Research Methodology

Q 1. What is Research ? Write down the characteristics and the

objective of research.
Ans Research is defined as the creation of new knowledge or use of existing
knowledge in a new and creative way to generate new concept, methodologies and
understanding.

There are two types of research

Inductive research : It deals with the analysis of on observed event associated with
qualitative research.

Deductive research : It deals with the verification of observed event associated with
quantitative research.

Characteristics of Research
 Empirical - It should be based on observations and experimentation

 Systematic -It must follows orderly and sequential procedure.

 Controlled - All variables except those that are tested/experimented upon are
kept constant.

 Employs hypothesis - Guides the investigation process

 Analytical - There is critical analysis of all data used so that there is no error in
their interpretation

 Objective, Unbiased, & Logical - all findings are logically based on empirical.

 Employs quantitative or statistical methods - data are transformed into

numerical measures and are treated statistically.

 Systematic approach- Good research follows a systematic approach to capture

accurate data. Researchers need to practice ethics and a code of conduct while
making observations or drawing conclusions
 In-depth analysis-There is an in-depth analysis of all data collected so that there
are no anomalies associated with it.

 logical reasoning -The analysis is based on logical reasoning and involves both
inductive and deductive methods.
Objective of research
1. To find out the real facts-

Every type of research has its own object but the basic aim of the research is always
to find out or obtained the information from the markets and societies and their
number of respondents. A researcher evaluates or finds the real or exact information
for our problem-related questions.

2. To achieve the new thoughts-

In this objective of the research, anybody can find new thoughts from the research.
Research is the process of finding the exact information through proper observation,
optimization, and experiments.

These are the scientific methods to find out or evaluate the information which is very
necessary for evaluating the problem task.

3. To evaluate the information-

The first aim of the research is to find out the information and then evaluate them in an
appropriate or efficient manner so that they can easily design the research problem
and solve them also.

A researcher evaluates the information through various scientific approaches and

methods, statistical analysis and procedures, and another type of tables and graphs.

4. To test a hypothesis-

The researcher does the causal relationship between the variables (it can also be said
that the hypothesis testing research studies). The hypothesis testing study represents
the number of actions like these terms:

(a) Making a formal statement,

(b) Selecting a significance level,

(c) Deciding the distribution use,

(d) Selecting a random sample and computing an appropriate value,

(e) Calculation of the probability,

(f) Comparing the probability.

5. To design or implement the research-

After the collection of all information, the researcher prepares the structure of a
research design for the company so that they can easily describe or identify the
structure of a particular research theme. The research designs can be broadcasted
into two forms such as experimental designs and non-experimental designs.

After the structure of the research design, the researcher implements them in a
problem and find out the optimum factor to solve them.

6. To improve the understanding-

The researcher helps to improve the understanding of a particular topic by asking

what else needs to be evidenced before the research is purposeful, or what
knowledge could be assembled from a more focused investigation, or scrutiny of the
existing findings.

Q.2 What is Research proposal ?

Ans A research proposal is a concise and coherent summary of your proposed
research. It sets out the central issues or questions that you intend to address. It
outlines the general area of study within which your research falls, referring to the
current state of knowledge and any recent debates on the topic.

Steps of creating a research proposal

Developing and defining a topic

Exploring your purpose and audience for your research.

Conducting preliminary research

Formulating research questions

Creating a research plan

Prepare a research proposal

Developing and defining a topic

As you begin writing your research proposal, it is helpful to think of the introduction as
a narrative of what it is you want to do, written in one to three paragraphs. Within
those one to three paragraphs, it is important to briefly answer the following
questions:

What is the central research problem?

How is the topic of your research proposal related to the problem?

What methods will you utilize to analyze the research problem?

Why is it important to undertake this research? What is the significance of your

proposed research? Why are the outcomes of your proposed research important?
Whom are they important?

Exploring your purpose and audience for your research

The purpose of this section is to explain the context of your proposal and to describe,
in detail, why it is important to undertake this research. This is generally done through
free writing.

Conducting preliminary research

A research plan should begin after you can clearly identify the focus of your argument.
First, inform yourself about the basics of your topic. Be sure you have read all the
assigned texts and carefully read the prompt as you gather preliminary information.
This stage is sometimes called pre-research. It can be done by using offline resources
like books in library as well as online resources like search engines.

Formulating a research questions

Formulation of research question (RQ) is an essential before starting any research. It

aims to explore an existing uncertainty in an area of concern and points to a need for
deliberate investigation. To develop a RQ, one needs to begin by identifying the
subject of interest and then do preliminary research on that subject. The researcher
then defines what still needs to be known in that particular subject and assesses the
implied questions. After narrowing the focus and scope of the research subject,
researcher frames a RQ and then evaluates it. Thus, conception to formulation of RQ
is very systematic process.

Creating a research plan

A research plan is a documented overview of your entire project, from the research
you conduct to the results you expect to find at the end of the project. Within a
research plan, you determine your goals, the steps to reach them and everything you
need to gather your results.

A research plan is important and beneficial for your project for the following reasons.

 A research plan is important because it can help you organize the different
elements of your project.

 Another reason creating a research plan for your project is important is because it
helps keep everyone involved up to date

 Creating a research plan before you begin your research can help you define the
project's purpose.

 A research plan can help you by limiting distractions throughout your project. If
you create a document that outlines every step of a project, the project's purpose
and a basic timeline, a team is less likely to get distracted with extra steps, items
or objectives.

Prepare a research proposal

A research proposal describes what you will investigate, why it’s important, and how
you will conduct your research.A research proposal serves as a blueprint and guide
for your research plan, helping you get organized and feel confident in the path
forward you choose to take.

