Algebraic Structures

Algebraic Systems with One Binary Operation

Binary Operation

Let S be a non-empty set. If f : S × S → S is a mapping, then f is called a binary

operation or binary composition in S.

The symbols +, ·, ∗, ⊕ etc are used to denote binary operations on a set.

  For a, b ∈ S ⇒ a + b ∈ S ⇒ + is a binary operation in S.

  For a, b ∈ S ⇒ a · b ∈ S ⇒ · is a binary operation in S.
  For a, b ∈ S ⇒ a ◦ b ∈ S ⇒ ◦ is a binary operation in S.
  For a, b ∈ S ⇒ a ∗ b ∈ S ⇒ ∗ is a binary operation in S.
  This is said to be the closure property of the binary operation and the set S is said to be closed
with respect to the binary operation.

Properties of Binary Operations

Commutative: ∗ is a binary operation in a set S. If for a, b ∈ S, a ∗ b = b ∗ a, then ∗ is said to be

commutative in S. This is called commutative law.

Associative: ∗ is a binary operation in a set S. If for a, b, c ∈ S, (a∗b)∗c = a∗(b∗c), then ∗ is said to be

associative in S. This is called associative law.

Distributive: ◦, ∗ are binary operations in S. If for a, b, c ∈ S, (i) a ◦ (b ∗ c) = (a ◦ b) ∗ (a ◦ c), (ii)

(b ∗ c) ◦ a = (b ◦ a) ∗ (c ◦ a), then ◦ is said to be distributive w.r.t the operation ∗.

Example: N is the set of natural numbers.

(i) +, · are binary operations in N, since for a, b ∈ N, a + b ∈ N and a · b ∈ N. In

other words N is said to be closed w.r.t the operations + and ·.

(ii) +, · are commutative in N, since for a, b ∈ N, a + b = b + a and a · b = b · a.

(iii) +, · are associative in N, since for a, b, c ∈ N,a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c and a · (b · c) = (a · b) · c.

(iv) is distributive w.r.t the operation + in N, since for a, b, c ∈ N, a · (b + c) = a · b + a ·

c and (b + c) · a = b · a + c · a.

(v) The operations subtraction (−) and division (÷) are not binary operations in N, since
for 3, 5 ∈ N does not imply 3 − 5 ∈ N and 3 5 ∈ N.

Example: A is the set of even integers.

(i) +, · are binary operations in A, since for a, b ∈ A, a + b ∈ A and a · b ∈ A.

(i) +, · are commutative in A, since for a, b ∈ A, a + b = b + a and a · b = b · a.

(ii) +, · are associative in A, since for a, b, c ∈ A,

a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c and a · (b · c) = (a · b) · c.

(iv) · is distributive w.r.t the operation + in A, since for a, b, c ∈ A, a ·

(b + c) = a · b + a · c and (b + c) · a = b · a + c · a.

Example: Let S be a non-empty set and ◦ be an operation on S defined by a ◦ b = a for a, b ∈ S.

Determine whether ◦ is commutative and associative in S.

Solution: Since a ◦ b = a for a, b ∈ S and b ◦ a = b for a, b ∈ S.

⇒ a ◦ b ≠b ◦ a.

∴ ◦ is not commutative in S.

Since (a ◦ b) ◦ c = a ◦ c = a

a ◦ (b ◦ c) = a ◦ b = a for a, b, c ∈ S.

∴ ◦ is associative in S.

Example: ◦ is operation defined on Z such that a ◦ b = a + b − ab for a, b ∈ Z. Is the operation ◦ a ,

operation in Z? If so, is it associative and commutative in Z?

Solution: If a, b ∈ Z, we have a + b ∈ Z, ab ∈ Z and a + b − ab ∈ Z.

⇒ a ◦ b = a + b − ab ∈ Z.

∴ ◦ is a binary operation in Z.

⇒ a ◦ b = b ◦ a.

∴ ◦ is commutative in Z.

Now

(a ◦ b) ◦ c = (a ◦ b) + c − (a ◦ b)c

= a + b − ab + c − (a + b − ab)c
=a + b − ab + c − ac − bc + abc

and

a ◦ (b ◦ c) = a + (b ◦ c) − a(b ◦ c)

=a + b + c − bc − a(b + c − bc)

=a + b + c − bc − ab − ac + abc

=a + b − ab + c − ac − bc + abc

⇒ (a ◦ b) ◦ c = a ◦ (b ◦ c). ∴

◦ is associative in Z.

Example: Fill in blanks in the following composition table so that′s associative in S = {a,b,c,d}.

Solution: d ◦ a = (c ◦ b) ◦
a[∵ c ◦ b = d]

=c ◦ (b ◦ a) [∵ ◦ is
associative]

=c ◦ b

=d

d ◦ b = (c ◦ b) ◦ b = c ◦ (b ◦ b) = c ◦ a = c.

d ◦ c = (c ◦ b) ◦ c = c ◦ (b ◦ c) = c ◦ c = c.

d ◦ d = (c ◦ b) ◦ (c ◦ b)
=c ◦ (b ◦ c) ◦ b

=c ◦ c ◦ b

=c ◦ (c ◦ b)

=c ◦ d

=d

Hence, the required composition table is

Algebraic Structures

Definition: A non-empty set G equipped with one

or more binary operations is called an

algebraic structure or an algebraic system.

If ◦ is a binary operation on G, then the algebraic structure is written as (G, ◦).

Example: (N, +), (Q, −), (R, +) are algebraic structures.

