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INTRODUCTION TO DEEP DRAWING

Preprint · May 2023

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.18467.43049

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 INTRODUCTION TO DEEP DRAWING

A C Sekhara Reddy
Director, GVIC- Madanapalli

Since the beginning of the 21st Century, society has witnessed a great increase
in technological advancement and it has been influencing the lifestyle of the
people in various ways. In the present scenario of globalisation, advanced
technology is at the forefront in all areas of the engineering world. The evolution
of this technology in the mechanical engineering industry is glaringly evident in
various metal forming operations.

Metalworking is one of the important processes used in shaping of the metals

in addition to casting, welding, machining, and powder metallurgy. However,
the metal forming may be considered as the earliest metalworking operation
evolved through the simple hammering of gold and copper [1–5]. It is playing a
central role and industry is actually progressing mainly due to the evolution of
this technology [6, 7]. Essentially, the main aim of metal forming operations is
to work for transformation of a metal billet into a component with the desired
geometry. The demand for further research in lightweight sheet metals and
their use in the automobile sector is increasing rapidly due to the shortage of
petroleum products.[8–10],

conduct-begConducting an experimental study by developing a tool setup to

evaluate LDR and testing with commonly available blank material, so as to help
the manufacturing industry by using these results as reference, during product
design and development stage at low volume of scrap generation. Though the
method of estimation of LDR is based on extrapolation of maximum punch
load until the intersection with the constant punch load line of failure giving
some error can help the industry in assessment of number of stages in forming
operation during the product development stage. The method is widely used
among researcher

1
 Fig. 1: Classification of metal forming processes [11]

Sheet Metal Forming

In a broad sense, metal forming operations are classified into different types, such
as bulk-forming and sheet forming as shown in Fig. 1. Rolling, extrusion and
forging are examples of the bulk-forming processes, whereas shearing, bending,
stretching, spinning and deep drawing are examples of the sheet metal forming
process.

Sheet metal forming is used for manufacture of quality products at low

manufacturing costs. It is essential to produce 2D or 3D components for
automobile bodies, railroad cars, aeroplanes, farm and construction equipment,
office furniture, electronic instruments, computer appliances, etc. while using a
minimum number of forming operations. The kitchen sink is the best example
of the deep drawn component as it is both deep and seamless. Other notable
articles produced in the deep drawing are cans, boxes, bottles, battery cells, etc.

The major reasons for advancement in R&D for sheet metal forming operations
are:

1. Emphasis on the pollution-free environment is the need of the hour

through the use of lightweight high strength structures in the automobile
industry while maintaining safety standards and comfort levels. The usage
of lightweight metals is contributing to environment-friendly products at
low energy consumption in different application areas such as automotive,
aerospace, beverage and domestic.
2. Minimising the emissions into the atmosphere is a dominant issue in
developing countries like India. The rapid industrialisation is increasing
2
 the applications of sheet metal and this is expected to increase in the future
[12].
3. The consumer wants vehicles built for safety and less fuel consumption
while retaining the current levels of performance, size, comfort and utility.
The climate change, scarcity of resources, globalisation and increased
market demand are driving towards the manufacture of automotive
appliances in less time and at low cost using less material and energy
[13].
4. Next-generation has to benefit substantially from the developments of the
research carried out in the field of advanced forming technologies, such
as superplastic forming, deep drawing, flow forming, laser forming and
hydroforming.
5. The sheet metal forming process has to play a key role in the manufacturing
industry and needs continuous development concerned with materials,
processes, tool design and equipment manufacture.
6. The ever-increasing requirement in the automotive industry is another
major driving factor for sheet metal forming innovations.

Deep Drawing Process

The process of deep drawing was studied extensively for the past couple
of decades due to its importance in a variety of industrial applications.
The International Deep Drawing Research Group (IDDRG) is working to
unite different research groups worldwide to study sheet metal forming
activities including materials, formability issues, tooling and tribology. It is
also coordinating all-over the world for bringing scientists, researchers, and
industrialists together for sharing scientific knowledge of deep drawing and
other sheet metal forming operations. The IDDRG and other international
industry, and institutional research groups concluded that further continuous
research is essential in the sheet forming process with new alloy grades that are
continuously entering into the market.

