seed has been reported to contain approximately 30% protein, 25% carbohydrate, and
27–38% oil [11,15]. The seed can also be a significant supplement in various products, such
as snacks, drinks, bakery food, and culinary products [90]. Hemp seed was listed as one
of the top five most popular edible seeds globally [92], and its protein has been identified
as one of the emerging sustainable protein sources [93]. Hemp oil extracted from the
hemp flower may be used for human consumption, in animal feed, or as biofuel for energy
sources [94]. Hemp oil has many other uses in cosmetics, medicine, and crop protection [12].
Hemp leaves have also been reported as potential raw materials for food products, though
their application is strictly regulated [95]. Hemp seed oil and hemp oil have been reported
to have antimicrobial activity against bacteria, potentially increasing the shelf-life of their
product by controlling food-borne spoilage for food storage and packaging [74]. Similar
applications are also valuable for medical devices, water purification systems, healthcare
products, hospitals, dental office equipment, and household sanitation [48,74].
Several food manufacturing industries are beginning to use hemp seeds and oil in their
processes [17], making hemp one of the prospective key industrial crops for developing
sustainable and resilient food systems [4]. In the food industry, hemp is a superfood with
high nutritional value and several health benefits [38,96]. Hemp-based food products and
supplements have recently gained popularity in Europe [97]. Hemp seed proteins are suit-
able for human and animal consumption since they are primarily high-quality proteins [16]
and are gluten-free [4]. Hemp-based food products are becoming appealing alternatives
for environmentally and nutritious-conscious consumers [98]. Hemp is considered a low-
allergenic food source and can be incorporated for various uses in the food industry [92,98].
Hemp seeds can be consumed raw (hulled seed), sprouted or powdered as flour [17],
cooked, roasted [99], or dehulled (hemp heart or kernel) [7]. Food researchers are currently
finding ways to improve the sensory attributes of hemp-based foods—overcoming the
unusual color, bitter taste, and viscosity [95].
Examples of hemp-based products and their benefits include hemp milk (anti-obesity),
hemp leaves (anti-fatigue), hemp oil enriched in cannabidiol (anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory,
antioxidant, and anti-acne [18]), hemp oligopeptides (anti-diabetic), and hemp leaf and
seed extracts (anti-bacterial and anti-inflammatory) [95]. Hemp seed oil can protect against
Ultraviolet (UV) A and B radiation [34]. There has been interest in its use as an emulsifier,
AgriEngineering 2024, 6 2911

a meat analog (e.g., extruded hemp/soy meat), and membrane formation [4]. Membrane
formation is applied in active packaging by combining hemp seed oil and gelatin film
by solution casting, and it has been reported to act as an antibacterial barrier against
various microorganisms [48]. Hemp efficacy against other medically related diseases like
SARSCoV-2 has also been reported [100].
Cannabidiol (CBD) oil is one of the nonintoxicating cannabinoid compounds produced
from hemp; it is usually not addictive, unlike THC [101], and has been reported to have
soothing and calming properties [7]. THC is generally not present in hemp seed oil; how-
ever, its presence may be a result of the seed hulls contacting the cannabinoid-containing
resin parts (leaves and flowers) during maturation, harvesting, and processing [102]. Ongo-
ing research is investigating emerging uses for CBD and hemp oils [103]. Characterizing
the major cannabinoids in hemp CBD oil or similar products is essential for companies
marketing cannabis-derived products and determining legality status [104]. Hemp-based
products are suitable for all skin types and can be found in various personal care items,
such as hair-care products, soaps, moisturizers, cosmetics, and antiperspirants [16]. The
market growth for hemp is expected to receive a positive impact from the increased pro-
duction of a variety of hemp-based products, such as soaps, shampoos, body lotions, and
UV skin protectors [17]. Hemp powder with antibacterial properties has been infused in
mouthwash, toothpaste, antiseptic ointment, toilet bars, and foot powders [74].

5.1. Hemp Seed Harvesting, Pre-Processing, and Extraction Processes

Hemp seed matures three to four months after it is planted, which can be affected by
factors like sowing time, environmental conditions, irrigation practice, and the cultivar [11,12].
More than 40 hemp cultivars have been reported, with Finola being the most commonly
cultivated commercially [105]. To maximize hemp oil yield and to avoid issues with the
combine during harvesting, hemp plants are usually harvested when about 50–90% of
the seeds have matured [12]. After harvesting, seeds are dried to about 8% moisture
content [30]. Smaller seed lots are air-dried in a dehumidified space below 40 ◦ C, while, for
larger seed lots, air is forced through the seeds from a perforated bed. After drying, the
seeds are cleaned to remove the hulls, small seeds, dust, and foreign objects [105]. Seeds
are then processed by hulling, pressing, and crushing [14]. Whole seeds are crushed or
hulled to separate the heart from the hulls, which can be used as fertilizer or cattle feed [11].
Pretreatment, grinding, pressing, extraction, and other processing techniques can be carried
out to produce oil, protein, or even biofuel from the seed [105]. Various extraction methods
and pretreatment techniques have been proposed to increase the utility of hemp seed in the
food industry to overcome oxidative rancidity due to an abundance of unsaturated fatty
acids. For example, microwaving or enzyme hydrolysis can improve oxidative stability
without affecting fatty acid composition. The various extraction processes for hemp seed
are shown in Figure 9 for oil, food, protein, and bioenergy products.

