FUNDAMENTALS OF A COMPUTER

Data and information

●​ Data : Raw facts and figures without context or meaning, such as numbers or
words, that are unprocessed and ambiguous. For example, names and numbers
in a list could represent various things like test scores or attendance.
●​ Information: Processed, organized data that provides clear meaning and
context. When data is structured and given labels, it transforms into information.
For example, a table with labeled scores clarifies each student's performance,
making it informative.
●​ Data acts as the raw material, while information is the finished, meaningful output
generated by processing data.

DATA INFORMATION
●​ Raw facts and figures ●​ Processed data
●​ Similar to raw material ●​ Similar to the finished product
●​ Cannot be directly used ●​ Adds to knowledge and helps in
●​ Does not give precise and clear taking decisions
sense ●​ Clear and meaningful

Data processing
Definition of Data Processing
●​ Data processing refers to the operations or actions performed on raw data to
convert it into useful information. It involves capturing, storing, manipulating, and
presenting data in a form that supports decision-making and problem-solving.

Data Processing Example: School Admission System

●​ Using the example of the Single Window System for higher secondary course
admissions in Kerala, the document explains the stages of data processing:
●​ Data Collection: Data is gathered through forms that contain applicant details
and scores from Class X exams.
●​ Data Input: Collected data is fed into the computer for storage and later
processing.
●​ Storage Data is securely stored within the computer and can be retrieved when
needed.
●​ Processing Operations like calculations, sorting, and filtering are performed to
allocate candidates to schools based on Weighted Grade Point Average
(WGPA) and other criteria.
 ●​ *Output: Allotment slips and school lists are generated as outputs of the
processed data.
●​ Distribution: Processed information (allotment slips and lists) is distributed to
applicants and schools.

Stages of Data Processing

Data processing consists of six core stages:
●​ Data Capture**: Collection of raw data from forms or other sources.
●​ Input**: Feeding the captured data into a system.
●​ Storage**: Retaining data for current and future access.
●​ Processing**: Manipulating data through calculations, categorization, and other
operations.
●​ Output**: Presenting processed data in a readable, useful form.
●​ Distribution**: Sharing the final information with intended users or systems.

Flow of Data Processing

●​ The processing flow is depicted in a figure where thick arrows show the main
stages from capture to distribution, with dotted lines representing optional steps.
Each stage builds on the previous one to ensure that raw data is transformed into
usable information efficiently.

Functional units of a computer

Input Unit
●​ *Function**: The input unit collects data and instructions from the external
environment and feeds them into the computer for processing.
●​ Examples**: Common input devices include the keyboard, mouse, scanner, and
microphone.
●​ Key Tasks**:
●​ - Accepting data and instructions.
●​ - Converting this data into a format that the computer can understand.
●​ - Transmitting the converted data to the storage unit for further processin

Central Processing Unit (CPU)**

●​ Known as the "brain" of the computer, the CPU performs all calculations,
comparisons, and logical operations.
●​ It is responsible for executing instructions and directing other units.
●​ Components of the CPU**:
●​ Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)**: Handles all arithmetic operations (e.g.,
addition, subtraction) and logical operations (e.g., comparisons).
 ●​ Control Unit (CU)**: Acts as the control center, guiding other components to
execute tasks based on program instructions.
●​ Registers**: Temporary storage elements within the CPU that store data,
instructions, and intermediate results during processing.

Storage Unit**
●​ Purpose**: Stores data and instructions before processing and holds the
processed information until it’s sent to the output unit.
●​ Types of Storage**:
●​ 1.Primary Storage (Main Memory)**:
●​ Random Access Memory (RAM)**: Temporary storage for data and instructions
being processed.
●​ Read Only Memory (ROM)**: Permanent storage containing the start-up
instructions for the computer.
●​ Secondary Storage**: Used for large volumes of data that need permanent
storage. Examples include hard drives, CDs, DVDs, and USB drives.

*Output Unit**
●​ Function**: The output unit translates processed data into a human-readable
form and delivers it to the outside world.
●​ Examples**: Monitors and printers are common output devices.
●​ Key Tasks**:
●​ - Receiving data from the CPU.
●​ - Converting data into formats understandable by humans.
●​ - Delivering this data to users or external systems.

