GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM

It is a system of computer software, hardware and procedures designed to support the capture,
management, manipulation, analysis, and display of spatially referenced data for
solving complex planning, management and other related problems. It requires a personnel
trained in the technology who can capture, store and update the data, and provide answers to the
complex queries of the management by integrating information contained in various layers,
through maps, tables, and charts

Components of GIS

1. People

2. Computer hardware

3. Computer software

4. Data

5. Method/processes

1. Hardware: This includes computers, data input devices (such as digitizers and scanners), data
storage devices (like hard disks and flash drives), and output devices (like printers and plotters).

2. Software: GIS software packages, such as ArcGIS, GRASS GIS, and Quantum GIS, are
designed to handle and analyze geospatial data. These software tools enable users to input, store,
manage, transform, analyze, and output data.

3. Data: GIS uses two primary types of data: spatial data (which represents real-world features
like roads, buildings, and boundaries) and attribute data (which provides additional information
about these features). Data can be obtained from primary or secondary sources and can be stored
in various formats.

4. People: Effective development and use of GIS require a range of personnel, including
technical specialists (like hardware and software engineers), data providers, digitizers,
programmers, analysts, and managers. Each of these roles plays a crucial part in the GIS process.
5. Procedures: GIS procedures involve the steps taken to retrieve, input, store, manage,
transform, analyze, and present data. These procedures are tailored to meet the specific needs of
an organization and can vary depending on the company's business, spatial data requirements,
and information flow patterns.

Functions of GIS

 Data capture: data input by user employing scanner, digitizer tablet, keyboard etc., or
data import from digital sources.

 Data check: plausibility, revision and completion.

 Data integration: transfer of data sets into a consistent geographic data structure by
generalisation, co-ordinates transformation resp. translation etc.

 Data storage: spatial data are stored as grid or vector data. Advanced GIS can process
both types of data in hybrid systems. Normally, the data are stored in intersystem data
bases.

 Data retrieval: basic functions for a user-defined query of data bases.

 Data analysis: GIS provides a broad range of tools to analyse the database. In this respect,
all GIS functionalities can be used, in particular the visualisation methods.

 Data display: the most important display formats of GIS are maps. But also tables and
graphics are possible formats for the presentation of results.

Case Study - History of GIS – John Snow

Background

In 1854, London experienced a deadly cholera outbreak in the Soho district. At that time, the

dominant belief was that cholera spread through "miasma" (bad air). Dr. John Snow, a British

physician, challenged this theory, hypothesizing that cholera was waterborne.

Contribution to GIS
John Snow is widely recognized as a pioneer in Geographic Information Systems (GIS) due to

his innovative use of spatial data to address the outbreak.

Method and Mapping

 Snow mapped individual cholera deaths as points on a street map of Soho.

 He also plotted the locations of public water pumps.

 By analyzing the spatial pattern, he identified a significant cluster of deaths around the

Broad Street water pump.

 Snow removed the pump handle, after which cholera cases significantly declined—

supporting his hypothesis.

GIS data structures

The two data structures in GIS are VECTOR and RASTER DATA STRUCTURE.

Vector data structure represents geographic objects with the basic elements points, lines and
areas, also called polygons. Point described by x,y (lat,long; east, north). Line data are described
by x,y points (nodes, events) and lines (arcs) between points (line segments and polylines).
Polygon data is a closed line segments enclosing areas that are described by attributes

A raster is an array of cells, where each cell has a value representing a specific portion of an
object or a feature.
REMOTE SENSING

Remote sensing can be broadly defined as the collection and interpretation of information about
an object, area, or event without being in physical contact with the object. Aircraft and satellites
are the common platforms for remote sensing of the earth and its natural resources. Aerial
photography in the visible portion of the electromagnetic wavelength was the original form of
remote sensing but technological developments has enabled the acquisition of information at
other wavelengths including near infrared, thermal infrared and microwave. Collection of
information over a large numbers of wavelength bands is referred to as multispectral or
hyperspectral data. The development and deployment of manned and unmanned satellites has
enhanced the collection of remotely sensed data and offers an inexpensive way to obtain
information over large areas. The capacity of remote sensing to identify and monitor land
surfaces and environmental conditions has expanded greatly over the last few years and remotely
sensed data will be an essential tool in natural resource management.

Stages in Remote Sensing

1. Energy Source or Illumination (A) – the first requirement for remote sensing is to have an
energy source which illuminates or provides electromagnetic energy to the target of interest.

2. Radiation and the Atmosphere (B) – as the energy travels from its source to the target, it will
come in contact with and interact with the atmosphere it passes through. This interaction may
take place a second time as the energy travels from the target to the sensor.

3. Interaction with the Target (C) - once the energy makes its way to the target through the
atmosphere, it interacts with the target depending on the properties of both the target and the

4. Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D) - after the energy has been scattered by, or emitted
from the target, we require a sensor (remote - not in contact with the target) to collect and record
the electromagnetic radiation.

5. Transmission, Reception, and Processing (E) - the energy recorded by the sensor has to be
transmitted, often in electronic form, to a receiving and processing station where the data are
processed into an image (hardcopy and/or digital).

6. Interpretation and Analysis (F) - the processed image is interpreted, visually and/or digitally or
electronically, to extract information about the target which was illuminated.

7. Application (G) - the final element of the remote sensing process is achieved when we apply
the information we have been able to extract from the imagery about the target in order to better
understand it, reveal some new information, or assist in solving a particular problem.
Remote sensing process
What is Geographical Data?

Geographical data (also known as spatial data) can be defined as any data that has location or

positional identity with respect to the surface of the earth. In other words, geographical data

gives us some information about a geographical object or event.

Characteristics of Geographical Features

Geographical features have some characteristics which the GIS technology uses to manipulate

geographical data. The major characteristics are:

a. Location: Every geographical phenomenon has a location or positional identity which

can be used to know exactly where it is on or in relation to the surface of the earth.

The relative location of an object can be defined using geographical coordinates

(latitude and longitude) or some other form of position identification.

b. Size: There is a great variety in the magnitude of geographical phenomena. Some are

comparably small in size e.g. trees, boreholes, etc., while some are quite gigantic e.g.

mountains, oceans, settlements, etc.

c. Dimensions: Every geographical feature has some geometric dimension(s). Hence

each feature can be identified as a point, linear, areal, or volumetric feature. (See the

sub-section on types/classes of geographical objects).

d. Shape: Geographical objects have shape. Natural features commonly have irregular

shapes while most of the man-made features have regular shapes.

e. Distributed: Geographical phenomena are distributed over space. Some features are

highly dispersed while some are clustered together. Similarly, while some features,

especially natural features, are more randomly distributed, some others, especially

man-made features, tend to be more evenly or regularly distributed. Some

found everywhere, instead they exist at distinct locations e.g. bus stops, boreholes,

lakes, etc. On the other hand, some other geographical features are ubiquitous in their

distribution; they cover a vast area at varying degrees, e.g. population, temperature,

rainfall, soil, etc.

f. Relationship: No geographical feature exists in isolation; in various ways and degrees,

they relate and interact with one another. A geographical feature can be located close

to or far away from another feature. Also a feature can be located to the north, east,

south, or west of another; just as it could be on the left or right side of another feature.

Features could be adjacent to each other; they could also be contiguous to one another

in which case they share common boundaries; they can also be widely separated.

Similar features could intersect, just as one feature could lie completely inside another

feature. The spatial relationships mentioned above are the key to all GIS-based

analysis.