Open Veterinary Journal, (2019), Vol.

9(4): 301–308
ISSN: 2226-4485 (Print) Review Article
ISSN: 2218-6050 (Online) DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/ovj.v9i4.4

Submitted: 02/05/2019 Accepted: 15/09/2019 Published: 30/10/2019

Comparing alternatives to canine rectal thermometry at the axillary,

auricular and ocular locations
Eunice Kahng* and Cord Brundage

California Polytechnic University of Pomona, Pomona, CA 91768, USA

Abstract
Body temperature is an important component in the diagnosis and treatment of disease in canines. The rectal
temperature remains the standard of obtaining temperature within the clinical setting, but there are many drawbacks
with this method, including time, access, animal stress, and safety concerns. Interest in using infrared thermometry
in canines to obtain body temperature has grown as animal scientists and veterinarians search for non-invasive and
non-contact methods and locations of obtaining canine temperatures. Here, we review evidence on axillary, auricular,
and ocular region canine thermometry and the degree to which measurements in these locations are representative of
rectal temperature values. Instrumentation refinement and development, as well as morphologic differences, play an
important role in the potential correlation between the rectal temperature and these other locations. These caveats have
yet to be fully addressed in the literature, limiting the options for those seeking alternatives to rectal thermometry.
Keywords: Auricular, Axillary, Canine, Ocular, Thermometry.

Introduction IR device measures the heat produced at the tympanic

Obtaining and recording body temperature is essential membrane of the ear (Kreissl and Neiger, 2015). The
in the proper diagnosis and treatment of canine tympanic membrane shares the same blood flow as
patients. Core temperature is considered the gold the hypothalamus, which further supports temperature
standard of body temperature, as it closely reflects the measurement at this location (Kreissl and Neiger,
temperature of the internal organs (Allegaert et al., 2015). Auricular thermometers, however, are very
2014). The temperature at the hypothalamus is also dependent on the correct positioning of the probe
a desired location to monitor, as this region is where within the ear canal and must reach the tympanic
body temperature is perceived (Cichocki et al., 2017). membrane without damaging the ear (Gomart et al.,
However, clinically, the most conventional method 2014). There are also concerns of inaccurate reflection
of taking a canine’s temperature is through the rectal of body temperature in dogs presenting with otitis
mucosa, as it continues to be a minimally invasive externa (González et al., 2002). Despite this concern,
method that provides insight to core temperature studies have shown that inflammation caused by otitis
(Kreissl and Neiger, 2015). Rectal thermometers have externa does not necessarily affect the temperature
drawbacks, as they cannot be easily used on aggressive readings from auricular thermometers (Cichocki et al.,
canids or ones with an infection or rupture of the 2017). Auricular thermometers provide more accurate
anal mucosa (Kreissl and Neiger, 2015). To bypass readings if made specifically for veterinary use, as its
the limitations caused by rectal temperatures, studies curved shape allows the thermometer to have closer
have been done using non - contact infrared (IR) access to the canine’s tympanic membrane (Gomart et
thermometers, and focusing on alternative areas such al., 2014). Yet, these models tend to be more expensive
as the axilla, auricular canal, and ocular regions of the in comparison to human thermometers, making it
canine (Gomart et al., 2014, Zanghi, 2016). Searches difficult for widespread adoption (Gomart et al., 2014).
were made through institutional library databases An alternative location to obtain temperature readings
such as Google Scholar and the National Center for in canines is the axillary region. The decreased hair
Biotechnology Information. Searches were made density in this particular region allows for digital
using the following words: thermometry, temperature, thermometers to measure the surface temperature of
auricular, ocular, surface, axillary, and canine. As a the skin. Temperature readings are taken by placing the
result, 50 papers were found. Studies that did not look digital thermometer centrally within the axillary region,
at temperature measurements in axillary, auricular, as far dorsally as possible (Cichocki et al., 2017). Axilla
and ocular locations were eliminated. As a result, 24 temperatures, however, have a poor correlation to rectal
scientific studies were involved in this review. temperature (Cichocki et al., 2017).
Auricular IR thermometers have been gaining popularity Ocular surface temperature (OST) is a third region
as an alternative method to rectal thermometers. This that has become an area of interest in obtaining body