5.1.1. Pretreatment
In ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE), ultrasonic waves are propagated through the
cells, creating cavitation and improving solvent penetration into the sample matrix. This
leads to increased yield and faster extraction times [106]. Alternatively, microwave-assisted
extraction (MAE) involves using microwaves to infiltrate the seed’s pores, trapping the
solvent within these spaces for even and rapid heating. This process accelerates extrac-
tion kinetics, reducing extraction durations, increasing extraction efficiencies, decreasing
expenses, and diminishing solvent usage. UAE and MAE can more effectively extract
tocopherols and other oil-soluble antioxidant compounds, such as polyphenols, in the
hemp seeds. Thermal degumming processes are commonly used to remove phospholipids
from hemp seed oil, but they can accelerate oxidation and reduce oil shelf life [105].
 carried out to produce oil, protein, or even biofuel from the seed [105]. Various extraction
methods and pretreatment techniques have been proposed to increase the utility of hemp
seed in the food industry to overcome oxidative rancidity due to an abundance of unsatu-
rated fatty acids. For example, microwaving or enzyme hydrolysis can improve oxidative
AgriEngineering 2024, 6 stability without affecting fatty acid composition. The various extraction processes 2912for

hemp seed are shown in Figure 9 for oil, food, protein, and bioenergy products.

Waste Hemp
Bioethanol Fertilizer Biodiesel
Slurry Milk

Anaerobic
Transesterification
Fermentation

Sterilization

Enzymatic
Biomethane Oil Filtration
Hydrolysis

Grinding Flour Grinding Pressing Seedcake

Seed
Food Extraction
Meal

Salad and
Pretreatment Pretreatment Oil
Soup

Whole
Sprouting Hulling Heart Pretreatment
Hemp Seed

Seed Protein
Cleaning Hulls
Harvesting Extraction

Dust and
Foreign Fertilizers and Hemp
Bodies Animal Feed Protein

Figure
Figure9.9.Extraction
Extractionprocesses
processes and products
productsfrom
fromhemp
hempseed.
seed.

5.1.2.Pretreatment
5.1.1. Oil Extraction
Hemp seed oil extraction methods can be grouped as solventless extraction (cold press)
In ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE), ultrasonic waves are propagated through
and solvent-based extraction (e.g., supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) using CO2 , solvent
the cells, creating cavitation and improving solvent penetration into the sample matrix.
extraction using isopropanol, hexane or dimethyl ether, and Soxhlet extraction) [106–108].
This leads to increased yield and faster extraction times [106]. Alternatively, microwave-
Each method has its advantages and disadvantages, and the choice depends on the end
assisted
productextraction (MAE)
and extraction involves
yield [108]. using microwaves to infiltrate the seed’s pores, trap-
ping the solvent within
Solventless these
Extraction: spaces
Cold for even
pressing is theand rapidoldest,
simplest, heating.
andThis
mostprocess
commonly accelerates
used
extraction
extraction kinetics, reducing
method [107], with aextraction
recovery ratedurations,
of 60–80% increasing
[105] and extraction efficiencies,
a yield of 27–31.5% [109].de-
creasing
The coldexpenses, and diminishing
pressing method is also the mostsolvent
commonusage. UAE and MAE
commercially, as it is can more effectively
considered natural
extract tocopherols
and safe and other With
for food processing. oil-soluble antioxidant
this method, compounds,
seeds move throughsuch as polyphenols,
a conventional screw in
the hemp
press seeds.the
without Thermal degumming
use of chemical processes
solvents or heataretreatments,
commonlywhichused to remove
helps retainphospho-
more
of thefrom
lipids seeds’ beneficial
hemp components
seed oil, but they can [108]. The drawback
accelerate of cold
oxidation andpressing
reduce oil is the lowlife
shelf yield
[105].
potential (60–80%) of the extractable oil. Enzyme-assisted cold-pressing (EACP) has been
shown
5.1.2. OiltoExtraction
enhance the yield and nutritional quality of hemp seed oil [106,107]. Using this
technique, tocopherols in the oil increased from 4.8% to 14.1% compared to cold pressing.
Hemp seed oil extraction methods can be grouped as solventless extraction (cold
Ohmic heating and pressurized liquid extraction have also been reported [109].
press) and solvent-based extraction (e.g., supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) using CO2,
Solvent-based Extraction: SFE employs a gas-like medium such as carbon dioxide
solvent extraction
(CO2 ) at or close tousing isopropanol,
its critical temperature hexane
andor dimethyl
pressure ether, substances
to extract and Soxhlet extraction)
from solid
matrices [106]. This method can extract tocopherols more efficiently than traditional
cold pressing. SFE has the highest economic profitability [105] due to producing food-
quality hemp seed oil; however, it is costly and time-consuming [36]. A combined UAE
and supercritical CO2 extraction provided significantly higher antiradical capacity than
AgriEngineering 2024, 6 2913