The usage of lightweight materials such as aluminium, copper and magnesium in

complex component configuration system is rapidly increasing, and it is essential
for a thorough knowledge of the technical process as well as the influence of

3
parameters involved in it, i.e., type of lubrication, clearance between die and
punch, a profile of die and punch, blank holding type, blank holding force,
blank holding mechanism, blank thickness and material properties. Further,
there is a demand for quick assessment of formability for sheet metal, such
as Forming Limit Diagram (FLD) and Limiting Drawing Ratio (LDR) to bring
down design costs and rejections. The new manufacturing technologies for
deep drawing are developing in the present decade due to the challenges taking
place with sheet forming. The deep drawing process is a complex plane strain
deformation process subjected to biaxial stresses and strains and it is essential
that the designer needs to know thoroughly about the process and its limitations.
This knowledge comes only from experience and involves considerable time and
experimental tests.

According to DIN 8584 standard, the deep drawing process is a

tensile-compressive forming of a plane sheet into a hollow body open on
one side, or the forming of a pre-drawn cup into another cup with a smaller
cross-section without an intentional change in thickness of the sheet [14, 15]. It is
a widely used sheet metal operation involving the use of a punch and die setup
and the desired shape is obtained by pressing the blank sheet through the die.
If the depth is greater than or equal to the radius of the cup, then it is known
as the deep drawing process. Fig. 2 shows a sectional view of deep drawing
operation comprising of punch, die and blankholder.

It is a known fact that technology is the main source of modern and advanced
facilities of human life and hence the progressive development is widely noticed
in the present manufacturing industries. To meet the technological advances
and to stand in the competitive environment, the manufacturing companies
are developing new techniques for improving the quality of products and
production rates at low costs. Further, it is a very tough job to measure the
quality of the components manufactured in a deep drawing process without the
knowledge of blank metal deformation behaviour at a micro-level. Creating a
proper simulation model of a process provides prior knowledge in predicting
the influence of operating parameters.

In deep drawing operation, a two-dimensional plane sheet, known as blank,

4
 Fig. 2: Principle of Deep drawing [2]

transforms into a three-dimensional component. It involves forcing the blank

gradually into the die cavity with a punch while holding the flange region
between the blank holder and die shoulder [16] to regulate the flow of blank
material. [17].

Fig. 3: Range of Components produced in deep drawing [18–20]

Some of the components generally produced in deep drawing are shown in

Fig. 3.

5
Deformation Phenomenon in Sheet Metal Forming

Processes
All elements in cup drawing are deformed under membrane stresses σ1 and σ2
and the normal stress σ3 is quite small and considered negligible. The sum of
the true strains is zero [21] i.e.,

ε1 + ε2 + ε3 = 0 (1)

The effective stress is given in Eq.2 [21]

p
σ = ( 1 − α + α 2 ) σ1 (2)

where, σ is the effective stress and α is the stress ratio, σ1 /σ2 .

The effective strain is determined using and Eqn. 3 [22]

r
4
ε= (1 + β + β2 ) ε1 (3)
3

where, ε is the effective strain and β is the strain ratio, ε1 /ε2 .

Fig. 4: (a) Grids marked on the sheet. (b) Deformed grid circles into ellipses. (c)
Traction forces transmitted [22]

6
The strain values at different areas of deformation is to be determined through
grid marks as shown in Fig. 4. By convention, the major principal direction is
assigned to the greatest principal stress direction as well as the greatest principal
strain direction. The minor principal direction is considered as perpendicular to
the major principal direction.

Fig. 5: Different modes of strain distribution [23]

Fig. 5 indicates the strain distribution of different modes.

Stress-Strain Laws
The deformation in sheet metal is done by stretching it between the punch
and die set which is optimally designed. During the deformation, the blank is
controlled by blank-holder.

The first step in the study of sheet metal forming is the determination of the
stress state concerned with strain at every point. The engineering stress-strain
plot diagram is characterised by an elastic part and a plastic part. To model
the isotropic hardening behaviour, empirical effective stress-strain laws are
necessarily used. The common applicable laws for sheet metal forming shown
in Fig. 6

1. Power law: A power law or law of Hollomon’s is defined as [25]

σ = Ks εn (4)

7
 Fig. 6: Isotropic hardening constitutive laws [24]

where Ks is the strength co-efficient.

