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01
 Why Limit function is important?

1.Limits are used to describe the behavior of functions at specific points, and they
can be used to determine the behavior of functions as they approach certain values.

2.The concept of limit allows us to assess whether the sample mean converges to
the true parameter value as the sample size increases, providing a trend analysis.

3.Limits are important in calculus and mathematical analysis and used to define
integrals, derivatives, and continuity. It is used in the analysis process, and it always
concerns about the behaviour of the function at a particular point.

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Limits in maths are defined as the values that a function approaches the
output for the given input values. Limits play a vital role in calculus and
mathematical analysis and are used to define integrals, derivatives, and
continuity. It is used in the analysis process, and it always concerns the
behavior of the function at a particular point. The limit of a sequence is further
generalized in the concept of the limit of a topological net and related to the
limit and direct limit in the theory category. Generally, the integrals are
classified into two types namely, definite and indefinite integrals. For definite
integrals, the upper limit and lower limits are defined properly. Whereas
indefinite integrals are expressed without limits, and it will have an arbitrary
constant while integrating the function. Let us discuss the definition and
representation of limits of the function, with properties and examples in detail.
Limits and Functions
A function may approach two different limits. One where the variable

approaches its limit through values larger than the limit and the other where

the variable approaches its limit through values smaller than the limit. In such

a case, the limit is not defined but the right and left-hand limits exist.
Properties of Limits.
Special Rules:
Solution :
Solution:
GATE CSE 2022
GATE CSE 2019
01
GATE CSE 2016 Set 1.
GATE EE 1997
GATE ME 2016
GATE CE 2012
GATE ME 2009
GATE CH 2016
Basics of Trigonometry.
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Introduction to Log and Exponential function
The intermediate value theorem says that if a function f(x) is continuous on
an interval [a, b], then for every y-value between f(a) and f(b), there exists
some x-value in the interval (a, b). i.e., if f(x) is continuous on [a, b], then it
should take every value that lies between f(a) and f(b). Recall that a
continuous function is a function whose graph is a curve that can be drawn
without lifting a pencil.
The intermediate value theorem has many applications. Mathematically, it is used in many areas. This
theorem is utilized to prove that there exists a point below or above a given particular line. It is also used to
analyze the continuity of a function that is continuous or not.

This theorem has many implications in Physics and Chemistry problems too. It is applicable whenever there
is a continuously varying scalar quantity with endpoints sharing the same value for a variable. These
quantities may be – pressure, temperature, elevation, carbon dioxide gas concentration, etc.

Intermediate value theorem has some significant real-life applications too. Let us take an example of a wobbly
table due to the uneven ground. In order to fix this, rotate the table, provided that the ground is continuous;
i.e. no ups and downs due to poorly-fitted tiles.
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 First Derivative Test.

01
 The first derivative test helps in finding the turning points,
where the function output has a maximum value or a minimum
value. For the first derivative test. we define a function f(x) on
an open interval I. Let the function f(x) be continuous at a
critical point c in interval I. Here we have the following
conditions, to find the local maximum and minimum, by using
the first derivative test.

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Local Maxima: Here in the first graph above, (c, f(c)) is a point

of local maxima, since f'(x) > 0 towards its left, and f'(x) < 0

towards its right.

Local Minima: Here in the second graph above (c, f(c)) is a

point of local minima, since f'(x) < 0 towards its left, and f'(x) > 0

towards its right.

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Steps for First Derivative Test
The following steps are helpful to complete the first derivative test and finding the limiting points.

● For the given function f(x), find the first derivative f'(x).

● Find the limiting points by equalizing the first derivative expression to zero f'(x) = 0.

● Find one point each in the neighboring left side and the neighboring right side of the limiting point.

● Substitute these neighboring points in the first derivative functions.

● If the differentiation of the function is positive f'(x) > 0, for the neighboring point to the left, and it is

negative f'(x) < 0, for the neighboring point to the right, then the limiting point is the local maxima.

● If the differentiation of the function is negative f'(x) < 0, for the neighboring point to the left, and it is

positive f'(x)>0, for the neighboring point to the right, then the limiting point is the local minima.

09
 3 2
Example 1: Find the local maxima and local minima of the function f(x) = 2x + 3x - 12x + 5., using the first derivative test.