*Corresponding Author: Eunice Kahng. California Polytechnic University of Pomona, Pomona, CA 91768, USA.
Email: [email protected] 301
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E. Kahng and C. Brundage Open Veterinary Journal, (2019), Vol. 9(4): 301–308

temperature. Ocular temperature studies originated in inflammation, but has now expanded to discerning
human ophthalmology as a faster method to diagnose surface temperature responses to anesthetic and drug
common eye diseases such as keratoconjunctivitis sicca treatment in horses.
(Biondi et al., 2013). Ocular temperature is typically In addition to aiding in the diagnosis and treatment of
measured with an IR camera, but new studies have been certain diseases, IR thermometry is also being used to
done using non - contact IR thermometers to evaluate assess body temperature without bodily contact (Lahiri
the temperature in canines (Kreissl and Neiger, 2015). et al., 2012). There has been positive feedback regarding
We will be evaluating canine thermometry data taken the use of non-contact IR thermometers in pediatric
from auricular, axilla, and ocular regions in comparison studies, as traditional rectal temperature readings tend
to rectal temperature. to be stressful and unpleasant for children (Allegaert
Instrumentation et al., 2014). Studies have now looked into using this
The first common device used to record body temperature same IR thermometry in clinical veterinary medicine,
was glass mercury thermometers. These thermometers as an alternative to rectal thermometry. Temperature-
measure temperature by equilibrating with the adjacent controlled rooms, as well as user expertise play a role
skin or mucosa (Teran et al., 2011). This method takes in the accuracy and consistency with IR temperature
at least 3 minutes for the thermometer to fully reflect the readings (Mathis and Campbell, 2015).
temperature of the human or animal (Teran et al., 2011). Coat length associated with different breeds can
Glass thermometers were used for several decades until also affect thermoregulation. A study involving 47
the toxic effects of mercury contact were identified racing greyhounds took thermal images of the tendo
(Teran et al., 2011). Since then, digital thermometers calcaneus, musculus gastrocnemius, musculus gracilis,
have been readily used in clinical settings. These and musculus biceps femoris portio caudalis before and
devices are the most common appliance utilized in after their races (Vainionpaa et al., 2012). The dogs
veterinary clinics due to their affordability and ease of raced four different distances, 325, 495, 560, and 785 m.
use (Kreissl and Neiger, 2015). Digital thermometers The post-race thermal images were significantly higher
function by two forms of technology, equilibrium than the baseline thermal images when looking at the
thermometry, and predictive thermometry (Mathis and musculus gastrocnemius region. The other superficial
Campbell, 2015). Equilibrium thermometry requires temperatures were dependent on the measurement point
direct contact with the adjacent mucosa to allow the on the body, but the reference interval for superficial
thermistor within the thermometer to use electrical temperature varied from 0.6°C to 2.1°C depending
resistance to calculate the body temperature, which on the length of the race (Vainionpaa et al., 2012).
can take up to 45 seconds (Kreissl and Neiger, 2015). The breed of the canine can also cause more heat loss
Predictive thermometry involves direct contact with due to their lack of fat and thin fur. It is thought that
the body as well, but the rate of temperature change is canines with longer fur tend to have a cooler surface
recorded to algorithmically predict the final temperature temperature, due to the insulation of the coat (Kwon
of the canine, taking less than 15 seconds (Kreissl and and Brundage, 2019). The thermal cameras showed
Neiger, 2015). There have been no reported issues that the canines did not suffer from severe hyperthermia
pertaining to these two methods, as they both provide after the races, which indicate that the intrinsic cooling
comparable readings of body temperatures (Kreissl and system is effective (Vainionpaa et al., 2012).
Neiger, 2015). The coat color of the animal may also cause variance in
IR technology has been used in the field of industry temperature readings with canines of the same breed.
long before it has been used in clinical settings. The A study by McNicholl et al. (2016) in Australia found
night vision was the first widespread use of IR in the that greyhounds with darker coat colors such as black,
military, and eventually IR technology was used to find blue, and brindle had higher post-race temperatures
victims hidden in debris from earthquakes and fires than of canines with lighter fur colors such as white and
(Tan et al., 2009). IR cameras were introduced into the fawn. The mean post-race temperatures of the black,
medical field in 1956, when scientists discovered that blue, and fawn greyhounds were 41.1°C ± 0.4°C,
breast cancer could be detected by measuring elevated 41.1°C ± 0.5°C, and 41.1°C ± 0.4°C, and the mean
skin temperature (Lahiri et al., 2012). This technology post-race temperatures for fawn and white greyhounds
has improved and expanded over the last 50 years and were 40.9°C ± 0.5°C and 40.8°C ± 0.5°C (McNicholl
has become a popular tool in diagnosing diseases such et al., 2016). McNicholl et al. (2016) also found that
as diabetic neuropathy, vascular disorders, dry eye lean canines may dissipate more heat than canines with
syndromes, and metastatic liver disease, in addition to less lean body mass. There was a positive correlation
measuring the amount of radiation within the human that was seen between body weight and post-race
body (Tan et al, 2009). In veterinary medicine, IR temperatures (r2 = 0.043). This could be due to the
cameras have gained popularity within the equine field, amount of energy that is used during greyhound races,
using thermal imaging to detect injuries in sport horses since the energy requirements to move a body also
(Figueiredo et al., 2013) Equine thermal imaging was increases with body weight. As a result, metabolic heat
originally used to detect areas of heat caused from production also arises (McNicholl et al., 2016).