Computer as a data processor

Definition of Computer as a Data Processor**
●​ A computer is described as an electronic machine designed to accept data,
perform arithmetic and logical operations on it according to a set of instructions,
and output the results or information.
●​ Data processing tasks performed by computers are faster, more accurate, and
less prone to errors than manual processing.

Characteristics of Computers in Data Processing**

●​ Speed**: Computers can process millions of instructions per second, allowing
them to handle data at high speeds.
●​ Accuracy**: They perform calculations with a high degree of precision,
minimizing errors in the output.
 ●​ Diligence**: Unlike humans, computers can work continuously without fatigue,
making them ideal for repetitive tasks.
●​ Versatility**: Computers are capable of performing a wide variety of tasks, from
calculations to word processing and image editing.
●​ Memory Capacity**: They can store vast amounts of data, enabling complex
processing tasks and long-term data storage.

*Concept of "Garbage In, Garbage Out" (GIGO)**

●​ - The term **GIGO** refers to the idea that the accuracy of computer output is
directly dependent on the accuracy of the input. If incorrect data is entered, the
computer will process it faithfully, but the output will also be incorrect

Advantages and Limitations of Computers**

●​ Advantages**: High speed, precision, ability to handle large volumes of data,
and the capability to execute complex processes make computers superior for
data processing.
●​ Limitations**: Despite their processing power, computers lack natural
intelligence and decision-making ability. They strictly follow programmed
instructions and cannot operate without guidance.

Number system
Definition of Number System
●​ A number system is a structured way to represent numbers. It consists of
symbols and rules for representing values in a specific base, or radix.
●​ The document covers four main types of number systems: **Decimal, Binary,
Octal, and Hexadecimal**.

Types of Number Systems**

●​ - **Decimal (Base-10)**:
●​ Most commonly used in daily life, consisting of digits 0-9.
●​ Each position in a decimal number represents a power of 10. For example, in
743, the 7 represents \(7 \times 10^2\).

●​ - **Binary (Base-2)**:
●​ Used internally by computers, consisting only of the digits 0 and 1.
●​ - Each position in a binary number represents a power of 2. For example,
\(1101_2\) represents \(1 \times 2^3 + 1 \times 2^2 + 0 \times 2^1 + 1 \times 2^0
= 13_{10}\).
●​ Each binary digit is called a **bit**.
 ●​ - **Octal (Base-8)**:
●​ Uses eight symbols (0-7), where each position represents a power of 8.
●​ Octal numbers are sometimes used in computing as a shorthand for binary,
grouping binary digits into sets of three (e.g., \(111_2 = 7_8\)).

●​ - **Hexadecimal (Base-16)**:
●​ Uses sixteen symbols (0-9 and A-F, where A-F represent decimal values 10-15).
●​ Each position in a hexadecimal number represents a power of 16.
●​ Hexadecimal is frequently used in computing because it can represent binary
numbers more compactly by grouping bits in sets of four (e.g., \(1111_2 =
F_{16}\)).

*Importance of Binary Numbers in Computing**

●​ Binary is fundamental to digital systems because it corresponds to the two
states of electronic devices: ON (1) and OFF (0).
●​ - Computers use binary to represent all data, which can be converted to other
number systems (e.g., decimal, octal, hexadecimal) for easier human
interpretation.

*Summary Table of Number Systems**

●​ - **Binary (Base-2)**: Symbols = 0, 1.
●​ - **Octal (Base-8)**: Symbols = 0-7.
●​ - **Decimal (Base-10)**: Symbols = 0-9.
●​ - **Hexadecimal (Base-16)**: Symbols = 0-9, A-F.

Number conversions
Importance of Number Conversions**
●​ In computing, data needs to be represented in various number systems (binary,
decimal, octal, hexadecimal).
●​ Converting between these systems allows for easier processing, storage, and
readability.

Conversion Methods**
●​ - **Decimal to Binary**:
●​ Repeatedly divide the decimal number by 2 and record the remainders.
●​ Write the remainders in reverse order, with the last remainder being the most
significant bit (MSB).
●​ Example: \(25_{10} \to 11001_2\).