Soxhlet solvent extraction, although it was lower when the supercritical extraction was
applied alone [105]. Considering an initial economic cost–benefit analysis, supercritical
CO2 extraction is most efficient, followed by Soxhlet extraction [108].
A study found that extracting oil from hemp seeds through supercritical CO2 , cold
pressing, or solvent extraction yields oils with similar fatty acid compositions; however, oil
obtained using supercritical CO2 extraction had elevated tocopherol content yet reduced
pigmentation compared to cold-pressed oil [107]. To get a qualitatively better oil, UAE
or MAE are used, followed by SFE [106]. Many solvents have effectively achieved high
yields when extracting hemp seed oil [108], e.g., N-hexane, petroleum ether, dimethyl
ether (DME), ethanol, and isopropanol. Various optimizations with these solvents have
been reported in the literature regarding extraction time, temperature, and other extraction
conditions. The UAE solvent extraction method gives the highest extraction yield [105].
DME is gaining attention for oil extract due to its extraction abilities on wet feedstock for
grounded and ungrounded hulled hemp seeds [109].
A comparison of the solvent-extracted oil from untreated hemp seed and the hemp
seed previously subjected to an MAE showed improved oil yield and carotenoid and
tocopherol contents [107]. The fatty acid composition was not altered, and the resistance
to oxidation increased. N-hexane solvent extraction may produce a contaminated final
product unsuitable for human food or animal feed [36]. Soxhlet extraction is a conven-
tional method that involves the selection of a solvent that is heated to reflux and then
used to inundate the solid material to extract the desired compounds, including volatile
compounds [108]. In a study, Soxhlet extraction provided an optimum fatty acid profile and
improved energy efficiency [105]. For scale-up of extraction, UAE and Soxhlet extraction
have been reported as the best methods to achieve a desirable ratio of omega-6 to omega-3
polyunsaturated fatty acid [108].

5.1.3. Protein Extraction

Extracting protein from hemp seeds involves the following steps: defatting or de-
greasing of seeds, optional pretreatment (ultrasound or microwave-assisted extraction),
extraction, and precipitation of the proteins [99]. Degreasing removes fatty acids and helps
increase extraction efficiency due to the formation of lipid–protein complexes, which may
reduce the rate of extraction. Degreased hemp seed produces protein meal of 30–50%
protein content [105]. After degreasing, proteins and fibers dominate the seed cake or meal.
Extraction of hemp seed proteins utilizes chemical and enzyme-assisted methods [99].
Extraction using alkaline followed by acid or isoelectric precipitation and micellization
extraction are commonly used to prepare hemp seed protein isolates with high protein
content. Recently, Reverse Micellization (RM) technology has been applied for protein
extraction as it is convenient and cost-effective [4]. RM extracts protein through forward
extraction, which encapsulates soluble proteins in the inner aqueous core, and backward
extraction recovers protein by disrupting the RM process.

5.1.4. Hemp Milk Processing

Like the processing of other plant-based milk, hemp seeds are wet-milled, filtered,
sterilized, homogenized, packaged, and stored cold [110]. Gums are added to stabilize the
milk, and salt and sweeteners are used to enhance sensory properties. New technologies
have been implemented to reduce particle size and viscosity and to inactivate microorgan-
isms and enzymes. Researchers have used a combination of novel thermal technologies
to achieve high-quality hemp-based milk products. A variety of primary products can be
produced from hemp seeds, flowers, and leaves, from which a range of consumer products
can be derived (Table 7).
AgriEngineering 2024, 6 2914

Table 7. Products made from hemp seeds, flowers, and leaves.