Semi Group

Definition: An algebraic structure (S, ◦) is called a semi group if the binary oper-ation ◦ is

associative in S.That is, (S, ◦) is said to be a semi group if

(i) a, b ∈ S ⇒ a ◦ b ∈ S for all a, b ∈ S

(ii) (a ◦ b) ◦ c = a ◦ (b ◦ c) for all a, b, c ∈ S.

Example:

1. (N, +) is a semi group. For a, b ∈ N ⇒ a + b ∈ N and a, b, c ∈ N ⇒ (a + b) + c =a+ (b +c).

2. (Q, −) is not a semi group. For 5,3/2 , 1 ∈ Q does not imply (5 – 3/2 ) −1 = 5 −(3/2 −1).

3. (R, +) is a semi group. For a, b ∈ R ⇒ a + b ∈ R and a, b, c ∈ R ⇒ (a + b) + c = a+ (b + c)

Example: The operation ◦ is defined by a ◦ b = a for all a, b ∈ S. Show that (S, ◦) is a semi group.

Solution: Let a, b ∈ S ⇒ a ◦ b = a ∈ S.

∴ ◦ is a binary operation in S. Let a, b, c ∈ S, a ◦ (b ◦ c) = a ◦ b = a

(a ◦ b) ◦ c = a ◦ c = a.

⇒ ◦ is associative in S.

∴ (S, ◦) is a semi group.

Example: The operation ◦ is defined by a ◦ b = a + b − ab for all a, b ∈ Z. Show that (Z, ◦) is a semi group.

Solution: Let a, b ∈ Z ⇒ a ◦ b = a + b − ab ∈ Z.

∴ ◦ is a binary operation in Z.

Let a, b, c ∈ Z.

(a ◦ b) ◦ c = (a + b − ab) ◦ c

=a + b − ab + c − (a + b − ab)c

=a + b + c − ab − bc − ac + abc

a ◦ (b ◦ c) = a ◦ (b + c − bc)

=a + (b + c − bc) − a(b + c − bc)

=a + b + c − bc − ab − ac +

abc ⇒ (a ◦ b) ◦ c = a ◦ (b ◦ c).

⇒ ◦ is associative in Z. ∴ (Z, ◦) is semi group.

Example: (P (S), ∩) is a semi group, where P (S) is the power set of a non-empty set S.

Solution: P (S)= Set of all possible subsets of S.

Let A, B ∈ P (S).

Since A ⊆ S, B ⊆ S ⇒ A ∩ B ⊆ S ⇒ A ∩ B ∈ P (S).

∴ ∩ is a binary operation in P (S). Let A, B, C ∈ P (S).

∴ (A ∩ B) ∩ C, A ∩ (B ∩ C) ∈ P (S). Since (A ∩ B) ∩ C

= A ∩ (B ∩ C)

∴ ∩ is associative in P (S).

Hence (P (S), ∩) is a semi group.

Example: (P (S), ∪) is a semi group, where P (S) is the power set of a non-empty set S.

Solution: P (S)= Set of all possible subsets of S.

Let A, B ∈ P (S).

Since A ⊆ S, B ⊆ S ⇒ A ∪ B ⊆ S ⇒ A ∪ B ∈ P (S).

∴ ∪ is a binary operation in P (S). Let A, B, C ∈ P (S).

∴ (A ∪ B) ∪ C, A ∪ (B ∪ C) ∈ P (S). Since (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C)

∴ ∪ is associative in P (S).

Hence (P (S), ∪) is a semi group.

Example: Q is the set of rational numbers, ◦ is a binary operation defined on Q such that a ◦ b = a - b + ab
for a, b ∈ Q. Then (Q, ◦) is not a semi group.

Solution: For a, b, c ∈ Q,

(a ◦ b) ◦ c = (a ◦ b) − c + (a ◦ b)c

=a − b + ab − c + (a − b + ab)c

=a − b + ab − c + ac − bc + abc

a ◦ (b ◦ c) = a − (b ◦ c) + a(b ◦ c)

=a − (b − c + bc) + a(b − cbc)

=a − b + c − bc + ab − ac + abc.

Therefore, (a ◦ b) ◦ c ≠a ◦ (b ◦ c).

Example:: Let (A, ∗) be a semi group. Show that for a, b, c in A if a ∗ c = c ∗ a and b ∗ c = c∗ b.

then (a ∗ b) ∗ c = c ∗ (a ∗ b).

Solution: Given (A, ∗) be a semi group, a ∗ c = c ∗ a and b ∗ c = c ∗ b.

Consider
(a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c) [∵ A is seme group]

=a ∗ (c ∗ b) [∵ b ∗ c = c ∗ b]

=(a ∗ c) ∗ b [∵ A is seme group]

=(c ∗ a) ∗ b [∵ a ∗ c = c ∗ a]

=c ∗ (a ∗ b) [∵ A is seme group].

Homomorphism of Semi-Groups

Definition: Let (S, ∗) and (T, ◦) be any two semi-groups. A mapping f : S → T such that for any two
elements a, b ∈ S, f(a ∗ b) = f(a) ◦ f(b) is called a semi-group homomorphism.

Definition: A homomorphism of a semi-group into itself is called a semi-group en-domorphism.

Example: Let (S1, ∗1), (S2, ∗2) and (S3, ∗3) be semigroups and f : S1 → S2 and g : S2 → S3 be
homomorphism. Prove that the mapping of g ◦ f : S1 → S3 is a semigroup homomorphism.