The format of a research proposal varies between fields, but most proposals will
contain at least these elements:

 Title page
 Introduction
 Literature review
 Research design
 Reference list

Q.3 Write down the elements of an ideal research proposal?

Ans An ideal research proposal should have the following elements:-

Rigor (soundness of the research)

This addresses the strength of the research with respect to its neutrality, consistency
and applicability. Rigor must be reflected throughout the proposal.

Neutrality

It refers to the robustness of a research method against bias. The author should
convey the measures taken to avoid bias,

Consistency

Consistency considers whether the findings will be consistent if the inquiry was
replicated with the same participants and in a similar context. This can be achieved by
adopting standard and universally accepted methods and scales.

Applicability

Applicability refers to the degree to which the findings can be applied to different
contexts and group

Precise language

A proposal should be clear and in easy and understandable language so that all
readers are able to understand exactly the core meaning and the purpose .

Organized

A good proposal should be organized .it should be written in simple, logical ,having
clear heading as well as sub heading.

Q.4 Write down the elements of a well - developed research

proposal ?
Ans A research proposal follows a fairly straightforward structure. In order to achieve
the goals described in the previous section, nearly all research proposals include the
following sections

Introduction
 In a research proposal, an introduction can be a few paragraphs long but should be
concise. Introduction achieves a few goals like:-

 Introduces your topic

 States your problem statement and the questions your research

to answer

 Provides context for your research along with the hypotheses

Background significance

This is where you explain why your research is necessary and how it relates to
established research in your field. This is also the section where you clearly define the
existing problems your research will address.

Literature review
In the literature review, you introduce all the sources you plan to use in your research.
This includes landmark studies and their data, books, and scholarly articles. A
literature review isn’t merely a list of sources (that’s what your bibliography is for); a
literature review delves into the collection of sources you chose and explains how
you’re using them in your research.

Research design, methods, and schedule

In this section, make sure you cover these aspects:

The type of research you will do. Are you conducting qualitative or quantitative
research? Are you collecting original data or working with data collected by other
researchers?
Research design refers to the overall strategy that you choose to integrate the different
components of the study in a coherent and logical way.

Methods refers to the specific procedures or techniques used to identify ,select ,process
and analyze information about a topic. It allows the reader to critically evaluate a study
overall validity and reliability.

Schedule refers to the tool or instrument used to collect data from the respondent while
interview is conducted.

Whether you’re doing experimental, correlational, or descriptive research

The data you’re working with. For example, if you’re conducting research in the social
sciences, you’ll need to describe the population you’re studying. You’ll also need to cover
how you’ll select your subjects and how you’ll collect data from them.

Beyond a comprehensive look at your research itself, you’ll also need to include:

 Your research timeline

 Your research budget

 Any potential obstacles you foresee and your plan for handling them

Suppositions and implications

This section is perhaps the most critical to your research proposal’s argument
because it expresses exactly why your research is necessary.

In this section, make sure you cover the following:

 Any ways your work can challenge existing theories and assumptions in your
field

 How your work will create the foundation for future research

 The practical value your findings will provide to practitioners, educators, and
other academics in your field

 The problems your work can potentially help to fix

 Policies that could be impacted by your findings

In other words, this section isn’t about stating the specific results you expect. Rather,
it’s where you state how your findings will be valuable.

Conclusion

This is where you wrap it all up. Your conclusion section, just like your conclusion
paragraph for an essay, briefly summarizes your research proposal and reinforces
your research’s stated purpose.

Bibliography

You need to write a bibliography in addition to your literature review. Unlike your
literature review, where you explained the relevance of the sources you chose and in
some cases, challenged them, your bibliography simply lists your sources and their
authors.
Q 5. Explain the process of research ?

Or

Define the stages in research ?

Ans A typical research process comprises the following stages:

1. Selecting the research area. Your dissertation marker expects you to state that
you have selected the research area due to professional and personal interests in the
area and this statement must be true. Students often underestimate the importance of
this first stage in the research process. If you find a research area and research
problem that is genuinely interesting to you it is for sure that the whole process of
writing your dissertation will be much easier. Therefore, it is never too early to start
thinking about the research area for your dissertation.

2. Formulating research aim, objectives and research questions or developing

hypotheses. The choice between the formulation of research questions and the
development of hypotheses depends on your research approach as it is discussed
further below in more details. Appropriate research aims and objectives or
hypotheses usually result from several attempts and revisions.

Accordingly, you need to mention in your dissertation that you have revised your
research aims and objectives or hypotheses during the research process several
times to get their final versions. It is critically important that you get confirmation from
your supervisor regarding your research questions or hypotheses before moving
forward with the work.

3. Conducting the literature review. Literature review is usually the longest stage in
the research process. Actually, the literature review starts even before the formulation
of research aims and objective. This is because you have to check if exactly the same
research problem has been addressed before and this task is a part of the literature
review. Nevertheless, you will conduct the main part of the literature review after the
formulation of research aim and objectives. You have to use a wide range
of secondary data sources such as books, newspapers, magazines, journals, online
articles etc.

4. Selecting data collection methods. Data collection method(s) need to be

selected on the basis of critically analyzing advantages and disadvantages associated
with several alternative methods. In studies involving primary data collection, you
need to write about advantages and disadvantages of selected primary data collection
method(s) in detailed manner in methodology.

5. Collecting the primary data. You will have to start primary data collection only
after detailed preparation. Sampling is an important element of this stage. You may
have to conduct pilot data collection if you chose questionnaire primary data collection
method. Primary data collection is not a compulsory stage for all dissertations and you
will skip this stage if you are conducting a desk-based research.

