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The Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates Definition in Science
Carbohydrates are a biomolecule consisting of carbon (C),
hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen-
oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water), and thus with the
empirical formula Cm(H2O)n (where m may or may not be
different from n). Carbohydrates are macronutrients and are
one of the three main ways by which our body obtains its
energy. They are called carbohydrates as they
comprise carbon, hydrogen and oxygen at their chemical
level. Carbohydrates are essential nutrients which include
sugars, fibers and starches. They are found in grains,
vegetables, fruits and in milk and other dairy products. They
are the basic food groups which play an important role in a
healthy life. The food containing carbohydrates are converted
into glucose or blood sugar during the process of digestion by
the digestive system. Our body utilizes this sugar as a source
of energy for the cells, organs and tissues. The extra amount
of energy or sugar is stored in our muscles and liver for further
requirement.
Classification of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are divided into four major groups based on the
degree of polymerization (Fig. 1.): monosaccharides, disaccharides,
oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Given below is a brief account
of the structure and functions of carbohydrate groups.
Figure 1: The classification of carbohydrates
1. Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates and cannot be
hydrolyzed into other smaller carbohydrates. The “mono” in
monosaccharides means one, which shows the presence of only one
sugar unit. They are the building blocks of disaccharides and
polysaccharides. For this reason, they are also known as simple
sugars. These simple sugars are:
Colorless.
Crystalline solids.
Soluble in water.
Insoluble in a nonpolar solvent.
The general formula representing monosaccharide structure is
Cn(H2O)n . The monosaccharides containing the aldehyde group (the
functional group with the structure, (R-CHO) are known as aldoses
and the one containing ketone groups on the second carbon atom is
called ketoses (the functional group with the structure RC(=O)R′).
Some examples of monosaccharides are glucose, fructose,
erythrulose, and ribulose. D-glucose is the most common, widely
distributed, and abundant carbohydrate. It’s commonly known as
dextrose and it’s an aldehyde containing six carbon atoms, called
aldohexose. It’s present in both, open-chain and cyclic structures.
Most monosaccharide names end with the suffix -ose. And based on
the number of carbons, which typically ranges from three to seven,
they may be known as trioses (three carbons), tetroses (four carbons),
pentoses (five carbons), hexoses (six carbons), and heptoses (seven
carbons). Although glucose, galactose, and fructose all have the
chemical formula of C6H12O6 (Fig. 2), they differ at the structural and
chemical levels because of the different arrangement of functional
groups around their asymmetric carbon.
Figure 1: A structural representation of glucose, fructose, and galactose.
Structure of Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides are either present as linear chains or ring-
shaped molecules. In a ring form, glucose’s hydroxyl group (-
OH) can have two different arrangements around the
anomeric carbon (carbon-1 that becomes asymmetric in the
process of ring formation). If the hydroxyl group is below
carbon number 1 in the sugar, it is said to be in the alpha (α)
position, and if it is above the plane, it is said to be in the beta
(β) position (Fig. 3).
Figure 3: A structural representation of ring forms of glucose and fructose.
Functions of Monosaccharides
o Glucose (C6H12O6) is an important source of energy in
humans and plants. Plants synthesize glucose using
carbon dioxide and water, which in turn is used for
their energy requirements. They store the excess
glucose as starch which humans and herbivores
consume.
o The presence of galactose is in milk sugar (lactose), and
fructose in fruits and honey makes these foods sweet.
o Ribose is a structural element of nucleic acids and
some coenzymes.
o Mannose is a constituent of mucoproteins and
glycoproteins required for the proper functioning of
the body.
2. Disaccharides
Disaccharides consist of two sugar units. When subjected to
a dehydration reaction (condensation reaction or dehydration
synthesis), they release two monosaccharide units. In this
process, the hydroxyl group of one monosaccharide combines
with the hydrogen of another monosaccharide through a
covalent bond, releasing a molecule of water. The covalent
bond formed between the two sugar molecules is known as
a glycosidic bond. The glycosidic bond or glycosidic linkage can
be alpha or beta type. The alpha bond is formed when the OH
group on the carbon-1 of the first glucose is below the ring
plane, and a beta bond is formed when the OH group on the
carbon-1 is above the ring plane (Fig. 4).
Figure 4: The structural diagram of the process of glycosidic bond formation between two
sugar units (glucose and fructose) forming a disaccharide. (sucrose).
Some examples of disaccharides are lactose, maltose, and
sucrose:
Sucrose: is the most abundant disaccharide of all and is
composed of one D-glucose molecule and one D-fructose
molecule.
Lactose: occurs naturally in mammalian milk and is composed
of one D-galactose molecule and one D-glucose molecule.
Glycoside:
Glycosides are substances in which one or more sugars are
linked to nonsugar or sugar molecules by glycosidic linkage.
A glycosidic bond, also known as a glycosidic linkage, is a
chemical bond in the form of a covalent connection that
connects a carbohydrate (sugar) molecule to another group,
which might be another carbohydrate or not. The
carbohydrate portion may be uronic acid (sugar acid) and the
non-carbohydrate portion may be a derivative of phenol or
alcohol. The sugar ring can be either a 5 carbon or 6 carbon
ring.
Glycoside bonds play important roles in living organisms:
Glycosides are a broad collection of secondary metabolic
products derived from plants that have numerous
recognized activities, including growth control and
defensive mechanisms against herbivores and pathogens.
It also has importance in the DNA molecule structure, as
a glycosidic linkage is recognized between a sugar and
nitrogen base.
Glycogen, which is a form of stored energy in the human
liver and muscles, consists of many glucose units linked
together by glycosidic bonds.
Glycosidic bonds link glucose and fructose to create
sucrose, a sugar used to sweeten teas and desserts.
Glycosidic bonds are found between cellulose and chitin
subunits, which are important for the strength and
rigidity of plants and fungi.
Some other examples of disaccharides include lactulose,
chitobiose, kojibiose, nigerose, isomaltose, sophorose,
laminaribiose, gentiobiose, turanose, maltulose, trehalose,
palatinose, gentiobiulose, mannobiose, melibiose,
melibiulose, rutinose, rutinulose, and xylobiose.
A list of disaccharides with their monomer units is given
below:
Disaccharide
Sucrose Glucose and Fructose
Lactose Galactose and Glucose
Maltose Glucose and Glucose (alpha-1,4 linkage)
Trehalose Glucose and Glucose (alpha-1, alpha-1 linkage)
Cellobiose Glucose and Glucose (beta-1,4 linkage)
Gentiobiose Glucose and Glucose (beta-1,6 linkage)
Functions of Disaccharides
o Sucrose is a product of photosynthesis, which
functions as a major source of carbon and energy in
plants.
o Lactose is a major source of energy in animals.
o Maltose is an important intermediate in starch and
glycogen digestion.
o Trehalose is an essential energy source for insects.
o Cellobiose is essential in carbohydrate metabolism.
o Gentiobiose is a constituent of plant glycosides and
some polysaccharides.
