2. Explain the working of LVDT with neat diagram.

Linear Variable Di erential Transformer (LVDT)

The Linear Variable Di erential Transformer (LVDT) is an electromechanical transducer that
converts linear displacement into an electrical signal. It is widely used for precise
measurement of position and displacement in various industrial and research applications.
Construction and Components

An LVDT consists of three main components:

1. Primary Coil: A single coil located at the center of the device.
2. Secondary Coils: Two identical coils, symmetrically placed on either side of the primary coil
and connected in series opposition (di erential configuration).
3. Core: A ferromagnetic rod that moves linearly within the hollow cylindrical body of the
transformer, a ecting the magnetic flux linkage between the primary and secondary coils.
Working Principle
The working of an LVDT is based on the principle of mutual induction. Here's a step-bystep
explanation of its operation:
1. AC Excitation: An alternating current (AC) excitation voltage is applied to the primary coil,
creating an alternating magnetic field around it.
2. Induced Voltages: The alternating magnetic field induces voltages in the secondary coils. The
induced voltages in the secondary coils depend on the position of the ferromagnetic core.
3. Core Position:
o Null Position (Zero Position): When the core is at the center, the magnetic flux
linkage with both secondary coils is equal. The induced voltages in the secondary
coils are equal in magnitude but opposite in phase, resulting in zero net output
voltage.
o Positive Displacement: When the core moves towards one of the secondary coils, the
magnetic flux linkage with that coil increases, and the flux linkage with
the other coil decreases. This creates a di erential voltage proportional to the
displacement. o Negative Displacement: When the core moves towards the opposite
direction, the situation reverses, again producing a di erential voltage proportional to the
displacement but in the opposite phase.
4. Output Voltage: The output voltage of the LVDT is the di erential voltage between the two
secondary coils. This voltage is an AC signal that can be demodulated (converted to a DC
signal) to determine the magnitude and direction of the displacement.
 8. Explain the fundamental principles of PID controllers. Give two application of the PID
controller.
A PID controller is a control loop feedback mechanism widely used in industrial control systems. PID
stands for Proportional, Integral, and Derivative, which are the three fundamental actions used to
control a process. Each of these actions contributes uniquely to the controller's output.

1. Proportional Control (P)

The Proportional control action produces an output that is proportional to the current error value
e(t)e(t)e(t), which is the di erence between the desired setpoint SPSPSP and the measured process
variable PV.

𝑃 = 𝐾 𝑒(𝑡)

• 𝐾 : Proportional gain

• 𝑒(𝑡): Error at time ttt

The proportional term helps in reducing the overall error but often cannot eliminate it completely,
especially in the presence of steady-state error.

2. Integral Control (I)

The Integral control action integrates the error over time and produces an output that is proportional to
the cumulative sum of the past errors.

𝐼 =𝐾 𝑒(𝑡)𝑑𝑡

𝐾 : Integral gain

The integral term addresses the issue of steady-state error by accumulating the error over time and
eliminating it, but it can introduce overshoot and oscillations if not tuned properly.

3. Derivative Control (D)

The Derivative control action produces an output that is proportional to the rate of change of the error.

𝑑(𝑒(𝑡))
𝐷 =𝐾
𝑑𝑡
𝐾 : Derivative gain

The derivative term predicts the future trend of the error based on its rate of change, providing a
damping e ect that helps reduce overshoot and improve system stability.

Combined PID Control

The combined PID controller is the sum of the three control actions:

𝑃𝐼𝐷 =𝑃 +𝐼 +𝐷

𝑑(𝑒(𝑡))
 𝑃𝐼𝐷 = 𝐾 𝑒(𝑡) + 𝐾 𝑒(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 + 𝐾
𝑑𝑡

The overall control output is adjusted based on the proportional, integral, and derivative actions to
minimize the error and achieve the desired setpoint with optimal performance.

Applications of PID Controllers

PID controllers are ubiquitous in industrial control systems due to their simplicity, robustness, and
effectiveness. Below are two examples of their applications:

Example 1: Temperature Control in an Industrial Oven

• Application: In industrial processes like baking, soldering, or chemical processing,

maintaining a precise temperature is crucial. A PID controller is used to regulate the oven's
temperature by adjusting the heating element's power based on the difference between the
desired temperature (setpoint) and the actual temperature.

• Working:

o The proportional component responds to the immediate temperature error.

o The integral component corrects any accumulated errors over time, ensuring the
temperature stays at the setpoint.

o The derivative component anticipates changes in temperature, reducing overshoot

and preventing temperature spikes.