6. Data analysis. Analysis of data plays an important role in the achievement of

research aim and objectives. This stage involves an extensive editing and coding of
data. Data analysis methods vary between secondary and primary studies, as well as,
between qualitative and quantitative studies. In data analysis coding of primary data
plays an instrumental role to reduce sample group responses to a more manageable
form for storage and future processing. Data analysis is discussed in Chapter 6 in
great details.

7. Reaching conclusions. Conclusions relate to the level of achievement of research

aims and objectives. In this final part of your dissertation you will have to justify why
you think that research aims and objectives have been achieved. Conclusions also
need to cover research limitations and suggestions for future research.

8. Completing the research. Following all of the stages described above, and
organizing separate chapters into one file leads to the completion of the first draft. You
need to prepare the first draft of your dissertation at least one month before the
submission deadline. This is because you will need to have sufficient amount of time
to address feedback to be provided by your supervisor.

The research process consists of a series of systematic procedures that a researcher

must go through in order to generate knowledge that will be considered valuable by
the project and focus on the relevant topic.

Research Process Steps

The research process consists of a series of systematic procedures that a researcher
must go through in order to generate knowledge that will be considered valuable by
the project and focus on the relevant topic.

To conduct effective research, you must understand the research process steps and
follow them. Here are a few steps in the research process to make it easier for you:

Step 1: Identify the Problem

Finding an issue or formulating a research question is the first step. A well-defined

problem will guide the researcher through all stages of the research process, from
 setting objectives to choosing a technique. There are a number of approaches to get
insight into a topic and gain a better understanding of it. Such as:

 A preliminary survey
 Case studies
 Interviews with a small group of people
 Observational survey

Step 2: Evaluate the Literature

A thorough examination of the relevant studies is essential to the research process. It

enables the researcher to identify the precise aspects of the problem. Once a problem
has been found, the investigator or researcher needs to find out more about it.

This stage gives problem-zone background. It teaches the investigator about previous
research, how they were conducted, and its conclusions. The researcher can build
consistency between his work and others through a literature review. Such a review
exposes the researcher to a more significant body of knowledge and helps him follow
the research process efficiently.

Step 3: Create Hypotheses

Formulating an original hypothesis is the next logical step after narrowing down the
research topic and defining it. A belief solves logical relationships between variables.
In order to establish a hypothesis, a researcher must have a certain amount of
expertise in the field.

It is important for researchers to keep in mind while formulating a hypothesis that it

must be based on the research topic. Researchers are able to concentrate their
efforts and stay committed to their objectives when they develop theories to guide
their work

Step 4: The Research Design

Research design is the plan for achieving objectives and answering research
questions. It outlines how to get the relevant information. Its goal is to design research
to test hypotheses, address the research questions, and provide decision-making
insights.

The research design aims to minimize the time, money, and effort required to acquire
meaningful evidence. This plan fits into four categories:

 Exploration and Surveys

 Experiment
 Data Analysis
 Observation

Step 5: Describe Population

Research projects usually look at a specific group of people, facilities, or how

technology is used in the business. In research, the term population refers to this
study group. The research topic and purpose help determine the study group.

Suppose a researcher wishes to investigate a certain group of people in the

community. In that case, the research could target a specific age group, males or
females, a geographic location, or an ethnic group. A final step in a study’s design is
to specify its sample or population so that the results may be generalized.

Step 6: Data Collection

Data collection is important in obtaining the knowledge or information required to

answer the research issue. Every research collected data, either from the literature or
the people being studied. Data must be collected from the two categories of
researchers. These sources may provide primary data.

 Experiment
 Questionnaire
 Observation
 Interview

Secondary data categories are:

 Literature survey
 Official, unofficial reports
 An approach based on library resources

Step 7: Data Analysis

During research design, the researcher plans data analysis. After collecting data, the
researcher analyzes it. The data is examined based on the approach in this step. The
research findings are reviewed and reported.

Data analysis involves a number of closely related stages, such as setting up

categories, applying these categories to raw data through coding and tabulation, and
then drawing statistical conclusions. The researcher can examine the acquired data
using a variety of statistical methods.

Step 8: The Report-writing

After completing these steps, the researcher must prepare a report detailing his
findings. The report must be carefully composed with the following in mind:

 The Layout: On the first page, the title, date, acknowledgments, and preface
should be on the report. A table of contents should be followed by a list of tables,
graphs, and charts if any.
 Introduction: It should state the research’s purpose and methods. This section
should include the study’s scope and limits.
 Summary of Findings: A non-technical summary of findings and
recommendations will follow the introduction. The findings should be summarized
if they’re lengthy.
 Principal Report: The main body of the report should make sense and be broken
up into sections that are easy to understand.
 Conclusion: The researcher should restate his findings at the end of the main
text. It’s the final result.

Conclusion

The research process involves several steps that make it easy to complete the
research successfully. The steps in the research process described above depend on
each other, and the order must be kept. So, if we want to do a research project, we
should follow the research process steps.

Q 6. What are the criteria of good research?

Ans The quality of research approximate the truth. The main purpose of
this research is to mention the criteria that may assist us to write a
good research.

1 -The purpose of research or the problem involved should be

clearly defined and sharply limited in terms as explicit as possible.
The statement of research problem should have analysis into its
simplest elements ,its scope and limitations and precise
prosperities of the meanings of all words significant to the
research. If the researcher failed to do this adequately , he will
raise the doubts in readers' minds .

2-It is important to write the research procedure in sufficient detail

in order to let another researcher repeat the research, unless the
secrecy is imposed

3-The design of procedure should plan carefully in order to gain

objective results. Direct experiments should have satisfactory
controls. Direct observations should be recorded in writing as soon
as possible after the event. To diminishing siding in selecting and
recording data ,efforts should be made.