Solution:

3 2
The given function is f(x) = 2x + 3x - 12x + 5

2
f'(x) = 6x + 6x - 12

2 2
f'(x) = 0; 6x - 6x - 12 = 0, 6(x + x - 2) = 0, 6(x - 1)(x + 2) = 0

Hence the limiting points are x = 1, and x = -2.

Let us take the points in the immediate neighbourhood of x = 1. The points are {0, 2}.

2 2
f'(0) = 6(0 + 0 - 2) = 6(-2) = -12, and f'(2) = 6(2 + 2 - 2) = 6(4) = +24

10
The derivative of the function is negative towards the left of x = 1, and is positive towards the right. Hence x = 1 is the local minima.

Let us now take the points in the immediate neighborhood of x = -2. The points are {-3, -1}.

2 2
f'(-3) = 6((-3) + (-3) - 2) = 6(4) = +24, and f'(-1) = 6((-1) + (-1) -2) = 6(-2) = -12

The derivative of the function is positive towards the left of x = -2, and is negative towards the right. Hence x = -2 is the local

maxima.

Therefore, the local maxima is at x = -2, and the local minima is at x = 1.

3 2
Local maxima = f(-2) = 2(-2) + 3(-2) - 12(-2) + 5 = 25

3 2
Local minima = f(1) = 2(1) + 3(1) - 12(1) + 5 = -2

Answer: Local maxima is at (-2, 25) and local minima is at (1, -2).

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 Second Derivative Test.

01
 Second Derivative Test
The second derivative test is a systematic method of finding the absolute maximum and

absolute minimum value of a real-valued function defined on a closed or bounded interval.

The second derivative test can be used in solving optimization problems in physics,

economics, engineering.

Let us learn more about the second derivative test, steps for the test, uses, and examples

on 2nd derivative test.

02
 What Is Second Derivative Test

The second derivative test is a systematic method of finding the absolute

maximum and absolute minimum value of a real-valued function defined

on a closed or bounded interval. Here we consider a function f(x) defined

on a closed interval I, and a point x= k belongs to a closed interval (I).

Here we consider a function f(x), which is differentiable twice at x = k,

then we have the following three conditions.

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 ● x = k, is a point of local maxima if f'(k) = 0, and f''(k) < 0. The point at x=

k is the locl maxima and f(k) is called the local maximum value of f(x).

● x = k is a point of local minima if f'(k) = 0, and f''(k) >0 . The point at x =

k is the local minima and f(k) is called the local minimum value of f(x).

● The test fails if f'(k) = 0, and f''(k) = 0. And the point x = k is called the

point of inflection.

Here if the test fails at point x=k, we go back to the first derivative test and
once again check if it is the local maxima or the local minima.

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 Steps for Second Derivative Test.

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 3
Example 1: Find the maxima and the minima of the function (x) = x - 12x + 5, by using the second derivative
test.
Solution:

3
The given function is f(x) = x - 12x + 5

2
f'(x) = 3x - 12

f'(x) = 0, Hence we have x = 2, and x = -2

f''(x) = 6x

f''(2) = 6 x 2 = 12 , and f''(2) > 0 , and x = 2 is the minima

f''(-2) = 6 x (-2) = -12, and f''(-2) < 0, and x = -2 is the maxima.

Therefore by using the second derivative test, the local maxima is -2, with a maximum value of f(-2) = 21, and

the local minima is 2, with a minimum value of f(2) = -11.

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 3 2
● Example 2: Find the local maxima and local minima of the function f(x) = x - 6x +9x + 15. using the second derivative test.

Solution:

3 2
The given function is f(x) = x - 6x +9x + 15.

2
f'(x) = 3x - 12x + 9

2
f'(0) = 3(x - 4x + 3)

2
x - 4x + 3 = 0 or (x - 1)(x - 3)=0.

Here x = 1, and x = 3

f''(x) = 6x - 12

f''(1) = 6(1) - 12 = 6 - 12 = -6., f''(1) < 0, and x = 1 is the maxima.

f''(3) = 6(3) - 12 = 18 - 12 = 6, f''(3) > 0, and x = 3 is the minima.

Therefore by using the second derivative test, the local maxima is 1, with a maximum value of f(1) = 19, and the local minima is 3, with a

minimum value of f(3) = 15

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