Example 2: Speed Control in a DC Motor

• Application: In robotics and automation, precise speed control of DC motors is essential for
tasks like conveyor belt operation, robotic arm movement, and electric vehicle propulsion. A
PID controller adjusts the motor voltage to maintain the desired speed.

• Working:

o The proportional component adjusts the voltage based on the difference between the
desired speed and the actual speed.

o The integral component compensates for any long-term discrepancies between the
desired and actual speeds.

o The derivative component helps prevent sudden changes in speed, ensuring smooth
operation.

1. Compare and contrast Point-to-Point (PTP) control with continuous path control. What are
the benefits and typical applications of each?

1. Comparison of Point-to-Point (PTP) Control and Continuous Path Control

In robotics, motion control techniques like Point-to-Point (PTP) control and continuous path control
are essential for different applications. Each method has its unique characteristics, benefits, and
applications, making them suitable for specific tasks.

1. Point-to-Point (PTP) Control

• Principle: PTP control involves moving the robot's end-effector from one predefined point to
another without considering the path taken between these points. The focus is solely on
reaching the target positions accurately.
• Motion Control: The robot’s joints are controlled independently to reach the target position,
but the trajectory or path between the points is not controlled.
• Speed Control: PTP systems typically operate at high speeds between points, as there is no
need to follow a specific path.
•
2. Continuous Path Control
• Principle: Continuous path control involves guiding the robot's end-effector along a
continuous, predefined trajectory. This method ensures that every point along the path is
precisely controlled.
• Motion Control: The robot’s joints are coordinated to ensure smooth and continuous motion
along the desired path, with control over both the position and orientation throughout the
movement.
• Speed Control: Continuous path control requires careful management of speed to ensure the
robot follows the path accurately, often operating at varying speeds depending on the
complexity of the path.
•
Comparison
Aspect Point-to-Point (PTP) Control Continuous Path Control
Path Only the start and end points are The entire path is controlled and
Consideration defined; the path is not controlled. defined.
Typically operates at high speeds Speed is carefully managed to ensure
Speed
between points. accuracy along the path.
Simpler to implement, with less More complex, requiring precise control
Complexity
computational burden. over all joints.
High precision at discrete points, but
Precision High precision along the entire path.
no control over the path.
Application Suitable for tasks where only the final Suitable for tasks requiring precise
Suitability position matters. movement along a specific trajectory.

Benefits and Applications

Benefits and Applications of Point-to-Point (PTP) Control
1. Benefits:
o Simplicity: Easier to implement and program, as the focus is only on reaching
specific points.
o Speed: Allows for rapid movement between points, making it efficient for tasks
where the path is irrelevant.
o Resource Efficiency: Requires less computational power and system resources
compared to continuous path control.
2. Typical Applications:
o Assembly Tasks: Where the robot needs to pick up a component from one location
and place it at another without concern for the path.
 o Material Handling: Moving objects from one point to another in manufacturing or
warehouse operations.
o Spot Welding: In automotive manufacturing, where the robot only needs to move to
specific spots for welding without concern for the path.

Benefits and Applications of Continuous Path Control

1. Benefits:
o Path Accuracy: Ensures the robot follows a precise path, which is essential for tasks
requiring continuous motion.
o Smooth Operation: Provides smooth and coordinated motion, which is crucial for
tasks like machining or painting.
o Versatility: Can handle complex tasks that require not just position accuracy but also
control over the trajectory.
2. Typical Applications:
o Painting and Coating: Where the robot must follow a continuous path to apply paint
evenly across a surface.
o Machining: CNC operations where the robot follows a specific path to cut or shape
materials.
o Welding: Continuous seam welding in automotive or aerospace industries, where the
robot must follow a precise path.

3. Discuss the differences between open-loop and closed-loop control systems, providing
a block diagram for each.

An open loop control system is the one in which the output signal is not fed back to the input of the
system. Therefore, an open loop control system is also referred to as a non-feedback control system.