4-The researcher should report with complete explication ,

demerits in the procedural design and estimate their effect upon
the findings. Some demerits effect on data and make them
unreliable or lack validity .A competent research should be
sensitive to the effects of imperfect design and his experience in
analyzing the data should give him a bases for estimating their
influence .

5-An analysis of data should be completely enough to reveal its

significance and the method of analysis used should be
appropriate. The validity and reliability of data should be checked
carefully. The data should be classified in a way that the research
reaches a good conclusions. When the statistical methods are
used the probability of errors should be evaluated and the criteria
of statistical significance applied.

6-Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of

the research and limited to those for which the data provide an
adequate basis." Researchers are often tempted to expand the
bases of exhorting by including personal experiences not subject
to the controls under which the research data were gathered. This
tends to decrease the objectivity of the research and weaken
confidence in findings.

7- If the researcher is honest , a greater confidence in the research

is warranted .Were it is possible for the readers of a research
report to get an enough information about the researcher , this
criterion would be a good bases for judging the degree of
confidence a piece of research warrants for this reason, the
research should accompanied by more information about the
Researcher.
 Sampling Design
Q1. What do you mean by ‘Sample Design’? What points should be taken into
consideration by a researcher in developing a sample design for this research
project?

Ans A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given
population. It refers to the technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in
selecting items for the sample.Sample design may as well lay down the number of
items to be included in the sample i.e., the size of the sample.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE DESIGN

The characteristics of a good sample design as under :-

(a) Sample design must result in a truly representative sample.
(b) Sample design must be such which results in a small sampling error.
(c) Sample design must be viable in the context of funds available for the research
study.
(d) Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be controlled in a better
way.
(e) Sample should be such that the results of the sample study can be applied, in
general, for
the universe with a reasonable level of confidence.

STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN

While developing a sampling design, the researcher must pay attention to the
following points:

(i) Type of universe: The first step in developing any sample design is to clearly
define the set of objects, technically called the Universe, to be studied. The universe
can be finite or in finite. In finite universe the number of items is certain, but in case of
an infinite universe the number of items is infinite, i.e., we cannot have any idea about
the total number of items. The population of a city, the number of workers in a factory
and the like are examples of finite universes, whereas the number of stars in the sky,
listeners of a specific radio programme, throwing of a dice etc. are examples of infinite
universes.

(ii) Sampling unit: A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit before
selecting sample. Sampling unit may be a geographical one such as state, district,
village, etc., or a construction unit such as house, flat, etc., or it may be a social unit
such as family, club, school, etc., or it may be an individual. The researcher will have
to decide one or more of such units that he has to select for his study.
 (iii) Source list: It is also known as ‘sampling frame’ from which sample is to be
drawn. It contains the names of all items of a universe (in case of finite universe only).
If source list is not available, researcher has to prepare it. Such a list should be
comprehensive, correct, reliable and appropriate. It is extremely important for the
source list to be as representative of the population as possible.

(iv) Size of sample: This refers to the number of items to be selected from the
universe to constitute a sample. This a major problem before a researcher. The size
of sample should neither be excessively large, nor too small. It should be optimum. An
optimum sample is one which fulfills the requirements of efficiency, reliability and flexibility.
Budgetary constraint must invariably be taken into consideration when we decide the
sample size.

(v) Parameters of interest: In determining the sample design, one must consider the
question of the specific population parameters which are of interest. For instance,
we may be interested in estimating the proportion of persons with some characteristic in
the population, or we may be interested in knowing some average or the other
measure concerning the population.
.
(vi) Budgetary constraint: Cost considerations, from practical point of view, have a
major impact upon decisions relating to not only the size of the sample but also to the
type of sample. This fact can even lead to the use of a non-probability sample.

(vii) Sampling procedure: Finally, the researcher must decide the type of sample he
will use i.e., he must decide about the technique to be used in selecting the items for
the sample. In fact, this technique or procedure stands for the sample design itself.

Steps in Sampling Process

1. Defining the target population.
2. Specifying the sampling frame.
3. Specifying the sampling unit.
4. Selection of the sampling method.
5. Determination of sample size.
6. Specifying the sampling plan.
7. Selecting the sample.

1. Defining the Target Population:

Defining the population of interest, for business research, is the first step in sampling
process. In general, target population is defined in terms of element, sampling unit,
extent, and time frame. The definition should be in line with the objectives of the research
study. For ex, if a kitchen appliances firm wants to conduct a survey to ascertain the
demand for its micro ovens, it may define the population as ‘all women above the age of
20 who cook.

2. Specifying the Sampling Frame:

Once the definition of the population is clear a researcher should decide on the sampling
frame. A sampling frame is the list of elements from which the sample may be drawn.
Continuing with the micro oven ex, an ideal sampling frame would be a database that
contains all the households that have a monthly income above Rs.20,000.

3. Specifying the Sampling Unit:

A sampling unit is a basic unit that contains a single element or a group of elements of the
population to be sampled. In this case, a household becomes a sampling unit and all
women above the age of 20 years living in that particular house become the sampling
elements. If it is possible to identify the exact target audience of the business research,
every individual element would be a sampling unit.

4. Selection of the Sampling Method

The sampling method outlines the way in which the sample units are to be selected. The
choice of the sampling method is influenced by the objectives of the business research,
availability of financial resources, time constraints, and the nature of the problem to be
investigated. All sampling methods can be grouped under two distinct heads, that is,
probability and non-probability sampling.

5. Determination of Sample Size:

The sample size plays a crucial role in the sampling process. There are various ways of
classifying the techniques used in determining the sample size. A couple those hold
primary importance and are worth mentioning are whether the technique deals with fixed
or sequential sampling and whether its logic is based on traditional or Bayesian methods.
In non-probability sampling procedures, the allocation of budget, thumb rules and
number of sub groups to be analyzed, importance of the decision, number of variables,
nature of analysis, incidence rates, and completion rates play a major role in sample size
determination. In the case of probability sampling, however, formulas are used to
calculate the sample size after the levels of acceptable error and level of confidence are
specified.