Primary Products
Plant Part Derived Products/Use References
(Extraction Methods)
Hemp oil cake, also called seed cake Pasta, tortilla chips, salad dressings, snack products
or hemp meal (cold pressing [101] (crackers, cookies, and gluten-free biscuits), frozen [14,35]
and enzyme-assisted desserts, hemp milk, fertilizer, animal feed, [90,95]
low-temperature pressing [95]) and supplements
Butter, margarine, oil paint, inks, polishes, sealers,
cleaning agents coating, lubricating oil, sealant, [14,16]
varnishes, lamp oil, biofuel (ethanol), cosmetics, [41,108]
Hemp seed oil (enzyme hydrolysis
industrial fuel oil, pralines, chocolates, enriched bread, [95,111]
and freeze-drying [95])
enriched potato chips, smoothies additive, hemp-based [7,35]
bioplastics, lip balms, hand creams, massage oil, and [12,33,112]
face and body cream
Hemp Seeds
Hemp flour, beverages (beer, lemonade, drink mixes,
[16,95]
probiotic drinks), sweetened yogurt, enriched bread,
Hemp powder (grinding and [90,106]
enriched pasta, enriched gnocchi, extruded rice, pork
milling) [92,111]
loaf, Indian flat bread (Indian Chapatti), hemp-based
[7,35,107]
meat analogs, and hemp sauce
Hemp protein isolates and Extruded energy bars, cookies, pork loaf, edible and [90,106]
concentrates biodegradable plastics [92,107,113]
Dehulled hemp seed or heart [90,106]
Hemp tofu (HempFu), pork loaf, and animal feed
(dehulling) [92,101,106]
Hemp hull Fertilizer and animal feed [11]
Essential oils, skin moisturizers, shampoos, soaps,
bathing gels, cosmetic and pharmaceutical products, [18,101]
Hemp oil (microwave heating, topical oils, sparkling water, lotions and balms, enriched [90,95]
Hemp Flowers
vacuum-microwave drying [95]) bread, wine, hemp sauce, confectionery, biopesticide [35,111]
(insect repellant), food additives (flavoring agent), [7,33,114]
tinctures, and soft gels
Hemp Leaves Hemp leaf powder Hemp leaf tea [111]

5.1.5. Hemp Seeds as Livestock Feed

Hemp seeds are high in fiber, making them valuable feed for livestock [32]. The seeds
also contain omega-3 and omega-6, making them a good source of nutrition for birds and
fish (and have been used for fish bait) [11,14,46,48]. Hemp oil has been incorporated in
pig feed and hemp seed used for alpine goats; however, high fiber content limits its use,
particularly in pig and poultry feed [48]. Cannabinoid contamination is the primary concern
that prevents the approval of hemp feed for most livestock; restrictions are expected to ease
as more regulators understand that seeds are not a source of cannabinoids [18].

5.2. Emerging Applications of Hemp Seeds for Bioenergy

Hemp can be processed into sustainable bioenergy products like bioethanol, biogas,
biochar, solid biofuel, biohydrogen, and biodiesel [18,32,46]. The quality of these fuels
depends on the biomass characteristics, chemical composition, morphology [46], pretreatment
methods, and extraction technique [87]. The cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin present in
hemp biomass are sources of fermentable sugars that can be processed into bioethanol [115].
The high cellulose content in industrial hemp biomass makes it an excellent alternative for
bioethanol production compared to other agricultural feedstock options [87]. Hemp seed
oil cake can be processed into biofuels due to its high fiber content, proteins, and secondary
metabolites [113]. Hemp seed oil biofuel can achieve conversion rates of 97% biodiesel and
was reported to have the potential to produce fewer emissions when burned compared with
conventional diesel [18]. The use of hemp bioethanol and biodiesel can significantly reduce
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions [41]. Hemp’s heat of combustion has been reported to
AgriEngineering 2024, 6 2915

be equivalent to maize (18 MJ kg−1 ), less than Miscanthus sp. (19.8 MJ kg−1 ), and greater
than Jerusalem artichoke (16.5 MJ kg−1 ) [16]. Hemp biodiesel production was estimated to
yield over 800 L/ha/year, greater than sunflower, soybean, peanut, or rapeseed [32]. A study
reported ethanol from hemp hurd as relatively efficient for passenger vehicles, like other
lignocellulosic materials such as alfalfa stems, poplar, Ethiopian mustard, and flax shives [86].
Hemp bioenergy processing involves the preparation and pretreatment of biomass
using a biological, chemical, or physical method or a combination of two or more methods,
with the biological–chemical method reported to be the most efficient [115]. After drying
and primary pretreatment of the raw hemp biomass, it undergoes pulverization (crush-
ing, grinding, and sieving) to reduce particle sizes with increased surface area for efficient
secondary pretreatment, which facilitates enzyme digestibility. The biomass particles then
undergo Simultaneous Saccharification and Fermentation (SSF). This physicochemical pre-
treatment enables a faster transesterification process when compared with the biological
pretreatment [102]. Biodiesel produced through transesterification [12] from the oil extract of
hemp seeds has been reported to meet the ATSM D6751 and EN 14214 standards and is a
superior fuel to conventional diesel, except for its oxidation stability, which can be resolved by
adding antioxidants [32]. Hemp biodiesel can be used as a vehicle fuel and to produce heat
and electricity [7]. Table 8 shows the different pretreatments considered for hemp materials.