Solution: Given that (S1, ∗1), (S2, ∗2) and (S3, ∗3) are three semigroups and f : S1 →

S2 and g : S2 → S3 be homomorphisms.

Let a, b be two elements of S1.

(g ◦ f)(a ∗1 b) = g[f(a ∗1 b)]

= g[f(a) ∗2 f(b)] (∵ f is a homomorphism)

= g(f(a)) ∗3 g(f(b)) (∵ g is a homomorphism)

=(g ◦ f)(a) ∗3 (g ◦ f)(b)

∴ g ◦ f is a homomorphism.

Identity Element: Let S be a non-empty set and ◦ be a binary operation on S. If there exists an element ∈
S such that a ◦ e = e ◦ a = a, for a ∈ S, then e is called an identity element of S.

Example:

(i) In the algebraic system (Z, +), the number 0 is an identity element.

(ii) In the algebraic system (R, ·), the number 1 is an identity element.

Note: The identity element of an algebraic system is unique.

Monoid

Definition: A semi group (S, ◦) with an identity element with respect to the binary operation
is known as a monoid. i.e., (S, ◦) is a monoid if S is a non-empty set and ◦ is a binary

operation in S such that ◦ is associative and there exists an identity element w.r.t ◦.

Example:

1. (Z, +) is a monoid and the identity is 0.

2. (Z, ·) is a monid and the identity is 1.

Monoid Homomorphism

Definition: Let (M, ∗) and (T, ◦) be any two monoids, em and et denote the identity elements

of (M, ∗) and (T, ◦) respectively. A mapping f : M → T such that for any two elements a, b ∈

M,

f(a ∗ b) = f(a) ◦ f(b) and

f(em) = et

is called a monoid homomorphism.

Monoid homomorphism presents the associativity and identity. It also preserves

commutative. If a ∈ M is invertible and a -1

∈ M is the inverse of a in M, then f(a-1) is the inverse of f(a), i.e., f(a-1) = [f(a)]−1

Sub Semi group

Let (S, ∗) be a semi group and T be a subset of S. Then (T, ∗) is called a sub semi group of (S,*)
whenever T is closed under ∗. i.e., a ∗ b ∈ T, for all a, b ∈ T .

Sub Monoid:

Let (S,∗) be a monoid with e is the identity element and T be a non-empty subset of S. Then ,(T, ∗) is
the sub monoid of (S, ∗) if e ∈ T and a ∗ b ∈ T , whenever a, b ∈ T . Example:

1. Under the usual addition, the semi group formed by positive integers is a sub semi group of all
integers.

2. Under the usual addition, the set of all rational numbers forms a monoid. We denote it (Q,+). The
monoid (Z, +) is a submonid of (Q, +).

3. Under the usual multiplication, the set E of all even integers forms a semi group.

This semi group is sub semi group of (Z, ·). But it is not a submonoid of (Z, ·)because1≠E.
Example: Show that the intersection of
two submonoids of a monoid is a monoid.

Solution: Let S be a monoid with e as the

identity, and S1 and S2 be two submonoids
of S.

Since S1 and S2 are submonoids, these are monoids. Therefore e ∈ S1 and e ∈ S2.

Since S1 ∩S2 is a subset of S, the associative law holds in S1 ∩S2, because it holds in S.

Accordingly S1 ∩ S2 forms a monoid with e as the identity.

Invertible Element: Let (S,◦) be an algebraic structure with the identity element e in S w.r.t

◦. An element a ∈ S is said to be invertible if there exists an element x∈ S such that a ◦ x=x

a = e.

Note: The inverse of an invertible element is unique.

From the composition table, one can conclude

1. Closure Property: If all entries in the table are elements of S, then S closed under ◦.

2. Commutative Law: If every row of the table coincides with the corresponding column,

then ◦ is commutative on S.

3. Identity Element: If the row headed by an element a of S coincides with the top row, then a is called
the identity element.

4. Invertible Element: If the identity element e is placed in the table at the intersection of the row
headed by ′a' and the column headed by ′b', then b-1= a and a-1= b.

Example: A = {1, ω, ω2}.

From the table we conclude that

1. Closure Property: Since all entries in the table are elements of A. So, closure property is

satisfied.

2. Commutative Law: Since 1st, 2nd and 3rd rows coincides with 1st, 2nd and 3rdcolumns respectively.
So multiplication is commutative on A.

3. Identity Element: Since row headed by 1 is same as the initial row, so 1 is the identity element.

4. Inverses: Clearly 1−1= 1, ω-1= ω2, (ω2)-1= ω.

Groups

Definition: If G is a non-empty set and ◦ is a binary operation defined on G such that the

following three laws are satisfied then (G, ◦) is a group.

Associative Law: For a, b, c ∈ G, (a ◦ b) ◦ c = a ◦ (b ◦ c)

Identity Law: There exists e ∈ G such that a ◦ e = a = e ◦ a for every a ∈ G, e is called an

identity element in G.

Inverse Law: For each a ∈ G, there exists an element b ∈ G such that a◦b = b◦a = e, b is called an
inverse of a.

Example: The set Z of integers is a group w.r.t. usual addition.

(i). For a, b ∈ Z ⇒ a + b ∈ Z

(ii). For a, b, c ∈ Z, (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)

(iii). 0 ∈ Z such that 0 + a = a + 0 = a for each a ∈ G

0 is the identity element in Z.

(iv). For a ∈ Z, there exists −a ∈ Z such that a + (−a) = (−a) + a = 0.