A closed loop control system is the one in which the output signal is fed-back to the input of the
system. Therefore, in a closed loop control system, the control action is a function of desired output
signal.
The following table highlights all the major differences between open loop control system and closed
loop control system –

Basis of
Open Loop Control System Closed Loop Control System
Difference
A control system in which there is no The control system in which there is a
Definition feedback path is provided is called an feedback path present is called a closed
open loop control system. loop control system.
Open loop control system is also called Closed loop control system is also called
Also called
non-feedback control system. a feedback control system.
In open loop control system, the control In closed loop control system, the
Control action action is independent of the output of control action is dependent on the output
the overall system. of the system.
Closed loop control system has
Design The design and construction of an open
comparatively complex design and
complexity loop control system is quite simple.
construction.
The main components of a closed loop
The major components of an open loop
Main control system are − Controller, plant or
control system are − controller and
Components process, feedback element and error
plant.
detector (comparator).
Open loop control system has fast The response of the closed loop control
Response response because there is no system is slow due to presence of
measurement and feedback of output. feedback.
The reliability of open loop control The closed loop control system is more
Reliability
system is less. reliable.
The accuracy of open loop control Closed loop control system is
Accuracy system depends upon the system comparatively accurate because the
calibration and therefore, may be less. feedback maintains its accuracy.
The stability of open loop control
Stability (in terms Closed loop control system is
system is more, i.e., the output of the
of output) comparatively less stable.
open loop system remains constant.
The open loop control system is not Closed loop control system is optimized
Optimization
optimized. to produce the desired output.
Open loop control system requires less Comparatively more maintenance is
Maintenance
maintenance. needed in closed loop control system.
Open loop control system is easy to The implementation of a closed loop
Implementation
implement. control system is relatively difficult.
Open loop control system is less The cost of the closed loop control
Cost
expensive. system is relatively high.
Open loop control system has more In closed loop system, the internal noise
Noise
internal noise. in the system is less.
Common practical examples of open Examples of closed loop control systems
loop control systems are − automatic include: ACs, fridge, toaster, rocket
Examples
traffic light system, automatic washing launching system, radar tracking system,
machine, immersion heater, etc. etc.
4.What are PD and PIC controllers? Explain their functioning using appropriate
expressions

PD and PID Controllers: Functioning and Expressions

Proportional-Derivative (PD) and Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) controllers are fundamental
tools in control systems, widely used in robotics and automation for achieving desired system
behavior. Both controllers are designed to regulate a process by minimizing the error between the
desired setpoint and the actual output. Here’s a detailed explanation of their functioning along with
the mathematical expressions.

1. PD Controller (Proportional-Derivative Controller)

Functioning
A PD controller combines proportional and derivative actions to control the system. It calculates the
control signal based on two components:
• Proportional (P) Component: This part of the controller produces an output that is directly
proportional to the current error. The proportional action responds to the magnitude of the
error, applying more correction as the error increases.
• Derivative (D) Component: This part of the controller responds to the rate of change of the
error. The derivative action anticipates the future trend of the error, providing a damping
effect that reduces the tendency of the system to oscillate or overshoot.
Mathematical Expression
The control signal u(t)u(t)u(t) for a PD controller is given by:

u(t)=Kp⋅e(t)+Kd⋅de(t)dtu(t) = K_p \cdot e(t) + K_d \cdot \frac{d e(t)}{d t}u(t)=Kp⋅e(t)+Kd⋅dtde(t)

Where:
• u(t)u(t)u(t) is the control output.
• e(t)=r(t)−y(t)e(t) = r(t) - y(t)e(t)=r(t)−y(t) is the error between the desired setpoint r(t)r(t)r(t)
and the actual output y(t)y(t)y(t).
• KpK_pKp is the proportional gain.
• KdK_dKd is the derivative gain.
Applications
• Robot Arm Positioning: Used in robotic arms for precise positioning, where damping of
oscillations and quick response are essential.
• Velocity Control: Common in systems where speed and stability are critical, such as in DC
motor speed control.