6. Specifying the Sampling Plan:

In this step, the specifications and decisions regarding the implementation of the research
process are outlined. These are guide lines that would help the researcher in every step of
the process. As the interviewers and their co-workers will be on field duty of most of the
time, a proper specification of the sampling plans would make their work easy and they
would not have to revert to their seniors when faced with operational problems.

7. Selecting the Sample:

This is the final step in the sampling process, where the actual selection of the sample
elements is carried out. At this stage, it is necessary that the interviewers stick to the rules
outlined for the smooth implementation of the business research. This step involves
implementing the sampling plan to select the sampling plan to select a sample required
for the survey.

Q What are the types of sampling design?

Ans Sampling design can be divided into two main categories, probability, and
non-probability sampling. In probability sampling, every person in the target population
(either random or representative) has an equal chance of being selected for the sample.
In non-probability sampling, some individuals in the group will be more likely to be
selected than others.

Probability sampling Probability sampling ensures that every member of your sample
has an equal probability of being selected for your research. There are four main types of
probability sampling: simple random, cluster, systematic, and stratified.

Simple random sampling As the name suggests, simple random sampling is both
simple and random. With this method, you may choose your sample with a random
number generator or by drawing from a hat, for example, to provide you with a completely
random subset of your group. This allows you to draw generalized conclusions about the
whole population based on the data provided from the subset

Cluster sampling In cluster sampling, your population is divided into subgroups that
have similar characteristics to the whole population. Instead of selecting individuals, you
randomly select an entire subgroup for your sample. There is a higher probability of error
with this method because there could be differences between the clusters. You cannot
guarantee that the sample you use is truly representative of the entire population you’re
studying

Systematic sampling Similar to simple random sampling, systematic sampling is even

easier to conduct. In this method, each individual in the desired population is assigned a
number. Instead of randomly generating numbers, participants are chosen at regular
intervals. It’s important that there is no hidden pattern in the list that may skew the
sample.

Stratified sampling In stratified random sampling, you divide a population into smaller
subgroups called strata. The strata are based on the shared attributes of the individuals,
such as income, age range, or education level. This method is used when you believe
that these similarities indicate additional similarities that will resonate with your broader
population.

Non-probability sampling In non-probability samples, the criteria for selection are not
random, and the chances of being included in the sample are not equal. While it’s easier
and less expensive to perform non-probability sampling, there is a higher risk of sampling
bias, and inferences about the full population are weaker.

Non-probability sampling is most often used in exploratory or qualitative research,

where the goal is to develop an understanding of a small or underrepresented
population.

There are five main types of non-probability sampling: convenience, judgemental,

voluntary, snowball, and quota.

Convenience sampling In convenience sampling, the sample consists of individuals

who are most accessible to the researcher. It may be easy to collect initial information,
but it cannot be generalized to your target population.

Judgemental or purposive sampling In this type of non-probability sampling, the

researcher uses their expertise to choose a sample that they believe will be most useful
in reaching their research objectives. Judgemental sampling is frequently used in
qualitative research, where statistical inferences are unnecessary, or the population is
quite small. To be effective, the sample must have clear inclusion and exclusion criteria.

Voluntary response sampling Based on ease of access like convenience sampling,

voluntary response sampling is when people volunteer to participate in your research.
Because some people are more likely to volunteer than others, there will likely be some
bias involved.

Snowball sampling The snowball sampling method is used when your population is
difficult to access. You reach out to the members of the population that you can and then
count on these participants to recruit others for your study. The number of participants
“snowballs” as the number increases.

Quota sampling With quota sampling, your population is divided into categories
determined by the researcher. Depending on the research, you may need a particular
number of males or females, or you may need your sample to represent a certain income
level or age range. Bias may occur simply based on the categories chosen by the
researchers.
 Q Difference between probability sampling and non-probability sampling
methods?

Probability Sampling Methods Non-Probability Sampling Methods

Probability Sampling is a sampling technique in Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique in

which samples from a larger population are which the researcher selects samples based on the
Definition
chosen using a method based on the theory of researcher’s subjective judgment rather than random
probability. selection.

Alternatively
Random sampling method. Non-random sampling method
Known as

Population
The population is selected randomly. The population is selected arbitrarily.
selection

Nature The research is conclusive. The research is exploratory.

Since there is a method for deciding the Since the sampling method is arbitrary, the population
Sample sample, the population demographics are demographics representation is almost always
conclusively represented. skewed.

Takes longer to conduct since the research This type of sampling method is quick since neither
Time Taken design defines the selection parameters before the sample nor the selection criteria of the sample are
the market research study begins. undefined.

This type of sampling is entirely biased, and hence

This type of sampling is entirely unbiased;
Results the results are biased, too, rendering the research
hence, the results are also conclusive.
speculative.

In probability sampling, there is an underlying

In non-probability sampling, the hypothesis is derived
Hypothesis hypothesis before the study begins, and this
after conducting the research study.
method aims to prove the hypothesis.
 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Q 1. What is do you mean by reviewing literature? Write down the objective

and purpose of reviewing literature .

Ans Literature refers to the analysis of textbooks or manuscripts. The term “literature”
means the works the researcher consulted in order to understand and investigate the
research problem. A literature review therefore is an account of what has been
published on a topic by accredited scholars and researchers.

Review of literature is a collective body of works done by earlier scientists and

published in the form of books or in the form of articles in journals or published as
monograph etc. Every scientific investigation starts with a Review of Literature.