Table 8. Pretreatment methods for various hemp materials.

Process/Material Pretreatment Methods (Types)

Field retting, water retting, chemical retting, and
Hemp Stalk
enzymatic retting
Physical treatment (stretching, steam explosion, clantering, cold
plasma treatment, corona treatment, and osmotic degumming)
Fiber Treatment Chemical retting (alkalization, propionylation, acetylation, and
coupling agents such as maleated polypropylene treatments)
Physico-chemical and hybridization treatments
Biological, chemical, or physical treatment or a combination of
Hemp Biomass (Bioenergy)
two or more treatments
Hemp Seed Ultrasound, microwave, or degumming
Hemp Protein Degreasing or defatting

Bioethanol and biogas can be produced through microbiological processes (fermenta-

tion and anaerobic digestion) or thermal processes (combustion), which can be further used
to produce biochar, solid fuels, and biohydrogen [7,12,32,36]. Among biorefinery processes,
anaerobic digestion is the most extensively utilized for biomethane production, owing to
its high efficiency, operational flexibility, and environmental advantages compared to other
methods [102]. The hemp waste slurry from bioethanol production via anaerobic digestion
can fertilize hemp and other crops [41].
Hemp biochar carbonized at 400–600 ◦ C can be used for high-heating value products
like solid biofuel [4]. If carbonized at a range of 800–1000 ◦ C, a graphite-like microstructure
forms, giving it electrical conductivity suitable for electrical uses. Pyrolysis has been
reported for producing hemp bio-oil from biochar; however, it has not been implemented
commercially [41]. Biochar has multiple uses, such as fertilizer, an adsorbent, for CO2
sequestration, and as a material filler for products such as concrete. The saccharification
process for extracting bioenergy resources is shown in Figure 10.
There are also novel emerging applications for hemp seed oil, such as its use in
polyurethane (PU) and chitosan for wound dressing, which offers excellent barrier properties,
oxygen permeability, and antibacterial protection against infection [74]. Cannabinoids and
alkaloids found in hemp seed oil can also be included in antibiotics to treat bacterial infections.
The wide range of emerging applications for hemp seed has been reported to improve the
quality of life in various areas, such as lifestyle, fitness, healthcare, and daily life [40].
 Hemp biochar carbonized at 400–600 °C can be used for high-heating value products
like solid biofuel [4]. If carbonized at a range of 800–1000 °C, a graphite-like microstruc-
ture forms, giving it electrical conductivity suitable for electrical uses. Pyrolysis has been
reported for producing hemp bio-oil from biochar; however, it has not been implemented
AgriEngineering 2024, 6
commercially [41]. Biochar has multiple uses, such as fertilizer, an adsorbent, for CO2 se- 2916
questration, and as a material filler for products such as concrete. The saccharification
process for extracting bioenergy resources is shown in Figure 10.

Biochar Carbonization Biofuel

Decortication Waste,
Pyrolysis Slurry
Hurd, and Fiber

Biomass Enzymatic
Pretreatment Fermentation
Preparation Hydrolysis

Sieving Physical Biomethane Bioethanol

Chemical
Pulverization
Biological

Hemp Combined
Drying
Biomass
AgriEngineering 2024, 6, FOR PEER REVIEW Pretreatment 27