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E. Kahng and C. Brundage Open Veterinary Journal, (2019), Vol. 9(4): 301–308

Axillary temperature temperatures, however, is much larger in the second

Axillary temperature has become a popular region study. This can be due to the dogs exhibiting more
for temperature measurement due to its convenience stress or illness from being in a veterinarian hospital.
(Gomart et al., 2014). Experiments done in humans The calibration of the thermometer used in the second
suggests that axillary temperature is heavily dependent study was not stated, which could have also contributed
on body mass, tissue insulation, vasoconstriction, to the range variation (Gomart et al., 2014). Mathis and
gender, age, and the environment (Gomart et al., Campbell (2015) found that temperature taken from
2014). Axillary temperatures are generally measured dogs from an uncontrolled temperature environment
by placing the tip of the digital thermometer between exhibited inconsistent axillary measurement readings.
the skin of the forearm and thorax within the axilla. A third study looked at dogs of assorted breeds
There have been no reported studies looking at IR (n = 50) admitted for various surgical procedures, such as
axillary temperature measurements in humans. Studies tibial plateau leveling osteotomy, percutaneous laser disk
comparing rectal and axillary temperatures in canines ablation, and Hemilaminectomy (Cichocki et al., 2017).
are summarized in Table 1. In clinical practice, 0.55°C The dogs had axillary and rectal temperatures taken three
(1°F) is frequently added to axillary temperatures times, once on the day of admittance into the hospital,
in canines to reflect core body temperature, but a once after the dog had recovered from surgery, and once
recent study using Beagles (n = 26) found this to be more on the day the animal was discharged (Cichocki
inaccurate (Mathis and Campbell, 2015). The study et al., 2017). No specific details on room temperature
found that axillary temperatures taken with a digital or the model of the thermometer were given. The mean
thermometer reflect values of 0.7°C–2.1°C lower than for axillary temperatures was 37°C ± 1.18°C, which was
rectal temperature (Mathis and Campbell, 2015). The statistically different than mean rectal temperature of
dogs were kept in a temperature-controlled room of 38°C ± 0.88°C (Cichocki et al., 2017). This study had
21.1°C–22.2°C, with humidity levels at 22%–26% an (r2 = 0.42), reporting a poor correlation between the
for 56 days to acclimate the animals. Despite these two temperature readings (Cichocki et al., 2017). This is
controlled conditions, there is little significance important to note because axillary temperatures can have
between rectal and axillary temperatures (r2 = 0.24) larger temperature fluctuations based on the environment
(Mathis and Campbell, 2015). the animal was in prior to recording surface skin
Another study looked at axillary temperatures from temperature (Mathis and Campbell, 2015). It was also
250 dogs of various breeds (Gomart et al., 2014). found that axillary temperatures have a better correlation
Dogs were brought to the hospital for various health with rectal temperatures in hyperthermic canines (Mathis
reasons and were given 30 min to acclimate to the and Campbell, 2015). This may be because surface
hospital’s temperature (Gomart et al., 2014). The mean temperatures are elevated in reflection to an elevated
rectal temperature, taken via digital thermometry, was core body temperature (Mathis and Campbell, 2015).
38.0°C ± 0.85°C and ranged from 35°C to 40.4°C Collectively, evidence suggests axillary temperatures
(Gomart et al., 2014). The mean axillary temperature was are an unreliable reflection of rectal body temperature.
37.0° ± 1.0° and ranged from 33.4°C to 39.3°C (Gomart Axillary measurements have the potential to miss signs
et al., 2014). Although these measurements were taken of hypothermia and hyperthermia, which can lead to a
from different digital thermometers and uncontrolled misinterpretation of this vital sign parameter. Further
conditions, the mean axillary temperatures had a experiments should be carried out to determine the age
stronger correlation (r2 = 0.70) compared to the first and breed variant, which may offer some insight when
study (Gomart et al., 2014). The range for axillary this method is appropriate to use.