∴ −a is the inverse of a. (Z, +) is a group.

Example: Give an example of a monoid which is not a group.

Solution: The set N of natural numbers w.r.t usual multiplication is not a group.

(i). For a, b ∈ N ⇒ a · b.

(ii). For a, b, c ∈ N, (a · b) · c = a · (b · c).

(iii). 1 ∈ N such that 1 · a = a · 1 = a, for all a ∈ N.

∴ (N, ·) is a monoid.

(iv). There is no n ∈ N such that a · n = n · a = 1 for a ∈ N.

∴ Inverse law is not true.

∴ The algebraic structure (N, ·) is not a group.

Example: (R, +) is a group, where R denote the set of real numbers.

Abelian Group (or Commutative Group): Let (G, ∗) be a group. If ∗ is com-mutative that is

a ∗ b = b ∗ a for all a, b ∈ G then (G, ∗) is called an Abelian group.

Example: (Z, +) is an Abelian group.

Example: Prove that G = {1, ω, ω2 } is a group with respect to multiplication where 1, ω,ω2 cube roots
of unity.

Solution: We construct the composition table as follows:

The
algebraic
system is (G,
·) where ω3=
1 and
multiplication · is the binary opera-tion on G.from the composition table; it is clear that (G, ·) is closed
with respect to the oper-ation multiplication and the operation · is associative.
1 is the identity element in G such that 1 · a = a = a · 1, ∀ a ∈ G.

Each element of G is invertible

1. 1· 1 = 1 ⇒ 1 is its own inverse.

2. ω · ω2= ω3= 1 ⇒ ω2

is the inverse of ω and ω is the inverse of ω2 in G.

∴ (G, ·) is a group and a · b = b · a, ∀a, b ∈ G, that is commutative law holds in

G with respect to multiplication.

∴ (G, ·) is an abelian group

Example: Show that the set G = {1, −1, i, −i} where i = 1is an abelian group with respect to
multiplication as a binary operation. Solution: Let us construct the composition table:

From the above composition, it is clear that the algebraic structure (G, ·) is closed and satisfies the
following axioms:

Associativity: For any three elements a, b, c ∈ G, (a · b) · c = a · (b · c).

1 · (−1 · i) = 1 · −i = −i

(1 · −1) · i = −1 · i = −i

⇒ 1 · (−1 · i) = (1 · −1) · i
Similarly with any other three elements of G the properties holds.

∴ Associative law holds in (G, ·).

Existence of identity: 1 is the identity element in (G, ·) such that 1 · a = a = a · 1, ∀ a ∈ G.

Existence of inverse: 1 · 1 = 1 = 1 · 1 ⇒ 1 is inverse of 1.

(−1) · (−1) = 1 = (−1) · (−1) ⇒ −1 is the inverse of (−1)

i · (−i) = 1 = −i · i ⇒ −i is the inverse of i in G.

−i · i = 1 = i · (−i) ⇒ i is the inverse of −i in G.

Hence inverse of every element in G exists.

Thus all the axioms of a group are satisfied.

Commutativity: a · b = b · a, ∀a, b ∈ G hold in G.

1 · 1 = 1 = 1 · 1; − 1 · 1 = −1 = 1 · −1

i · 1 = i = 1 · i; i · −i = −i · i = 1 etc.

Commutative law is satisfied.

Hence (G, ·) is an abelian group.

Example: Prove that the set Z of all integers with binary operation ∗ defined by a ∗ b = a +b

+ 1, ∀ a, b ∈ Z is an abelian group. Solution:

Closure: Let a, b ∈ Z. Since a + b ∈ Z and a + b + 1 ∈ Z.

∴ Z is closed under ∗.

Associativity: Let a, b, c ∈ Z.

Consider (a ∗ b) ∗ c = (a + b + 1) ∗ c

=a + b + 1 + c + 1

=a + b + c + 2

a ∗ (b ∗ c) = a ∗ (b + c + 1)
=a + b + c + 1 + 1

=a + b + c + 2

Hence (a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c) for a, b, c ∈ Z.

Existence of Identity: Let a ∈ Z. Let e ∈ Z such that e ∗ a = a ∗ e = a, i.e., a + e + 1 = a

⇒ e = −1

e = −1 is the identity element in Z.

Existence of Inverse: Let a ∈ Z. Let b ∈ Z such that a ∗ b = e.

⇒ a + b + 1 = −1

b = −2 − a

∴ For every a ∈ Z, there exits −2−a ∈ Z such that a∗(−2−a) = (−2−a)∗a = −1.

∴ (Z, ∗) is an abelian group.

Example: Show that the set Q+ of all positive rational numbers forms an abelian group under
composition defined by ◦ such that a ◦ b = ab/3 for a, b ∈ Q+. Solution: Q+ of the set of all rational
numbers and for a, b ∈ Q+, we have the operation ◦ such that a ◦ b = ab/3.

Associativity: a, b, c ∈ Q+⇒ (a ◦ b) ◦ c = a ◦ (b ◦ c).

Since ab∈ Q+ and ab/3∈ Q+.

Associativity: a, b, c ∈ Q+ ⇒ (a ◦ b) ◦ c = a ◦ (b ◦ c).

Since (a ◦ b) ◦ c = ( ab/3 ) ◦ c =[ab/3 .c]/3 = a/3( bc/3 ) = a/3 (b ◦ c) = a ◦ (b ◦ c).