Figure10.
Figure 10. Saccharification
Saccharification process for the extraction of
of biomass
biomass bioenergy.
bioenergy.
5.3. Hemp
5.3. Hemp Flower Oil
Oil Extraction
Extraction Processes
Processes
ThereFlower
are also novel emerging applications for hemp seed oil, such as its use in pol-
The production
The
yurethane production and purification
and
(PU) and chitosan purification
for wound of cannabinoids
of cannabinoids
dressing, which from
from
offershemp
hemp flowersbarrier
flowers
excellent were reported
were reported
proper-
to
to involve
involve
ties, oxygenprimary
primary and
andsecondary
permeability, secondary extraction
extraction
and antibacterial [114]. Primary
[114]. Primary
protection extraction
against extractioninvolves
infection [74].a pre-pro-
involves a pre-
Canna-
cessing
processing stage, where the flower is ground into powder and then decarboxylated
binoids and alkaloids found in hemp seed oil can also be included in antibiotics to treatto
stage, where the flower is ground into powder and then to
decarboxylated activate
the cannabinoids.
activate
bacterial the
infections.For
Thehemp
cannabinoids. wide flowers,
For hempofthe
range harvest
flowers,
emerging time depends
theapplications
harvest timeforon the variety’s
depends
hemp theflowering
on has
seed variety’s
been re-
behavior
flowering [12]. Hemp
behaviorthe
ported to improve crude
[12]. oil
Hemp
quality (hemp
of crude oil) is extracted
oil (hemp
life in various using
oil)such
areas, the
is extracted supercritical
using
as lifestyle, CO 2 method
the supercritical
fitness, healthcare,
discussed
CO
and2 method earlier.
daily life [40].The hemp
discussed earlier.oilThecontains
hemp oil numerous
contains volatile
numerous chemicals, mainly monoter-
volatile chemicals, mainly
penes, sesquiterpenes,
monoterpenes, and otherand
sesquiterpenes, terpenoid-like moleculesmolecules
other terpenoid-like that can be separated
that by distil-
can be separated
lation.
by Some other
distillation. Some essential chemical
other essential constituents
chemical are myrcene,
constituents pinene,pinene,
are myrcene, limonene, caryo-
limonene,
phyllene, humulene,
caryophyllene, and terpinolene.
humulene, and terpinolene.The secondary extraction
The secondary process involves
extraction the post-
process involves
processing
the stage, where
post-processing stage,thewhere
winterization process is process
the winterization used to remove
is used to waxes
remove andwaxes
color com-and
pounds,
color and a rotary
compounds, andevaporation process isprocess
a rotary evaporation then applied. Lastly, the
is then applied. distillation
Lastly, process
the distillation
generates
process approximately
generates 90% purified
approximately CBDs CBDs
90% purified that can becan
that used
be for
used edibles, vapeables,
for edibles, and
vapeables,
tropical
and products
tropical [114].[114].
products A chromatographic-based
A chromatographic-based methodmethod
is used isto used
isolatetoCBDs
isolate to CBDs
about
to
99%,about
which99%,canwhich
be usedcanforbepharmaceutical
used for pharmaceutical
applications. applications.
Figure 11 shows Figurethe11 shows and
primary the
primary
secondary and secondary
extraction extraction
processes forprocesses for hemp flowers.
hemp flowers.

Primary Extraction Secondary Extraction

Pre-processing State Post-processing State

Wax and
Essentials
Distillation Winterization Color
Chemicals
Compounds
Supercritical CO₂ Rotary Pharmaceutical
Extraction Method Evaporation applications

Chromatographic-based 99% Isolated

Decarboxylation
Method CBDs
Edibles,
90%
Hemp Vapeables,
Grinding Distillation Purified
Flower and Tropical
CBDs
Products
Figure 11. Extraction processes for hemp flowers.
Figure 11. Extraction processes for hemp flowers.

6. Hemp Sustainability Performance

Details presented in this section were generated from a meta-analysis of the 109 arti-
cles relevant to the sustainability performance of hemp selected in response to question
AgriEngineering 2024, 6 2917

6. Hemp Sustainability Performance

Details presented in this section were generated from a meta-analysis of the 109 articles
relevant to the sustainability performance of hemp selected in response to question R4. It
has been reported that cultivating hemp fiber can lead to a 77% cost savings compared
to cotton cultivation due to a higher yield and reduced water, fertilizer, pesticide, and
land use [4,116]. Hemp fiber yield is 25–500% higher than cotton [116], making hemp
economically competitive [41]. Due to its rapid growth, the biomass accumulated by
hemp crops significantly absorbs atmospheric CO2 [34,62]. Carbon emissions per kg of
hemp hurd production range from 0.085–0.19 kg of CO2 , offset by 1.5–2.1 kg of CO2
sequestration during growth [61]. Hemp production uses 11,400 MJ/ha of energy, around
half of that required by similar crops, such as cotton [51,61]. Hemp plants are also energy-
effective because of their capacity to control weeds, reduce pesticide usage, and enhance soil
health [12]. Hemp has also been used for phytoremediation, removing heavy metals from
the soil [16], making it a promising sustainable industrial crop [117]. Further development
of cultivation and processing technologies will enable hemp to outperform other crops.
Renewable, low-carbon materials with extended life cycles that promote healthier
buildings are needed in the construction industry [64]. Globally, the construction and use of
buildings and roads consume about half of the raw materials and energy; natural and eco-
friendly materials such as hemp-based products could significantly reduce environmental
impacts in the construction industry [11]. A study reported that a hemp-lime wall requires
up to 394 MJ of energy and sinks up to 35 kg CO2 over a 100-year life span (resulting
from the continuous hardening process of the lime binder) [38]. In contrast, an equivalent
Portland cement-based concrete wall requires 560 MJ of energy with an additional release of
52.3 kg CO2 [11]. Hemp concrete has very low embodied carbon and energy, making it ideal
for green building applications [60], and it can also reduce daily indoor relative humidity
variations and lower energy consumption by 45% compared to cellular concrete [72]. The
material is also recyclable at the end of the building’s life [61], and incineration after
use can save more energy and reduce GHG emissions compared with its fossil-based
counterpart [48]. To make hemp concrete more sustainable, sourcing waste lime from other
industries through industrial symbiosis has been reported to further reduce its carbon
footprint [18]. A comprehensive review of the energy and environmental performance of
hemp-based building materials has been reported [14].
Hemp fiber feedstock encourages holistic plant utilization, reducing deforestation,
water consumption, and GHG emissions, while promoting carbon sequestration and en-
abling cultivation through regenerative agricultural methods [116]. These advantages lead
to significantly lower environmental impacts compared to those typically seen in the textile
industry. Utilizing hemp process and product waste in manufacturing other products
promotes a circular economy [55]. Hemp biofuels have been reported to reduce GHG
emissions significantly and as excellent fossil fuel alternatives [41]. A study evaluating the
environmental impact of flax and hemp fiber reported hemp to have higher environmental
impacts due to the agricultural operations, emissions associated with fertilizer production,
and chemicals used in pulp production [118]. These relatively high impacts could be
reduced by mitigating fertilizer use and standardizing cultivation, fiber extraction, and
product production practices.