2. Law of Swift or law of Krupkowski is defined as [26]

σ = Ks ( ε0 + ε)n (5)

3. Law of Ludwik is defined as [27]

σ = σy + Ks εn (6)

Anisotropy
The blank used in deep drawing may be produced in cold rolling process and
hence the blank may be of anisotropic in nature. Let l1 , w1 and t1 are length,
width and thickness of un-deformed test specimen respectively and l2 , w2 and
t2 are the corresponding values after elongation. The principal strains in three
l2 w2 t2
directions are εl = ln , εw = ln and εt = ln . For a cold rolled sheet εw ̸= εt .
l1 w1 t1
The anisotropy ratio is defined as [28]

εw
r= (7)
εt

The anisotropy ratio ’r’ is calculated from the test results of specimens prepared
by cutting in 0o , 45o and 90o to the rolling direction. The different values of r, i.e.
r0 , r45 and r90 is determined. The

8
 Fig. 7: Variation of anisotropy ratio ’r’ [22]

∆r is the indicator of planar anisotropy as shown in Fig. 7 and determined using

the following equation.

∆r = rmax − rmin (8)

The average variation is the best measure for planar anisotroy and is expressed
as [22]:
r0 + r90 − 2r45
∆R = (9)
2
The average value of anisotropy ratio or normal anisotropy ratio is defined as
[29]:
r0 + 2 r45 + r90
R= (10)
4
The value of r greater than 1 indicates a higher value of strength in the thickness
direction than other directions. The higher value of r reduces the thinning effect
and avoids the formation of the neck at stressed locations of the sheet and
improves the drawability.

Mechanics of Deep Drawing Process

The deep drawing process involves different stages and begins with pushing
of the blank by means of punch into the die and ends with an ejection of the
complete drawn cup through a die cavity. The blank is subjected to a series

9
of complex stresses of different nature such as radial tensile stresses at wall
portion, bending stresses at punch nose region and die shoulder region and
circumferential compressive stresses at the entire flange portion. Punch load
causes the bending action of the blank around the punch nose and die shoulder
regions. Different stages involved in deep drawing process are shown in Fig. 8.

Fig. 8: Scheme of deep drawing process [30]

Downward travel of the punch makes the bent portion of blank further into the
die and forms a shallow cup as shown in Fig. 8 (c). At the end of punch stroke,
the shallow cup forms into a final cup by transforming the flange into a full
wall portion of the cup [30]. During the process, the vertical wall is subjected to
tensile stresses and the flange portion is subjected to circumferential compressive
stresses and the bottom portion is subjected to biaxial tensile stresses. It is
observed that the flange portion and the sidewall region of cup experiences
deformation during the deep drawing process. At the flange, the friction force
plays an important role in the successful operation of deep drawing.

When the drawing force overcomes the frictional forces between the contacting
surfaces of different tool parts, the blank material moves towards the die cavity.
The pulling tendency is generated when the blank is forced to move into the die
opening while the frictional forces obstruct the material from moving into the die.
The blank portion at the flange region is squeezed in the circumferential direction,
creating hoop compressive stresses and a tendency for the development of
wrinkles. The wrinkles are formed when the hold-down force is not sufficient or
the frictional coefficient is less. Hence, the radial tension is the actual source for
hoop compressive stresses [31].

10
 Fig. 9: Modes of deformation in deep drawing process [30]

The stress state during the formation of the cup wall is clearly understood by
considering elements at different portions of the cup shown in Fig. 9. The tensile
stresses are developed along the radial direction in the element A and element B
due to transmission of drawing force from the side wall to the flange portion. It
is to be noted that circumferential tensile stresses will be developed when the
blank portion is properly stretched at die shoulder. At the flange, the wrinkling
may occur if the blank holder force is low. The high blank-holder force obstructs
for smooth flow of metal into the die and excessive stretching may take place
leading to the neck formation and subsequent failure by tearing of the wall.
It has been noticed that blank thinning is a normal phenomenon in the deep
drawing, but it should not be more than 25 % of the blank initial thickness [11].
The deformation in deep drawing is summarised as follows.