Existence of Identity: Let a ∈ Q+. Let e ∈ Q+ such that e ◦ a = a.

i.e., ea/3 = a

⇒ ea − 3a = 0 ⇒ (e − 3)a = 0

⇒ e − 3 = 0 (∵ a ≠0)

⇒e=3

∴ e = 3 is the identity element in Q+.

Existence of Inverse: Let a ∈ Q+. Let b ∈ Q+ such that a ◦ b = e.

⇒ab/3 = 3
b = 9/a (∵ a ≠0)

∴ For every a ∈ Q+, there exists 9/a ∈ Q+ such that a ◦ 9/a = 9/a ◦ a = 3.

Commutativity: Let a, b ∈ Q+ ⇒ a ◦ b = b ◦ a.

Since a ◦ b = ab/3=ba/3 = b ◦ a.

(Q+, ◦) is an abelian group.

Exercises: 1. Prove that the set G of rational numbers other than 1 with operation ⊕ such that a ⊕ b = a
+ b − ab for a, b ∈ G is abelian group

2. Consider the algebraic system (G, ∗), where G is the set of all non-zero real numbers and ∗ is a
binary operation defined by: a ∗ b = ab

4 , ∀a, b ∈ G. Show that (G, ∗) is an

Addition modulo m

We shall now define a composite known as ―addition modulo m‖ where m is fixed integer.

If a and b are any two integers, and r is the least non-negative reminder obtained by dividing ordinary
sum of a and b by m, then the addition modulo m of a and b is r symbolically

a +m b = r, 0 ≤ r < m.

Example: 20 +6 5 = 1, since 20 + 5 = 25 = 4(6) + 1, i.e., 1 is the remainder when 20+5 is

divisible by 6.

Example: −15 +5 3 = 3, since −15 + 3 = −12 = 3(−5) + 3.

Multiplication modulo p

If a and b are any two integers, and r is the least non-negative reminder obtained by dividing ordinary
product of a and b by p, then the Multiplication modulo p of a and b is r symbolically

a ×p b = r, 0 ≤ r < p.

Example: Show that the set G = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} is an abelian group with respect to addition module5.

Solution: We form the composition table as follows:

Since all the entries in the composition table are elements of G, the set G is closed with

respecte to addition modulo 5.

Associativity: For any three elements a, b, c ∈ G, (a +5 b) +5 c and a +5 (b +5 c) leave the

same remainder when divided by 5.

i.e., (a +5 b) +5 c = a +5 (b +5 c)

(1 +5 3) +5 4 = 3 = 1 +5 (3 +5 4) etc.

Existence of Identity: Clearly 0 ∈ G is the identity element, since we have

0 +5 9 = 4 = 9 +5 0,∀ a ∈ G.

Existence of Inverse: Each element in G is invertible with respect to addition modulo 5.

0 is its own inverse; 4 is the inverse of 1 and 1 is the inverse of 4.

2 is the inverse of 3 and 3 is the inverse of 2 with respect to addition modulo 5 in G.

Commutativity: From the composition table it is clear that a+5 b = b+5 a, ∀ a, b ∈ G.

Hence (G, +5) is an abelian group

Example: Show that the set G= {1, 2, 3, 4} is an abelian with respect to multipli-cation module5.

Solution: The composition table for multiplication modulo 5 is

From the above table, it is clear that G is closed with respect to the operation ×5 and the

binary composition ×5 is associative; 1 is the identity element.

Each element in G has a inverse.

1 is its own inverse

2 is the inverse of 3

3 is the inverse of 2

4 is the inverse of 4, with respect to the binary operation ×5.

Commutative law holds good in (G, ×5).

Therefore (G, ×5) is an abelian group.

Example: Consider the group, G = {1, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17} under multiplication modulo 18.

Construct the multiplication table of G and find the values of: 5−1, 7−1and 17−1.

Example: If G is the set of even integers, i.e., G = {· · · , −4, −2, 0, 2, 4, · · · } then prove that

G is an abelian group with usual addition as the operation. Solution: Let a, b, c ∈ G.

∴ We can take a = 2x, b = 2y, c = 2z, where x, y, z ∈ Z.

Closure: a, b ∈ G ⇒ a + b ∈ G.

Since a + b = 2x + 2y = 2(x + y) ∈ G.

Associativity: a, b, c ∈ G ⇒ a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c

Since

a + (b + c) = 2x + (2y + 2z)

=2[x + (y + z)]

=2[(x + y) + z]

=(2x + 2y) + 2z

=(a + b) + c

Existence of Identity: a ∈ G, there exists 0 ∈ G such that a + 0 = 0 + a = a. Since a + 0 =

2x + 0 = 2x = a and 0 + a = 0 + 2x = 2x = 1
∴ 0 is the identity in G.

Existence of Inverse: a ∈ G, there exists −a ∈ G such that a+(−a) = (−a)+a = 0.

Since a + (−a) = 2x + (−2x) = 0 and (−a) + a = (−2x) + 2x = 0.

∴ (G, +) is a group.

Commutativity: a, b ∈ G ⇒ a + b = b + a.

Since a + b = 2x + 2y = 2(x + y) = 2(y + x) = 2y + 2x = b + a.

∴ (G, +) is an abelian group.

Example: Show that set G = {x| x = 2a3b

for a, b ∈ Z} is a group under multipli-cation.

Solution: Let x, y, z ∈ G. We can take x = 2p3q, y = 2r3s, z = 2l3m, where p, q, r, s, l, m ∈ Z.