2. PID Controller (Proportional-Integral-Derivative Controller)

Functioning
A PID controller combines proportional, integral, and derivative actions to control the system. It
calculates the control signal based on three components:
• Proportional (P) Component: Similar to the PD controller, this component responds to the
current error, providing a corrective action proportional to the magnitude of the error.
• Integral (I) Component: This part of the controller sums the past errors over time, ensuring
that any accumulated error is corrected. The integral action eliminates the steady-state error
by adjusting the control signal based on the cumulative error.
 • Derivative (D) Component: As in the PD controller, this component predicts future errors by
responding to the rate of change of the error, providing a damping effect to reduce
oscillations.
•
Mathematical Expression
The control signal u(t)u(t)u(t) for a PID controller is given by:
u(t)=Kp⋅e(t)+Ki⋅∫0te(τ)dτ+Kd⋅de(t)dtu(t) = K_p \cdot e(t) + K_i \cdot \int_{0}^{t} e(\tau) d\tau +
K_d \cdot \frac{d e(t)}{d t}u(t)=Kp⋅e(t)+Ki⋅∫0te(τ)dτ+Kd⋅dtde(t)
Where:
• u(t)u(t)u(t) is the control output.
• e(t)=r(t)−y(t)e(t) = r(t) - y(t)e(t)=r(t)−y(t) is the error between the desired setpoint r(t)r(t)r(t)
and the actual output y(t)y(t)y(t).
• KpK_pKp is the proportional gain.
• KiK_iKi is the integral gain.
• KdK_dKd is the derivative gain.

Applications
• Temperature Control: Widely used in temperature regulation systems, such as thermostats,
where precise and stable control is required.
• Industrial Process Control: Commonly used in various industrial automation systems,
including pressure, flow, and level control in chemical processes.

1.Compare and contrast Point-to-Point (PTP) control with continuous path control. What
are the benefits and typical applications of each?

Comparison of Point-to-Point (PTP) Control and Continuous Path Control

In robotics, motion control techniques like Point-to-Point (PTP) control and continuous path
control are essential for different applications. Each method has its unique characteristics,
benefits, and applications, making them suitable for specific tasks.

1. Point-to-Point (PTP) Control

• Principle: PTP control involves moving the robot's end-effector from one predefined point to
another without considering the path taken between these points. The focus is solely on
reaching the target positions accurately.
• Motion Control: The robot’s joints are controlled independently to reach the target position,
but the trajectory or path between the points is not controlled.
• Speed Control: PTP systems typically operate at high speeds between points, as there is no
need to follow a specific path.
•
2. Continuous Path Control
• Principle: Continuous path control involves guiding the robot's end-effector along a
continuous, predefined trajectory. This method ensures that every point along the path is
precisely controlled.
• Motion Control: The robot’s joints are coordinated to ensure smooth and continuous motion
along the desired path, with control over both the position and orientation throughout the
movement.
• Speed Control: Continuous path control requires careful management of speed to ensure the
robot follows the path accurately, often operating at varying speeds depending on the
complexity of the path.
•
Comparison
Point-to-Point (PTP)
Aspect Continuous Path Control
Control
Only the start and end points
Path The entire path is controlled
are defined; the path is not
Consideration and defined.
controlled.
Speed is carefully managed
Typically operates at high
Speed to ensure accuracy along the
speeds between points.
path.
More complex, requiring
Simpler to implement, with
Complexity precise control over all
less computational burden.
joints.
High precision at discrete
High precision along the
Precision points, but no control over
entire path.
the path.
Suitable for tasks where Suitable for tasks requiring
Application
only the final position precise movement along a
Suitability
matters. specific trajectory.

Benefits and Applications

Benefits and Applications of Point-to-Point (PTP) Control
1. Benefits:
o Simplicity: Easier to implement and program, as the focus is only on reaching
specific points.
o Speed: Allows for rapid movement between points, making it efficient for tasks
where the path is irrelevant.
o Resource Efficiency: Requires less computational power and system resources
compared to continuous path control.
2. Typical Applications:
o Assembly Tasks: Where the robot needs to pick up a component from one location
and place it at another without concern for the path.
o Material Handling: Moving objects from one point to another in manufacturing or
warehouse operations.
o Spot Welding: In automotive manufacturing, where the robot only needs to move to
specific spots for welding without concern for the path.

Benefits and Applications of Continuous Path Control

1. Benefits:
o Path Accuracy: Ensures the robot follows a precise path, which is essential for tasks
requiring continuous motion.
o Smooth Operation: Provides smooth and coordinated motion, which is crucial for
tasks like machining or painting.
o Versatility: Can handle complex tasks that require not just position accuracy but also
control over the trajectory.
2. Typical Applications:
o Painting and Coating: Where the robot must follow a continuous path to apply paint
evenly across a surface.
 o Machining: CNC operations where the robot follows a specific path to cut or shape
materials.
o Welding: Continuous seam welding in automotive or aerospace industries, where the
robot must follow a precise path.