1. Pure radial drawing of the blank between the die and blank holder.
2. Bending and sliding of blank over the die profile radius.
3. Stretching of blank at the gap between the punch and die.
4. Bending and sliding of blank over the punch profile radius.
5. Stretching and sliding of blank over the punch face.

This combination essentially influences the thickness variation of the drawn

component. Therefore, it needs to understand that the process parameter
values selected should be optimal such that the minimisation in the variation of

11
thickness takes place. Otherwise, this variation leads to instantaneous changes
in stress and stress concentration resulting in the wrinkled or fractured cup. It
has to be noticed that the wall portion of the cup is subjected to circumferential
tensile stresses and radial tensile stress and hence both stress components at wall
portion along the cup wall plane are tensile.

Analytical model for the Max punch load vs. blank size
The analytical model for relationship between punch load and blank size is
established by considering the assumptions followed by Fereshteh et al. [32] as
described below.

1. The energy loss due to friction during bending and unbending is negligible.
2. The stress-strain exponent has a negligible effect upon LDR.
3. The material is considered perfectly plastic with strain hardening exponent,
n is equal to zero.
4. No change in thickness of the sheet.

Fig. 10: Cup with flange [32]

5. Material exhibits planar isotropy. The process of deformation in deep

drawing and its mechanism is shown in Fig. 10.

12
According to the principle of volume constancy, the initial blank volume and
volume of cup formed is constant, i.e.,

π R2o tb = π R2c tb + 2 π Rc h tb (11)

As the thickness assumed (tb ) is assumed to be constant in deep drawing

operation, the Eqn. 11 can be simplified to

π R2o = π R2c + 2 π Rc h = constant (12)

The incremental reduction in area of the flange is equal to the incremental

increase in the wall portion of the cup and it can be written as

2 π Ri dRi = 2 π Rc dh (13)

Ri dRi = Rc dh (14)

The strain variation over the flange portion in radial direction (i.e., along x
direction in Fig. 10) can be written as

dRi Rc dh
= (15)
Ri R2i

The true strain in the radial direction of the flange is the ratio of the variation in
radius with instantaneous radius at the given instant.
Hence,
dRi Rc dh
dεx = = (16)
Ri R2i

The incremental work done dW is the product of stress, strain and change in
volume

Rc dh
dW = (σ f ) ( ) (2 π tb Ri dRi ) (17)
R2i

13
The incremental punch load is

dW 2 π Rc tb σ f
dF = = dRi (18)
dh Ri

where,
Ri = Instantaneous radius of the blank
dh = Instantaneous increment in the height of the cup
Rc = Radius of the cup
σ f = Flow stress of the material
For an ideally plastic material, the total work for punch travel is given by

Z Ri
dW 2 π Rc tb σ f
Z
Fp = = dRi
dh Rc Ri
Ri
= 2 π Rc tb σ f ln
Rc

where Fp is the punch load and it is maximum when Ri = R0 , i.e.,

Ro
Fp(max) = 2 π Rc tb σ f ln (19)
Rc
As all the terms except Ro are constant in Eqn. 19 and it can be rewritten as

Fp(max) = K p Ro (20)

where K p is the proportionality constant.

Hence, it is concluded that the maximum punch load is linearly proportional to

the size of the blank up to the critical size, i.e.,

Fpmax = K p R0 (21)

The equation 21 is valid for all sizes of blanks below the critical diameter. Above
the critical size of the blank, tearing takes place and maximum punch load
remains constant as tearing load does not vary with blank size above the critical
diameter.

14
Common Failures in Deep Drawing
To produce a defect-free product having the symmetric shape, it needs to align
the blank centre with die centre. The blank-holding force and punch load play a
vital role in the successful drawing of cup.

Fig. 11: Stress status on the flange portion of a formed cup [33, 34]

Various problems with reference to quality in the deep drawing process are

1 Wrinkling: The wrinkling is an important failure in the drawing process

due to insufficient blank holder force. The unsupported region of the sheet
subjected to compressible stresses as shown in Fig. 11 is the reason for
formation of wrinkles [35]. Wrinkle develops on the flange or sidewall
region of the drawn cup due to local buckling under excessive compression
stresses [36]. If Drawing Ratio (DR) is too large, higher circumferential
compressible stresses are generated, resulting in formation of the wrinkles.