We know that (i). p + r, q + s ∈ Z

(ii). (p + r) + l = p + (r + l), (q + s) + m = q + (s + m).

Closure: x, y ∈ G ⇒ x · y ∈ G.

Since x · y = (2p3q)(2r3s) = 2p+r 3q+s

∈ G. Associativity: x, y, z ∈ G ⇒ (x · y) · z = x · (y · z)

Since (x · y) · z = (2p3q2r3s)(2l3m)

=2(p+r)+l3(q+s)+m

=2p+(r+l)3q+(s+m)

=(2p3q)(2r3s2l3m)

=x · (y · z)

Existence of Identity: Let x ∈ G. We know that e = 2030

∈ G, since 0 ∈ Z.

∴ x · e = 2p3q203= 2p+03q+0 = 2p3q

= x and e · x = 203
023= 2p3

q= x. ∴ e ∈ G such that x · e = e · x = x

∴ e = 2030

is the identity element in G.

Existence of Inverse: Let x ∈ G.

Now y = 2−p3−q

∈ G exists, since −p, −q ∈ Z such that

x · y = 2p3

2−p3−q = 203

0= e and y · x = 2−p3−q2p3q= 203

0= e.

∴ For every x = 2p

3q∈ G there exists y = 2−p3−q

∈ G such that x ·y = y ·x = e. ∴ (G, ·) is a group.

Example: Show that the sets of all ordered pairs (a, b) of real numbers for which a ≠0 w.r.t

the operation ∗ defined by (a, b) ∗ (c, d) = (ac, bc + d) is a group. Is the commutative?

Solution: Let G = {(a, b)| a, b ∈ R and a ≠0}. Define a binary operation ∗ on G by (a, b) ∗ (c,

d) = (ac, bc + d), for all (a, b), (c, d) ∈ G. Now we show that (G, ∗) is a group.

Closure: (a, b), (c, d) ∈ G ⇒ (a, b) ∗ (c, d) = (ac, bc + d) ∈ G.

Since a ≠0, c ≠0 ⇒ ac ≠0.

Associativity: (a, b), (c, d), (e, f) ∈ G ⇒ {(a, b) ∗ (c, d)} ∗ (e, f) = (a, b) ∗ {(c, d) ∗(e, f)}.

Since {(a, b) ∗ (c, d)} ∗ (e, f) = (ac, bc + d) ∗ (e, f)

= (ace, (bc + d)e + f)

= (ace, bce + de + f)

Also (a, b) ∗ {(c, d) ∗ (e, f)} = (a, b) ∗ (ce, de + f)

= (a(ce), b(ce) + de + f)

= (ace, bce + de + f)

Existence of Identity: Let (a, b)∈G. Let (x, y)∈ G such that (x, y)∗(a, b)=(a,b)∗(x, y)=(a, b)

⇒ (xa, ya + b) = (a, b)

⇒ xa = a, ya + b = b

⇒ x = 1, (∵ a ≠0) and ya = 0 ⇒ x = 1 and y = 0 (∵ a ≠0)

⇒ (1, 0) ∈ G such that (a, b) ∗ (1, 0) = (a, b).

∴ (1, 0) is the identity in G.

Existence of Inverse: Let (a, b) ∈ G. Let (x, y) ∈ G such that (x, y) ∗ (a, b) = (1, 0)

⇒ (xa, ya + b) = (1, 0)⇒ xa = 1, ya + b = 0 ⇒ x = a1, y =ab

∴ The inverse of (a, b) exits and it is (1/a,-b/a ).

Commutativity: Let (a, b), (c, d) ∈ G ⇒ (a, b) ∗ (c, d) ≠(c, d) ∗ (a, b)

Since (a, b) ∗ (c, d) = (ac, bc + d) and (c, d) ∗ (a, b) = (ca, da + b).

∴ G is a group but not commutative group w.r.t ∗.

Example: If (G, ∗) is a group then (a ∗ b)-1= b-1* a-1 for all a, b ∈ G.

Solution: Let a, b ∈ G and e be the identity element in G.

Let a ∈ G ⇒ a−1

∈ G such that a∗a−1=a−1

∗a=e and b∈ G ⇒ b−1

∈ G such that b∗b−1=b−1∗ b = e.

Now a, b ∈ G ⇒ a ∗ b ∈ G and (a ∗ b)−1∈ G.

Consider(a ∗ b) ∗ (b−1∗ a−1) = a ∗ [b ∗ (b−1∗ a−1)] (by associativity law)=a ∗ [(b ∗ b−1) ∗ a−1]

= a ∗ (e ∗ a−1) (b ∗ b−1= e)= a ∗ a−1(e is the identity)

= e(b−1∗ a−1) ∗ (a ∗ b) = b−1∗ [a−1∗ (a ∗ b)]= b−1∗ [(a−1∗ a) ∗ b]= b−1∗ [e ∗ b]= b−1∗ b

= e⇒ (a ∗ b) ∗ (b* a-1) = (b−1∗ a) ∗ (a ∗ b) = e (a ∗ b)−1= b−1 a−1 for all a, b ∈ G.

Note:

1. (b−1−1)−1= ab

2. (abc)−1= c−1b−1a−1

3. If (G, +) is a group, then −(a + b) = (−b) + (−a)

4. −(a + b + c) = (−c) + (−b) + (−a).

Order of an Element

Definition: Let (G, ∗) be a group and a ∈ G, then the least positive integer n if it exists such

that a n= e is called the order of a ∈ G.