OBJECTIVES

 discuss the purposes of review of literature;

 explain the sources of review of literature in psychology

 identify different types of literature;

 learn about the writing process; and

 describe the process of preparation of index card

PURPOSES OF REVIEW OF LITERATURE

A literature review is part of a report. It provides considerable information on the topic being
researched and the various works that had gone on in the field over the years. These materials
are gathered by the researcher from many sources such as journals, books, documents etc. The
review of such a literature could be a matter of fact presentation of the information or it could
be a synthesis of a large number of information and put together subject wise for the purpose
of understanding. It can be just a simple summary of the sources, but it usually has an
organizational pattern and combines both summary and synthesis.

The specific purposes of a Review of the Literature are enumerated below:

Identifying variables relevant for research

When the researcher makes a careful Review of the Literature, he becomes aware of the
important and unimportant variables in the concerned area of research. A careful Review also
helps the researcher in selecting the variables lying within the scope of his interest which are
conceptually and practically important. Thus a Review of the Literature, on the whole,
prepares the researcher to formulate a research problem in which conceptualization and
practically important variables are selected.
Avoidance of repetition
A Review of the Literature helps the researcher in avoiding any duplication of work done
earlier. A careful review always aims at interpreting prior studies and indicating their
usefulness for the study to be undertaken.
Synthesis of prior works
Review of the Literature enables the researcher to collect and synthesis prior studies related to
the present study. A synthesized collection of prior studies also helps a researcher to identify
the significant overlaps and the gaps among the prior works.

Q What steps do we follow when we go through the source of review ?

Ans A literature review not the sources themselves. This means that the researcher
will not just list the sources but selectively use them in the research topic area.
These can be accommodated in terms of themes, or issues and bring those sources
together, and present them.

Step 1: Select a topic

 Select a topic you can manage in the time frame you have to complete your
project.

 Establish your research questions and organize your literature into logical
categories around the subject/ topic areas of your questions. Your research
questions must be specific enough to guide you to the relevant literature.

 Make sure you understand the concept

of ‘broader’ and ‘narrower’ terms. The narrower your topic, the easier it will
be to limit the number of sources you need to read in order to get a good
survey of the literature.

Step 2: Identify the most relevant sources on your topic

Use a variety of resources - locate books, journals, and documents that contain
useful information and ideas on your topic. Internet sites, theses &
dissertations, conference papers, e Prints and government or industry
reports can also be included. Do not rely solely on electronic full-text material which
is more easily available. Reference sources such as dictionaries can assist in
defining terminology, and encyclopedias may provide useful introductions to your
topic by experts in the field and will list key references.
Step 3 : Search and refine

 There are a number of databases that provide full text access to articles, that
allow you to refine your search to ‘peer reviewed’ journals. These are
scholarly journals which go through a rigorous process of quality assessment
by several researchers or subject specialists in the academic community
before they are accepted for publication.

 Use the And, Or, Not operators, Wildcards and Logical Brackets when
searching in the databases. For instance, you can use And to narrow your
search while the operator OR expands your search. Not, on the other
hand, helps to exclude irrelevant information from your search results.

Literature review process - an overview

Step 3: Search and refine

 There are number of databases that provide full text access to articles, that
allow you to refine your search to ‘peer reviewed’ journals. These are
scholarly journals which go through a rigorous process of quality assessment
by several researchers or subject specialists in the academic community
before they are accepted for publication.
  Use the And, Or, Not operators, Wildcards and Logical Brackets when
searching in the databases. For instance, you can use And to narrow your
search while the operator OR expands your search. Not, on the other
hand, helps to exclude irrelevant information from your search results.

Step 4: Read and analyse

Group the sources into the themes and sub-themes of your topic. As you read
widely but selectively in your topic area, consider what themes or issues connect your
sources together.

 Do they present one or different solutions?

 Is there an aspect of the field that is missing?

 How well do they present the material and do they portray it according to an
appropriate theory?

 Do they reveal a trend in the field?

 A raging debate?

 Pick one of these themes to focus the organization of your review.

Step 5: Write the literature review

You can organize the review in many ways; for example, you can center the
review historically (how the topic has been dealt with over time); or center it on
the theoretical positions surrounding your topic (those for a position vs. those
against, for example); or you can focus on how each of your sources contributes to
your understanding of your project.

Your literature review should include:

 an introduction which explains how your review is organized.

 a body which contains the headings and subheadings that provide a map to
show the various perspectives of your argument. In other words the body
contains the evaluation of the materials you want to include on your topic.
  a summary.

Q Write down the types of literature review?

Ans Narrative or Traditional literature reviews

Narrative or Traditional literature reviews critique and summaries a body of literature
about the thesis topic. The literature is researched from the relevant databases and
is generally very selective in the material used. The criteria for literature selection for
a narrative review is not always made open to the reader. These reviews are very
useful in gathering and synthesizing the literature. The principle purpose of a narrative
review is the give the author and reader a comprehensive overview of the topic and to
highlight significant areas of research. Narrative reviews can help to identify gaps in
the research and help to refine and define research questions. Where a narrative
approach differs from a systematic approach is in the notation of search methods
criteria for selection. A systematic review will include selection criteria for inclusion or
exclusion, whereas a narrative review does not list the inclusion/exclusion criteria.
This could lead to narrative reviews being seen as containing a bias.

Scoping Reviews
A scoping review is quite similar to a Systematic literature review. The key difference
being that there are no restrictions on the materials resourced. The purpose of the
scoping review is to find ALL the materials on the topic. When undertaking a scoping
review it is important to systematize your search strategies to ensure you can
replicate your searches and to attend to any gaps that appear in results.
When reading and sorting the results, again, apply some of the measures used in a
systematic review so that your search results are sorted by key themes and well
organized.