2 Earing : The sidewall of the deep-drawn cup has a non-uniform height

leading to the formation of ears. Earing is the waviness on the circular
edge of the drawn cup. The ears on the cup wall are in even number such
as four, six, or eight. Commonly four ears are formed on most of the cases.
The planar anisotropic nature of the blank is the main cause of earing . The

15
 formation of ears are minimised through proper modification in the blank
shape to compensate anisotropy.
3 Localized necking or tearing: The appearance of any local neck that
rapidly leads to tearing and failure will obviously terminate a forming
operation. This is considered as local instability that is analysed by
considering a local element without involving the whole process.
4 Fracture: There is a possibility of plastically deforming element to fracture
in almost a brittle manner. This is not common in a sheet used for forming
and is often preceded by some local instability.

Drawing Ratio and influencing Parameters

The depth of draw in deep drawing is the indicator of formability and higher the
depth is possible with higher Drawing Ratio (DR). The DR as shown in Eqn. 22
is used to estimate the drawing performance. Various parameters such as metal
flow geometry, material properties, and the design parameters of deep drawing
tool setup limit the size of the blank to draw successfully. There is a limit to the
amount of draw to perform on a sheet blank in a single operation. The drawing
ratio helps to find the highest amount of draw possible [37].

Db
Drawing Ratio, DR = (22)
Dp

To assess the formability in sheet metals, finding the LDR for a given material is
an important task for bringing down the tooling cost and rejections. The LDR
is defined as the ratio of successfully drawn largest size of the blank without
failure to the size of the punch used in the drawing operation [38]. The LDR is
estimated using the Egn. 23.

(Db )max
LDR = (23)
Dp

Many parameters concerned with the tool setup design and drawing process
influence the quality of the drawn cup in the deep drawing process [39]. The
main parameters involved in the deep drawing process are needed to be selected
for minimising the problems in the deep drawing process. According to the

16
recent work of Zhou et al. [40], LDR is a function of normal anisotropy, friction
coefficient, strain hardening exponent, die shoulder radius and blank thickness.

Fig. 12: Technological window [41]

1. Blank Holder Force (BHF): From the past research it is found that the
BHF improves the quality of the drawn parts [42–46] and in most of the
cases BHF is described by means of the technological window as shown in
Fig. 12. Higher BHF causes fracture while lesser BHF causes wrinkles. A lot
of research was carried out on BHF, metal flow, stress distribution, strain
path, wall thinning, flange thickening, etc. In the absence of blank-holding
force, wrinkles appear at the flange. A suitable range is found for the BHF
and it depends on different factors such as punch-die clearance, punch
nose radius, die shoulder radius, punch speed, lubrication system, yielding
properties, strain hardening and geometry of the blank/cup [47].
2. Type of Blank Holder Mechanism: Different types of blank holding
mechanisms are available for selection. It is essential to select a suitable
blank holding mechanism for the production of deep drawing product
without defects. Various types are :
(a) Constant BHF mechanism
(b) Constant blank holder pressure (BHP) mechanism
(c) Variable blank holder pressure mechanism
(d) Segmented blank holder mechanism
(e) Constant gap blank holder mechanism