7. Future Research Opportunities

The unique properties of hemp material have generated new research interest in
its applications in developing novel sustainable products, such as sporting goods and
musical instruments, due to its higher vibrational damping capacity [11,72]. Interest in the
processing, properties, and application of composites made from hemp materials appears
to be growing more quickly in Asia and North America than in Europe [27]. Future demand
is expected for new hemp varieties with attributes resistant to environmental stresses and
pests and the ability to efficiently optimize agricultural treatments to improve nutrient
uptake [34]. The comprehensive literature review herein was undertaken for all published
AgriEngineering 2024, 6 2918

articles between January 2000 and April 2023; thus, new materials and applications reported
in later 2023 do not appear in the foregoing. It was observed that the number of published
articles increased by 13% in 2023 over 2022 in ScienceDirect, though the number of articles
decreased slightly (−6%) over the same time period in the Web of Science, as shown in
Figure 1. Overall, there has been an increasing trend in research publications on the topic.
More research will be needed to investigate how hemp seed extraction processes,
such as pH shifting, high-pressure homogenization, and ultrasound treatment, affect hemp
seed-based food products’ physical and chemical properties, sensory qualities, toxicity,
and health-derived benefits [105,108]. Other areas of exploration for manufacturing and
sustainability engineers will be the use of hemp materials for various packaging needs,
e.g., food packaging and closures, and in conducting comparative life cycle assessments
with their synthetic alternatives [114]. Although a gate-to-grave life cycle assessment study
has been carried out on hemp-based mycelium packaging box inserts [119], more studies
evaluating the impacts of other emerging hemp-based packaging options, such as active
packaging, will be in high demand as the move for sustainable packaging moves to the
forefront, especially in the food industry.
Previous review studies have consistently emphasized the limited available studies
investigating the improvement of the mechanical performance of hemp concrete and the
development of theoretical prediction methods for compressive strength [60,61]. The hemp
concrete end-of-life phase should be studied to understand degradation mechanisms and
fire resistance standards for other countries outside of Europe. Hemp building materials
have been reported to have good energy absorption behavior; however, there are limited
studies on structural integrity against large failure scenarios for more resilient buildings [60].
Most data on hemp cultivation and building materials are collected in Europe [61], and
other studies have highlighted a lack of data on hemp [42,120]. Data sharing across various
hemp value chains from different parts of the world, especially in the US, is encouraged
for a more accurate techno-economic assessment of the hemp construction industry and
other hemp industries. Research efforts are also needed to investigate challenges with
manufacturing techniques, which limit the use of hemp for some industrial products. For
example, drying time in producing hempcrete blocks in cold regions must be reduced
while maintaining structural integrity, and the design of stalk milling equipment must be
improved to increase both fiber quality and process yield.
Research interest in the energy and environmental performance assessment of hemp
products is increasing [14]. Comparative life cycle assessment studies have been recom-
mended for hemp-based products and other conventional products [8]. A lack of data has
limited the comprehensive assessment of the energy and environmental performance of
hemp plants, materials, and products. Similarly, there have been limited social assessment
studies on hemp material and products [36]. However, health issues associated with the
handling or processing of hemp have been reported; there is a need for a comprehensive
social assessment of the hemp industry to enable manufacturers to design more sustainable
processes for hemp manufacturing and policymakers and investors to make more informed
decisions in this nascent industry.
To ensure the continued acceptance and growth of hemp-based products globally,
manufacturers processing hemp materials should collaborate on making process data,
processing methods, and materials available for research [114]. Research in the efficient
development of training curricula to serve the future workforce needs of the industry
will be a key focus area. The aforementioned research efforts will help promote and
drive the technological innovation needed for the emerging hemp industry. Research to
support policy development for the safer use of hemp medical and health products for
humans and animals will also be key areas of effort [121]. Consequently, the regulations
and guidelines for the cultivation, processing, and use of hemp will improve as research
continues to demystify hemp across its various value chains. Key stakeholders such
as hemp product converters or processers continue to improve labeling, especially for
CBD products [122], for testing by regulatory bodies. As the number of environmentally
AgriEngineering 2024, 6 2919