Systematic style literature review

A systematic-style literature review uses elements and methods of a systematic
quantitative or qualitative review in its research methods but is then generally written
up in a more traditional form. For example, when researching a
systematic-style review, you would take careful notes on what you have searched for,
and in which databases, in the same way as you would with a more formal review type.
You would also state your inclusion and exclusion criteria for papers read in your final
literature review, but you do not necessarily need to gather quantitative or qualitative
evidence from your reading. This style of review is very common in social science
research as recording your search and evaluation methodology adds authority to you
final product.

Systematic Quantitative Literature Review

The purpose of an SQLR is to find, quantify and codify all relevant literature in a
spreadsheet or table for analysis. Quantifying the status and characteristics of
literature relating to a research area helps to and identify theme and gaps in available
research to better guide your research project.. The quantification process helps with
evidence-based decision making and informs future research directions. The review
process identifies, evaluates and summaries the findings of all eligible
studies. SQLRs are useful for providing a comprehensive overview and
interpretation of research on a topic.

Cochrane Reviews
Cochrane Reviews are systematic reviews primary research in human health care
and health policy, and are internationally recognized as the highest standard
in evidence-based health care. They investigate the effects of interventions for
prevention, treatment and rehabilitation. They also assess the accuracy of a
diagnostic test for a given condition in a specific patient group and setting.

Campbell Collaboration
Campbell Collaboration The Campbell Collaboration is an international research
network that produces systematic reviews of the effects of social interventions in
crime and justice, education, international development, and social welfare.

Integrative
Integrative reviews are designed to give researchers a more complete picture of a
situation or experience. An integrative review combines the findings of diverse types
of research (that is, both empirical and theoretical). This review type is most useful
when trying to gain an understanding of people's needs and experiences.

Meta-analysis
Combines data from multiple independent studies addressing the same
question. Requires empirical evidence in the form of randomized controlled trials.
Meta-Analysis are undertaken by groups of researchers as the numbers of papers
reviewed is very large. Meta- analysis are useful for providing a better estimate of the
impact or effectiveness of an intervention, meta-analysis are used in health, sciences
and humanities.

Iterative
An iterative review is a relatively comprehensive, algorithm-based literature review
that collates all studies in a field of research. A reduction process is used to remove
unnecessary titles, then a manual process applied to assess relevance to the field of
research. Remaining articles and studies are categorized, which enables iterative
coding to be applied to remaining data arrays to show interesting and useful
information across a field of research.

Meta-synthesis
Examines, interprets and integrates findings of several qualitative studies using
qualitative methods. Meta-synthesis are used in research looking at theory
development. Meta-synthesis are used for clarifying concepts and patterns, and
refining existing models and theories.

Rapid
Rapid reviews are undertaken to help support time-sensitive decision making.
Standard systematic review procedures are adapted by removing or modifying some
steps. These reviews are undertaken to quickly find information on a topic to support a
project or decision making. Rapid reviews are useful in delivering answers in a
shortened time frame.

Umbrella
Umbrella reviews bring together reviews that answer different questions which all
relate to a shared topic. These reviews find, contrast and synthesise the findings from
other systematic-style reviews. Umbrella reviews are developed to giver researchers
and decision makers a clear understanding of a broad topic area in a shortened time
frame.
MEASUREMENT AND SCALING TECHNIQUES

Measurement Measurement is the process of observing and recording the observations

that are collected as part of research. The recording of the observations may be in terms of
numbers or other symbols to characteristics of objects according to certain prescribed rules.
The respondent’s, characteristics are feelings, attitudes, opinions etc.
Scaling Scaling is the assignment of objects to numbers or semantics according to a rule. In
scaling, the objects are text statements, usually statements of attitude, opinion, or feeling.
LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT SCALES
Typically, there are four levels of measurement scales or methods of assigning numbers:
(a) Nominal scale

(b) Ordinal scale

(c) Interval scale

(d) Ratio scale.

Nominal Scale is the crudest among all measurement scales but it is also the simplest
scale. In this scale the different scores on a measurement simply indicate different
categories.eg, Classify the respondent’s income into three groups: the highest income as
group 1. The middle income as group 2, and the low-income as group 3.

Ordinal Scale involves the ranking of items along the continuum of the characteristic
being scaled. In this scale, the items are classified according to

whether they have more or less of a characteristic. For example,t a fast food home delivery
shop may wish to ask its customers: How would you rate the service of our staff? (1)
Excellent • (2) Very Good • (3) Good • (4) Poor • (5) Worst •

Using ordinal scale data, we can perform statistical analysis like Median and Mode, but not
the Mean.

Interval Scale is a scale in which the numbers are used to rank attributes such that
numerically equal distances on the scale represent equal distance in the characteristic being
measured. An interval scale contains all the information of an ordinal scale, but it also one
allows to compare the difference/distance between attributes.Measuring temperature is an
example of interval scale.
The interval scales allow the calculation of averages like Mean, Median and Mode and
dispersion like Range and Standard Deviation.

Ratio Scale e is the highest level of measurement scales. This has the properties of an
interval scale together with a fixed (absolute) zero point. The absolute zero point allows us
to construct a meaningful ratio.o. Examples of ratio scales include weights, lengths and
times. In the marketing research, most counts are ratio scales.

TYPES OF SCALING TECHNIQUES

The various types of scaling techniques used in research can be classified into two categories:
(a) comparative scales, and (b) Non-comparative scales. In comparative scaling,the
respondent is asked to compare one object with another. For example, the researcher can ask
the respondents whether they prefer brand A or brand B of a detergent. On the other hand, in
non comparative scaling respondents need only evaluate a single object.t. Their evaluation is
independent of the other object which the researcher is studying.