The order of an element a ∈ G is be denoted by O(a).

Example: G = {1, −1, i, −i} is a group with respect to multiplication. 1 is the identity in G.

11= 12= 13= · · · = 1 ⇒ O(1) = 1.

(−1)2= (−1)4= (−1)6= · · · = 1 ⇒ O(−1) = 2.

i4= i8= i12= · · · = 1 ⇒ O(i) = 4.(−i)= (−i)8= · · · = 1 ⇒ O(−i) = 4.

Example: In a group G, a is an element of order 30. Find order of a 5.

Solution: Given O(a) = 30

⇒ a30= e, e is the identity element of G. Let O(a5) = n

⇒ (a5)n= e

⇒ a5n= e, where n is the least positive integer. Hence 30 is divisor of 5n.

∴ n = 6.

Hence O(a5) = 6

Sub Groups

Definition: Let (G, ∗) be a group and H be a non-empty subset of G. If (H, ∗) is itself is a

group, then (H, ∗) is called sub-group of (G, ∗).

Examples:1. (Z, +) is a subgroup of (Q, +).

2. The additive group of even integers is a subgroup of the additive group of all .

3. (N, +) is not a subgroup of the group (Z, +), since identity does not exist in N under +.

Example: Let G = {1, −1, i, −i} and H = {1, −1}.

Here G and H are groups with respect to the binary operation multiplication and H is a subset

of G. Therefore (H, ·) is a subgroup of (G, ·).

Example: Let H = {0, 2, 4} ⊆ Z6. Check that (H, +6) is a subgroup of (Z6, +6).

Solution: Z6 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.

Z6, +6) is a group.

H= {0, 2, 4}.
The following conditions are to be satisfied in order to prove that it is a subgroup.

(i). Closure: Let a, b ∈ H ⇒ a +6 b ∈ H.0, 2 ∈ H ⇒ 0 +6 2 = 2 ∈ H.

(ii). Identity Element: The row headed by 0 is exactly same as the initial row.

∴ 0 is the identity element.

(iii). Inverse: 0−1= 0, 2−1= 4, 4−1= 2.

Inverse exist for each element of (H, +6).

∴ (H, +6) is a subgroup of (Z6, +6).

Theorem: If (G, ∗) is a group and H ⊆ G, then (H, ∗) is a subgroup of (G, ∗) if and only if

(i) a, b ∈ H ⇒ a ∗ b ∈ H;(ii) a ∈ H ⇒ a−1€ H.

Proof: The condition is necessary

Let (H, ∗) be a subgroup of (G, ∗).

To prove that conditions (i) and (ii) are satisfied

Since (H, ∗) is a group, by closure property we have a, b ∈ H ⇒ ab ∈ H.

Also, by inverse property a ∈ H ⇒ a−1∈ H.

The condition is sufficient:

Let (i) and (ii) be true. To prove that (H, ∗) is a subgroup of (G, ∗).

We are required to prove is: ∗ is associative in H and identity e ∈ H.

That ∗ is associative in H follows from the fact that ∗ is associative in G. Since H is nonempty,

let a ∈ H ⇒ a−1∈ H (by (ii))

∴ a ∈ H, a−1

∈ H ⇒ aa−1∈ H (by (i))

⇒ e ∈ H (∵ aa−1 ∈ H ⇒ aa−1 ∈ G ⇒ aa−1

= e, where e is the identity in G.)

⇒ e is the identity in H.

Hence H itself is a group.∴ H is a subgroup of G.

Example: The set S of all ordered pairs (a, b) of real numbers for which a ≠0 w.r.t the

operation × defined by (a, b) × (c, d) = (ac, bc + d) is non-abelian. Let H= {(1, b)| b ∈ R} is a

subset of S. Show that H is a subgroup of (S, ×).

Solution: Identity element in S is (1, 0). Clearly (1, 0) ∈ H.

Inverse of (a, b) in S is (1/a,-b/a ) (∵ a ≠0)

Inverse of (1, c) in S is (1, -c/1 ), i.e., (1, −c)

Clearly (1, c) ∈ H ⇒ (1, c)−1= (1, −c) ∈ H. (1, b) ∈ H.(1, b) × (1, c)−1

= (1, b) × (1, −c)

= (1.1, b.1 − c) = (1, b − c) ∈ H (∵ b − c ∈ R)

∴ (1, b), (1, c) ∈ H ⇒ (1, b) × (1, c)−1

∈ H ∴ H is a

subgroup of (S, ×).

Note: (1, b) × (1, c) = (1.1, b.1 + c)

=(1, b + c)

=(1, c + b)

=(1, c) × (1, b)

∴ H is an abelian subgroup of the non-abelian group (S, ×).

Theorem: If H1 and H2 are two subgroups of a group G, then H1 ∩ H2 is also a subgroup of G

Proof: Let H1 and H2 be two subgroups of a group G.

Let e be the identity element in G.

∴ e ∈ H1 and e ∈ H2. ∴ e ∈ H1 ∩ H2.

⇒ H1 ∩ H2 ≠ϕ.

Let a ∈ H1 ∩ H2 and b ∈ H1 ∩ H2.

∴ a ∈ H1, a ∈ H2 and b ∈ H1, b ∈ H2.

Since H1 is a subgroup, a ∈ H1 and b ∈ H1 ⇒ ab−1∈ H1.

Similarly ab−1∈ H2.

∴ ab−1∈ H1 ∩ H2.