conscious consumers grows globally and concerns increase over product composition,
raw materials sourcing, and production processes, transparency and active engagement of
consumers will be key components for the hemp industry to outperform other alternative
or conventional products.

8. Conclusions
The legalization of hemp in the United States and other regions of the world has led
to increased research interest globally; however, there exists variability and limited data
within the published literature for advancing the state-of-the-art hemp industry. To address
this challenge, a systematic review of the literature on hemp product manufacturing was
performed to identify qualitative and quantitative studies reporting the existing production
technologies, manufacturing processes, and products. More specifically, all published arti-
cles identified between January 2000 and April 2023 were reviewed to address four research
questions (R1–R4) related to hemp materials and products, technologies or manufacturing
processes, emerging or newly developed materials or topics in sustainability, and future
research scope for hemp products. After considering appropriate inclusion and exclusion
criteria, 109 articles were selected for review. Publication statistics from this review reveal
a steadily growing research interest in hemp in North America and Asia. Hemp uses for
bio-composites and functional food have received the most interest, while current research
efforts have been geared towards emerging applications of hemp, such as supercapacitors.
This review study identified the hemp plant as a resilient and emerging industrial crop.
Existing and emerging hemp products were identified for all hemp parts (stalk, flower,
leaf, and seed). The conversion of the hemp materials and manufacturing processes were
also discussed in detail, and variations in research articles were highlighted for hemp stalk
retting, decortication, and hemp fiber pretreatment and extraction, as well as fiber and
hurd’s application in the textile, composites, construction, packaging, pulp and paper, and
other manufacturing industries. Hemp leaves, seed, and flower extraction processes were
highlighted for producing body care products, food and food supplements, pharmaceutical
products, and bioenergy resources.
As the nascent industry continues to grow, there has been substantial research interest
in the sustainability of the hemp industry. Thus, the sustainability performance of hemp
from the studies reviewed was also evaluated to understand how favorably hemp materials
and products may compete with other materials based on cost and environmental impacts.
Future research needs were identified for the hemp industry that would help to bridge the
gap created by the earlier restrictions on hemp, which excluded it from the green revolution.
The hemp plant will continue to find new applications due to its unique properties for
sporting goods, musical instruments, portable and wearable energy storage devices, semi-
conductors, nanomaterials, active packaging, bio-composite orthotic devices, and medical
applications, among others. Developing new hemp varieties and optimizing extraction
processes for fiber, seed, and oil will open even more research opportunities and product
applications. Comprehensive environmental, economic, and social impact assessments
will be in high demand, enabling stakeholders and policymakers to make better-informed
decisions about the hemp industry. Collaborative efforts between producers, manufactur-
ers, and researchers, including the design of education programs for students and farmers,
will drive technological innovation for the hemp industry. The limitations present in this
systematic literature review include the possibility of not capturing recently developed
processes or products due to the focus on review articles during the time period of January
2000–April 2023.

Supplementary Materials: The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://
www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/agriengineering6030167/s1.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, D.R.E. and K.R.H.; methodology, D.R.E. and K.R.H.; soft-
ware, D.R.E.; validation, D.R.E. and K.R.H.; formal analysis, D.R.E. and K.R.H.; investigation, D.R.E.;
resources, K.R.H.; data curation, D.R.E.; writing—original draft preparation, D.R.E.; writing—review
AgriEngineering 2024, 6 2920

and editing, K.R.H.; visualization, D.R.E.; supervision, K.R.H.; project administration, K.R.H.; funding
acquisition, K.R.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Agriculture and Food Research Initiative (AFRI), Sustain-
able Agricultural Systems (SAS), grant number 13333755/Project accession no. 1027531 from the
USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture (NIFA).
Data Availability Statement: The original data presented in the study are openly available in
FigShare at https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.25066544.v1 (accessed on 25 January 2024) or [26].
Acknowledgments: The authors acknowledge Jessica Lee’s assistance in reviewing the Python code
results for inclusion and exclusion in the screening section of the article.
AgriEngineering 2024, 6, FOR PEER REVIEW 31
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Appendix A
Appendix A

Figure A1.
Figure A1. Publication
Publication statistics
statistics by
by journals and conference
journals and conference proceedings.
proceedings.

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