6.Outline the main types of control systems, providing relevant examples for each

Main Types of Control Systems

Control systems are essential in robotics and automation for managing the behavior of
machines and processes. The main types of control systems can be classified into several
categories based on their feedback mechanisms, complexity, and adaptability. Below is an
outline of the key types of control systems, along with relevant examples, as referenced from
"Robotics" by Ganesh Hegde and "Robot and Control" by R.K. Mittal and I.J. Nagrath.

1. Open-Loop Control Systems

Definition: In an open-loop control system, the output is not fed back to the input. The
system operates based on predefined settings, without any correction mechanism to adjust for
disturbances or variations in the system.

Key Characteristics:
• No feedback mechanism.
• Simpler and less expensive.
• Less accurate due to the lack of correction for errors.
Example:
• Washing Machine: Operates based on a preset timer and sequence, without sensing the
actual cleanliness of the clothes.
• Conveyor Belt System: Moves items at a fixed speed and distance, irrespective of variations
in load or belt speed.

2. Closed-Loop Control Systems

Definition: A closed-loop control system, also known as a feedback control system, uses
feedback from the output to adjust the input. The system continuously monitors the output
and makes necessary adjustments to achieve the desired performance.
Key Characteristics:
• Feedback mechanism allows for error correction.
• More accurate and stable compared to open-loop systems.
• Can handle disturbances and variations effectively.
Example:
• Thermostat-Controlled Heating System: The system adjusts the heating output based on
the difference between the desired temperature and the actual room temperature.
• Servo Motor Control: Used in robotics to control the position of a robotic arm, adjusting
based on the feedback from position sensors.

3. Linear Control Systems

Definition: Linear control systems are characterized by linear relationships between the input
and output. The principle of superposition applies, meaning the output response to a sum of
inputs is the sum of the responses to each input.
 Key Characteristics:
• Governed by linear differential equations.
• Predictable and easier to analyze mathematically.
Example:
• Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Controller: A common linear control system used
in various industrial processes to maintain a desired setpoint by adjusting the input based on
proportional, integral, and derivative actions.
• Mass-Spring-Damper System: A classical example of a linear system in mechanical
engineering, where the force applied is proportional to the displacement, velocity, and
acceleration.

4. Nonlinear Control Systems

Definition: Nonlinear control systems deal with systems where the relationship between
input and output is nonlinear. These systems are more complex and can exhibit behaviors
such as multiple equilibria, limit cycles, and chaos.
Key Characteristics:
• Governed by nonlinear differential equations.
• Complex and often require numerical methods for analysis.
Example:
• Robotic Manipulator Control: The dynamics of robotic arms are inherently nonlinear,
especially when dealing with large angles or high speeds.
• Control of Aircraft during Maneuvering: Aircraft dynamics are nonlinear, particularly
during extreme maneuvers where aerodynamic forces vary nonlinearly with angle of attack.

5. Adaptive Control Systems

Definition: Adaptive control systems adjust their parameters in real-time to accommodate
changes in system dynamics or external disturbances. Unlike fixed-parameter control
systems, adaptive systems learn and adapt to the environment.
Key Characteristics:
• Real-time parameter adjustment.
• Ability to handle changing system dynamics.
Example:
• Adaptive Cruise Control: Automatically adjusts a vehicle's speed in response to changing
traffic conditions, maintaining a safe distance from other vehicles.
• Robotic Arm with Variable Load: Adjusts its control parameters based on the changing
weight of the load being manipulated.

6. Optimal Control Systems

Definition: Optimal control systems aim to optimize a specific performance criterion, such as
minimizing energy consumption, time, or error. These systems use mathematical optimization
techniques to determine the best control action.
Key Characteristics:
• Based on optimization algorithms.
• Aims to achieve the best possible performance according to a defined criterion.
Example:
• Spacecraft Trajectory Optimization: Determines the optimal thrust profile to minimize fuel
consumption while achieving the desired orbit.
• Economic Load Dispatch in Power Systems: Optimizes the distribution of load among
different power plants to minimize cost while meeting demand.
7.What is adaptive control? Explain the underlying principles.

Definition of Adaptive Control

Adaptive control refers to a type of control system that can modify its behavior in response to
changes in the environment or the system's dynamics. Unlike fixed-parameter control
systems, which are designed based on a specific model, adaptive control systems are capable
of learning and adapting to new conditions without manual intervention.