17
 (f) Vibration blank holder mechanism.
Constant blank holding mechanism is preferred in majority of the cases
due to its simplicity [48].
3. Punch Load and Speed: The punch load in the deep drawing process
is proportional to punch travel until maximum load and it helps in the
selection of suitable deep drawing press. It has been observed that
if Young’s modulus and yield stress or strain hardening exponent of
a material increases, it results in an increase in the punch load. It is to be
noted that the value of strain hardening exponent ≥ 0.3 produces wrinkles
during the drawing process. When the wrinkle development increases, the
punch force required becomes erratic [49]. Basically, the drawing operation
should be slow and gradual, where the blank material tends to suffer a
critical strain. The blank material needs to be allowed into the die with
a uniform speed. Therefore, the draw speed is also considered to be one
of the highly influencing parameters during the design of deep draw tool
setup [50].
4. Friction and Type of Lubricant: The friction is another important
parameter that essentially influences the deep drawing operation. The
quality of the product produced and the life of the tool are highly
dependent on the lubricating film conditions between the contact surfaces
[51]. The static friction force at the blank-die interface must be lower than
the punch load applied for the inception of the deep drawing operation.
The BHF influences static friction and the draw takes place once the punch
load overcomes the static friction force. The continuous movement of
the punch is quite important after the punch load overcomes the static
friction in order to use the advantage of the dynamic friction since the
dynamic friction force will be less than the static friction force. A definite
lubricating oil film thickness can improve the surface finish of the deep
drawn cup. It is revealed from the earlier research that a larger area of
full film lubrication region results in the uniform strain distribution [51].
The proper lubrication conditions are needed for deep drawing process in
order to get quality surface.
5. Punch-Die clearance: The intentional space provided between the punch
and die is the die clearance and it is one of the critical factors to

18
 be considered. Radial clearance of 7 - 14% of the sheet thickness is
recommended. Insufficient clearance may cause shearing of the blank.
It is to be kept in mind while designing the tool setup that if the radial
clearance is less, the cup tends to fail due to ironing action. The die inner
diameter is based on the gap required between the punch and die. This gap
between punch and die depends upon the blank thickness and material,
surface finish and lubricant used.
6. Punch Nose and Die Shoulder Radii: Sharp corner or less Punch Nose
Radius (PNR) could cause fracture of the cup and larger PNR causes
wrinkles on the flange. A less die corner radius causes fracture of the
flange. For large values of punch nose radii, the material lying at the punch
region deforms more than the other regions of the cup wall. It produces
more thinning, leading to high-stress concentration at the PNR due to
excessive bending and stretching of metal. This thinning phenomenon
increases with an increase of PNR and the maximum thinning occurs at
the punch nose region. The PNR has a considerable effect on shear strain,
and the shear stress distribution. It is to be noted that an increase in the
PNR, results in significant variation in shear stress and/or shear strain. In
the deep drawing process, the tearing starts nearer to the upper edge of
the PNR. It has been shown that the PNR less than four times the blank
thickness or greater than 10 times the blank thickness will not have much
influence on LDR. The Die shoulder Radius (DSR) generally depends upon
the size of the workpiece and its thickness. The increase in DSR increases
LDR as well as the punch load [52]. The increase in die shoulder radius
leads to a decrease in the contact area between the blank and blank holder.
It increases the chance of the formation of wrinkles [53]. According to Zaid
et al. the maximum size of die shoulder radius should not be more than 15
times of blank thickness. The die shoulder radius should be in the range of
6 - 10 times the blank thickness [54, 55].
7. Blank Heating System: An appropriate heating system is used to raise
the temperature of blanks for conducting experiments at warm forming
conditions. In case of external heating, the blanks are heated in a furnace,
and transferred to the press without any loss of temperature for deep
drawing operation. During this process, any heat loss at transit may cause

19
 a reduction in temperature. In the internal heating process, the blank is
heated in the press itself through which a close control on temperature
is possible. As the temperature gradient is essential for warm drawing
operation to achieve higher LDR, the tool setup has to be heated uniformly
using cartridge or band type heater while keeping the punch at room
temperature. Though the heating may be either external or internal, the
internal heating method is preferred to heat the blank in the tool setup
itself due to its simplicity.
8. Blank Shape: To reduce the defects, thorough knowledge of the influence
of blank shape is essential. The blank optimisation process can be carried
out using the Finite Element Method (FEM) coupled with Taguchi DoE
method. In cases, where the elliptical or square cup deep drawing process
is performed under multistage operation, it requires to configure the blank
shape correctly, as it largely influences the strain distribution all over the
blank and at the corners, in particular. The blank shape optimisation can be
done by various techniques with the use of FEM, Artificial Neural Network
(ANN) models, etc. For optimisation, a meta-model can be developed and
coupled with an optimisation algorithm using numerical methods. It helps
to find the optimum shape of the blank in comparison to the experimental
method which involves more time and cost.

20
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