Comparative Scales The comparative scales can further be divided into the following
four types of scaling techniques: (a) Paired Comparison Scale, (b) Rank Order Scale, (c)
Constant Sum Scale, and (d) Q-sort Scale.

Paired Comparison Scale: This is a comparative scaling technique in which a respondent is

presented with two objects at a time and asked to select one object (rate between two objects
at a time) according to some criterion. The data obtained are ordinal in nature. For example,
there are four types of cold drinks - Coke, Pepsi, Sprite, and Limca. The respondents can
prefer Pepsi to Coke or Coke to Sprite, etc

Rank Order Scale: This is another type of comparative scaling technique in which
respondents are presented with several items simultaneously and asked to rank them in the
order of priority. This is an ordinal scale that describes the favoured and unfavoured objects,
but does not reveal the distance between the objects. For example, if you are interested in
ranking the preference of some selected parks, you may use the following format for
recording the responses

Constant Sum Scale: In this scale, the respondents are asked to allocate a constant sum of
units such as points, rupees, or chips among a set of stimulus objects with respect to some
criterion For example, you may wish to determine how important the attributes of price,
fragrance, packaging, cleaning power, and lather of a detergent are to consumers.
Respondents might be asked to divide a constant sum to indicate the relative importance of
the attributes using the following format.
 Q-Sort Scale: This is a comparative scale that uses a rank order procedure to sort objects
based on similarity with respect to some criterion. The important characteristic of this
methodology is that it is more important to make comparisons among different responses of
a respondent than the responses between different respondents. Therefore, it is a comparative
method of scaling rather than an absolute rating scale. In this method the respondent is given
statements in a large number for describing the characteristics of a product or a large number
of brands of a product.

Non-Comparative Scales The non-comparative scaling techniques can be further

divided into: (a) Continuous Rating Scale, and (b) Itemised Rating Scale.

Continuous Rating Scales It is very simple and highly useful. In continuous rating scale, the
respondent’s rate the objects by placing a mark at the appropriate position on a continuous
line that runs from one extreme of the criterion variable to the other. Examples of continuous
rating scale are given below:
Itemised Rating Scales Itemised rating scale is a scale having numbers or brief descriptions
associated with each category. The categories are ordered in terms of scale position and the
respondents are required to select one of the limited number of categories that best describes
the product, brand, company, or product attribute being rated. Itemised rating scales are
widely used in marketing research.

In this section we will discuss three itemised rating scales, namely (a) Likert scale, (b)
Semantic Differential Scale, and (c) Stapel Scale.

Likert Scale: In business research, the Likert scale, developed by Rensis Likert, is extremely
popular for measuring attitudes, because, the method is simple to administer. With the Likert
scale, the respondents indicate their own attitudes by checking how strongly they agree or
disagree with carefully worded statements that range from very positive to very negative
towards the attitudinal object. Respondents generally choose from five alternatives (say
strongly agree, agree, neither agree nor disagree, disagree, strongly disagree)
Semantic Differential Scale This is a seven point rating scale with end points associated with
bipolar labels (such as good and bad, complex and simple) that have semantic meaning. The
Semantic Differential scale is used for a variety of purposes. It can be used to find whether a
respondent has a positive or negative attitude towards an object.

Staple Scale: The Stapel scale was originally developed to measure the
direction and intensity of an attitude simultaneously. Modern versions of the
Stapel scale place a single adjective as a substitute for the Semantic differential
when it is difficult to create pairs of bipolar adjectives. The modified Stapel
scale places a single adjective in the centre of an even number of numerical
values (say, +3, +2, +1, 0, –1, –2, –3). This scale measures how close to or how
distant from the adjective a given stimulus is perceived to be. The following is an
example of a Staple scale.
SELECTION OF AN APPROPRIATE SCALING
TECHNIQUE

.A number of issues decide the choice of scaling technique. Some significant issues
are:

1) Problem Definition and Statistical Analysis: The Choice between ranking,

sorting, or rating techniques is determined by the problem definition and the type
of statistical analysis likely to be performed. For example, ranking provides only
ordinal data that limits the use of statistical techniques.

2) The Choice between Comparative and Non-comparative Scales: Some

times it is better to use a comparative scale rather than a non-comparative
scale. Consider the following example:
How satisfied you are with the brand- X detergent that you are presently
using?
Completely
Somewhat Neither
Somewhat
Completely
satisfied satisfied
satisfied nor
dissatisfied dissatisfied
dissatisifed
This is a non-comparative scale since it deals with a single concept (the brand of
a detergent). On the other hand, a comparative scale asks a respondent to rate a
concept. For example, you may ask:
Which one of the following brands of detergent you prefer?
Brand-X Brand-Y
In this example you are comparing one brand of detergent with another brand.
Therefore, in many situations, comparative scaling presents ‘the ideal situation’
as a reference for comparison with actual situation.

3) Type of Category Labels: We have discussed different types of category

labels used in constructing measurement scales such as verbal categories and
numeric categories. Many researchers use verbal categories since they believe
that these categories are understood well by the respondents. The maturity and
the education level of the respondents influences this decision.Research and Data
Collection

4) Number of Categories: While there is no single, optimal number of categories,

traditional guidelines suggest that there should be between five and nine
categories. Also, if a neutral or indifferent scale response is possible for at least
some of the respondents, an odd number of categories should be used.
However, the researcher must determine the number of meaningful positions
that are best suited for a specific problem.

5) Balanced versus Unbalanced Scale: In general, the scale should be balanced

to obtain objective data.

6) Forced versus Non forced Categories: In situations where the respondents

are expected to have no opinion, the accuracy of data may be improved by a
non forced scale that provides a ‘no opinion’ category.