●​ - **Decimal to Octal**:
 ●​ Divide the decimal number by 8, recording remainders.
●​ Reversing the remainder sequence gives the octal result.
●​ Example: \(125_{10} \to 175_8\).

●​ - **Decimal to Hexadecimal**:
●​ Repeatedly divide by 16, noting remainders.
●​ Reversing remainders yields the hexadecimal representation.
●​ Example: \(155_{10} \to 9B_{16}\).

●​ - **Binary to Decimal**:
●​ Multiply each binary digit by its positional power of 2 and sum the results.
●​ Example: \(1101_2 \to 13_{10}\).

●​ - **Octal to Decimal**:
●​ Multiply each octal digit by its positional power of 8 and sum.
●​ Example: \(157_8 \to 111_{10}\).

●​ - **Hexadecimal to Decimal**:
●​ Multiply each hexadecimal digit by its positional power of 16 and add.
●​ Example: \(2D5_{16} \to 725_{10}\).

●​ - **Octal to Binary**:
●​ Convert each octal digit to a 3-bit binary equivalent.
●​ Example: \(437_8 \to 100011111_2\).

●​ - **Hexadecimal to Binary**:
●​ Convert each hexadecimal digit to a 4-bit binary equivalent.
●​ Example: \(AB_{16} \to 10101011_2\).

●​ - **Binary to Octal**:
●​ Group binary digits in sets of three from right to left and convert each group to its
octal equivalent.
●​ Example: \(101100111_2 \to 547_8\).

●​ - **Binary to Hexadecimal**:
●​ Group binary digits in sets of four from right to left and convert to hexadecimal.
●​ Example: \(101100111010_2 \to B3A_{16}\).

Two-Step Conversions**
 ●​ **Octal to Hexadecimal** and **Hexadecimal to Octal** conversions are done in
two steps by first converting to binary, then to the desired system.

BINARY ADDITION(SEE YT CLASS)

Data representation
Representation of Numbers**
●​ Integer Representation**: Integers are represented using binary encoding. There
are three primary methods for encoding integers:
●​ Sign and Magnitude**: Uses the most significant bit (MSB) as the sign bit (0 for
positive, 1 for negative).
●​ 1’s Complement**: Negative numbers are represented by inverting all bits
(changing 1s to 0s and 0s to 1s).
●​ 2’s Complement**: Negative numbers are represented by taking the 1's
complement of a number and adding 1 to it. This is the most common method as
it simplifies binary arithmetic.
●​ Floating-Point Representation**: Real numbers (with fractional parts) are
represented using **mantissa** and **exponent** in floating-point notation,
allowing the binary point to "float" based on the exponent's value. For instance,
25.45 can be represented as 0.2545 × \(10^2\).

Representation of Characters**
●​ Characters are stored as binary values using specific encoding standards:
●​ ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)**: Uses 7 or 8 bits
to represent characters, covering basic English letters, numbers, and symbols.
●​ EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code)**: An 8-bit code
primarily used in IBM systems.
●​ ISCII (Indian Script Code for Information Interchange)**: An 8-bit encoding
scheme for Indian languages.
●​ Unicode**: A universal character set that can represent characters from almost
all world languages. Originally 16-bit, Unicode now supports even larger sets to
cover a vast range of characters.

Representation of Audio, Image, and Video Data**

●​ Audio**: Stored in digital formats like WAV, MP3, and MIDI. Each format uses
specific encoding for audio data; MP3, for example, is a compressed audio
format, while WAV is typically uncompressed.
●​ Image**: Images are stored as a collection of pixels, with various formats like
JPEG, PNG, BMP, and GIF. Images can be stored in compressed (e.g., JPEG) or
uncompressed forms (e.g., BMP).
 ●​ Video**: Video files combine audio and image data, stored in formats like AVI,
MP4, and WMV, with both compressed and uncompressed options

Compression in Multimedia Data**

●​ Compression reduces the size of files by encoding repetitive data more
efficiently. For example, in a black image, instead of storing "black" for each pixel,
it stores "black" once along with the count of pixels. Compression is essential for
multimedia files, as they often require large amounts of storage.