Principles of Adaptive Control

The principles underlying adaptive control include:
1. Real-Time Adaptation:
o The controller continuously adapts its parameters in real-time, based on ongoing
observations of the system's behavior. This allows the system to maintain optimal
performance even when the system's dynamics change unpredictably.
2. Stability:
o Ensuring stability during adaptation is critical. Techniques like Lyapunov’s stability
theory are often used to design adaptive controllers that remain stable while adjusting
to new conditions.
3. Convergence:
o The adaptive system should not only remain stable but also converge to an optimal
set of parameters that ensure the desired performance. The speed and accuracy of
convergence are key metrics in the design of adaptive controllers.
4. Robustness:
o Adaptive control systems are designed to be robust, meaning they can handle a wide
range of disturbances and uncertainties. This robustness is achieved by continuously
adapting the control parameters to counteract these disturbances.
o
Applications of Adaptive Control
Adaptive control is widely used in various fields where system dynamics are uncertain or
change over time:
• Aerospace: Adaptive control is used in flight control systems to manage varying
aerodynamic conditions during different flight phases.
• Robotics: In robotic systems, adaptive control is crucial for handling varying loads, changing
environmental conditions, and ensuring precise motion control.
• Automotive Industry: Adaptive cruise control systems adjust vehicle speed in response to
changing traffic conditions.
• Process Control: In industries like chemical processing, where the process dynamics can
change due to variations in raw materials or environmental conditions.

10. Explain how Gray coding improves accuracy compared to binary coding in encoders.
5. Elaborate on the concepts of point-to-point control and continuous path control in
robotics.

Point-to-Point Control and Continuous Path Control in Robotics

In robotics, the control of a manipulator or robot arm involves precisely moving the end-effector from
one position to another. Two fundamental control strategies used to achieve this are Point-to-Point
(PTP) Control and Continuous Path (CP) Control. These strategies are discussed in depth in
"Robotics" by Ganesh Hegde and "Robot and Control" by R.K. Mittal and I.J. Nagrath. The following

explanation provides a detailed examination suitable for an exam answer.

1. Point-to-Point (PTP) Control

Definition: Point-to-Point (PTP) control refers to a control strategy where the robot is programmed to
move its end-effector from one specific point to another without concern for the path taken between
the points. The focus is on accurately reaching the target positions rather than on the trajectory.
Key Features:
• Discreteness: The movement is defined by discrete positions or points, such as the start and
end points of a task.
• Focus on Positioning: PTP control ensures that the robot reaches the designated positions
with high precision, often using techniques like linear or nonlinear interpolation to move
between points.
• Speed and Efficiency: The control system can optimize speed and energy usage since it does
not need to continuously monitor or control the path between points.
Example:
 • Pick and Place Operations: In industrial automation, a robotic arm might pick up an object
from one location and place it at another. PTP control is ideal here as the focus is on reaching
the pick-up and drop-off points accurately, without concern for the exact path taken.
Benefits:
• Simplicity: PTP control is simpler to implement and requires less computational power since
it does not involve continuous monitoring of the path.
• Efficiency: It allows for faster operations as the system can optimize the movements based on
the shortest or quickest paths.
Limitations:
• Lack of Path Control: Since the path is not controlled, PTP may not be suitable for tasks that
require smooth, precise movements along a specific trajectory.

2. Continuous Path (CP) Control

Definition: Continuous Path (CP) control is a control strategy where the robot is programmed to
follow a specific path with a predefined trajectory. The robot's end-effector must maintain a
continuous, controlled motion along the entire path, not just at the start and end points.
Key Features:
• Path Definition: The trajectory is explicitly defined, and the control system ensures that the
robot follows this path with high accuracy.
• Smoothness and Precision: Continuous path control provides smooth and precise
movement, which is essential for tasks that require the robot to interact with objects along the
path.
• Complex Interpolation: CP control often requires complex interpolation techniques to
generate smooth trajectories that the robot can follow.
Example:
• Welding and Painting: In tasks like robotic welding or spray painting, the robot must follow
a continuous, smooth path to ensure even coverage. CP control is necessary to maintain the
correct orientation, speed, and position along the path.
Benefits:
• Precision in Path Following: CP control ensures that the robot follows the exact path,
making it ideal for tasks that require high precision and smooth movements.
• Versatility: CP control can be used in complex tasks where the interaction along the path is
as important as reaching the final destination.
Limitations:
• Complexity: CP control is more complex to implement, requiring more sophisticated
algorithms and higher computational power.
• Slower Execution: Due to the need for continuous monitoring and adjustment, CP control
may result in slower operations compared to PTP control.

9. How can the resolution of an optical encoder be determined? Explain with a diagram.