Thus we have, a ∈ H1 ∩ H2, b ∈ H1 ∩ H2 ⇒ ab−1∈ H1 ∩ H2.

∴ H1 ∩ H2 is a subgroup of G.

Example: Let G be the group and Z={x ∈ G| xy=yx for all y∈G}. Prove that Z is a subgroup of G.

Solution: Since e ∈ G and ey = ye, for all y ∈ G. It follows that e ∈ Z.

Therefore Z is non-empty.

Take any a, b ∈ Z and any y ∈ G. Then

(ab)y = a(by)=a(yb), since b ∈ Z, by = yb=(ay)b=(ya)b=y(ab)

This show that ab ∈ Z.

Let a ∈ Z ⇒ ay = ya for all y ∈ G.⇒ a−1(ay)a−1= a−1(ya)a−1⇒ (a−1)(ya−1) = (a-1)(aa-1)⇒ e(ya)= (a−1)e ⇒
a−1 = ay-1

This shows that a-1∈ Z.

Thus, when a, b ∈ Z, we have ab ∈ Z and a−1€ Z.

Therefore Z is a subgroup of G.

This subgroup is called the center of G.

Homomorphism

Homomorphism into: Let (G, ∗) and (G', ·) be two groups and f be a mapping from G into G'

. If for a, b ∈ G, f(a∗b) = f(a)·f(b), then f is called homomorphism G into G′.Homomorphism onto: Let (G,
∗) and (G, ·) be two groups and f be a mapping from G ontoG′

. If for a, b ∈ G, f(a∗b) = f(a)·f(b), then f is called homomorphism G onto G′.

Also then G′ is said to be a homomorphic image of G. We write this as f(G)G′.

Isomorphism: Let (G, ∗) and (G', ·) be two groups and f be a one-one mapping of G onto G'.

If for a, b ∈ G, f(a ∗ b) = f(a) · f(b), then f is said to be an isomorphism from G onto G

Endomorphism: A homomorphism of a group G into itself is called an endomor-phism.

Monomorphism: A homomorphism into is one-one, then it is called an monomor-phism.

Epimorphism: If the homomorphism is onto, then it is called epimorphism.

Automorphism: An isomorphism of a group G into itself is called an automorphism.

Example: Let G be the additive group of integers and G'

be the multiplicative group. Then

mapping f : G → G ′given by f(x) = 2xis a group homomorphism of G into G.

Solution: Since x, y ∈ G ⇒ x + y ∈ G and 2x, 2y∈ G 2x 2€ G. f(x + y) = 2x+y= 2x 2y

= f(x) · f(y).

⇒ f is a homomorphism of G into G′.

Example: Let G be a group of positive real numbers under multiplication and G′ a group of

all real numbers under addition. The mapping f : G → G′

given by f(x) = log10 x. Show that f is an isomorphism.

Solution: Given f(x) = log10 x.

Let a, b ∈ G ⇒ ab ∈ G. Also, f(a), f(b) ∈ G′.

∴ f(ab) = log10 ab = log10 a + log10 b = f(a) + f(b).

⇒ f is a homomorphism from G into G′.

Let x1, x2 ∈ G and f(x1) = f(x2)⇒log10 1 = log10 x2⇒1010 1 = 1010 2

⇒ x1 = x2

⇒ f is one-one.

⇒ f(10y) = log10(10y) = y.

∴ For ever y ∈ G′, there exists 10y∈ G such that f(10y) = y⇒ f is onto.

∴ f an isomorphism from G to G′.

Example: If R is the group of real numbers under the addition and R+ the group of positive

real numbers under the multiplication. Let f : R → R+ defined by f(x) = e, then show that f

is an isomorphism.
Solution: Let f : R → R+ defined by f(x) = e.

f is one-one: Let a, b ∈ G and f(a) = f(b)⇒ e= e⇒ log e= log e

⇒ a log e = b log e

⇒a=b

Thus f s one-one. is onto: If c ∈ R+ log c ∈ R and f(log c) = e c= c each element of R+ a pre-image in R

under f and hence f is onto.

f is Homomorphism: f(a + b) = e a+b= e.eb

= f(a).f(b) Hence f is an isomorphism.

Example: Let G be a multiplicative group and f : G → G such that for a ∈ G, f(a) = a−1.

Prove that f is one-one and onto. Also, prove that f is homomorphism if and only if G is

commutative.

Solution: f : G → G is a mapping such that f(a) = a−1, for a ∈ G.

(i). To prove that f is one-one. a, b ∈ G. ∴ a−1, b−1

∈ G and f(a), f(b) ∈ G.

Now f(a) = f(b)⇒ a−1= b−1⇒ (a−1)−1= (b−1)−1⇒ a = b

∴ f is one-one.

(ii). To prove that f is onto.

Let a ∈ G. ∴ a−1

∈ G such that f(a−1) = (a−1)−1= a.

∴ f is onto.

(iii). Suppose f is a homomorphism.

For a, ∈ G, ab ∈ G. Now f(ab) = f(a)f(b)⇒ (ab)−1= a−1b−1⇒ b−1a−1=a−1b−1⇒ (b−1a−1)

−1= (a−1b−1)−1⇒ (a−1)−1(b−1)−1= (b−1)−1(a−1)−1

⇒ ab = ba∴ G is abelian.(iv). Suppose G is abelian ⇒ ab = ba, ∀ a, b ∈ G.

For a, b ∈ G, f(ab) = (ab)−1= b−1a−1=a−1b−1=f(a)f(b)

∴ f is a homomorphism