Table 1. Comparison of axilla temperature to rectal temperature in canines without physical activity. The same digital
thermometer was used within each study to measure axilla and rectal temperatures. There is low correlation between the axilla
and rectal temperature readings among the three studies.
Study: Exercise/ Device used: Device used:
Subject Female/Male Rectal °C Axilla °C r2
Axilla Rest Rectal Axilla
Cichocki et al., 26 female Digital Digital
50 canines 38 ± 0.88 37.0 ± 1.0 0.42 Rest
2017 24 male Thermometer Thermometer

Mathis et al., 17 intact males Digital Digital

26 Beagles 38.72 ± 0.37 37.33 ± 0.51 0.24 Rest
2015 9 intact females Thermometer Thermometer
250
Gomart et al., Digital Digital
hospitalized Unspecified 38.0 ± 0.85 37 ± 1.18 0.49 Rest
2014 Thermometer Thermometer
canines

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E. Kahng and C. Brundage Open Veterinary Journal, (2019), Vol. 9(4): 301–308

Auricular temperatures auricular temperatures may be more variant in breeds

Auricular thermometers are commonly used in human of dogs than size alone.
medicine as a relatively fast and validated method of A study carried out by Hall and Carter (2017a; 2017b)
approximating body temperature (Leduc et al., 2000). examined the accuracy of auricular thermometers
Auricular thermometers are usually IR and utilize relative to rectal temperature. Rectal temperature was
pyroelectric sensors which detect electromagnetic taken with a calibrated Vicks digital thermometer and
radiation to calculate the temperature at or near the Vet-Temp VT-150 Instant Ear Thermometer (Hall
tympanic membrane (Sousa et al., 2011). The use of and Carter, 2017a). Auricular followed by rectal
auricular temperature measurement in dogs has been temperatures were taken from 24 canines following
fairly recent, and studies suggest that the reliability of 20 minutes of unstandardized exercise consisting of a
auricular thermometers is dependent on user handling brisk walk, free run, or playtime with owners. Rectal
as well as the model of the thermometer used (González temperature readings before exercise ranged from 38.3
et al., 2002). Human auricular thermometers do not ± 0.39; auricular temperatures ranged from 37.9 ± 0.53.
perform well in canine ear canals, as the horizontal Following exercise, rectal temperature reading was
and vertical canals curve downward in canines, unlike 39.0 ± 0.41, and auricular temperature readings ranged
in the human ear (Cichocki et al., 2017). Studies have from 38.6 ± 0.50 (Hall and Carter, 2017a). Auricular
been carried out in canines to determine the similarity temperature underestimated rectal body temperature
of auricular temperature to core body temperature. 82% of the trials, and only 68.4% of temperature
Studies comparing the rectal and auricular temperature readings fell within the 0.5°C of the differences
in canines are summarized in Table 2. An experiment between rectal and auricular temperature (Hall and
conducted by Sousa et al. (2011) used various canine Carter, 2017a). The great variability in auricular
breeds (n = 88) to test the acceptability of dogs temperature could be due to the different shape of pinna
towards auricular thermometers in comparison to presented in various dog breeds. The exercise was also
rectal thermometers. It was found that the tolerance of unstandardized which could have led to some canines
canines to auricular thermometers was 89.7%, but only having a higher temperature than others.
68.2% of dogs were tolerant of rectal measurements Another study conveyed by Hall and Carter (2017a;
(Sousa et al., 2011). Dogs acclimated within the room 2017b) examined the reference range of auricular
for 30 minutes of 26.2°C, with a humidity of 67.0% temperature in canines. Canines of various breeds
± 17.2% (Sousa et al., 2011). Temperature readings (n = 157) were divided into two groups, pet canines and
were taken in the following order; rectal glass mercury sport canines. An additional 30 canines were used to
temperature, human IR auricular temperature, rectal validate the results of the auricular temperature, which
digital temperature, and finally rectal glass mercury were separate from the initial experiment. Temperatures
thermometer (Sousa et al., 2011). The mean temperature for pet canines (n = 32) were obtained indoors in a familiar
documented from rectal readings were 38.8 ± 0.4 (glass- area (at 21.2°C), while canines competing in canicross
mercury for 3 minutes), and (38.7 ± 0.4) (digital). The (n = 187) had temperatures taken outdoors (in 8.9°C).
mean temperature for auricular readings was 39.0°C ± The reference range of temperature from canines in
0.5°C. A weak correlation was shown between auricular an indoor setting was 37.9°C (range 34.3°C–38.9°C),
and rectal, as the r2 value ranged from 0.343 to 0.372 while the temperature readings for canines in an outdoor
(Sousa et al., 2011). setting was 37.7°C (range 36.2°C–39.1°C). Carter found
Another study done with 32 dogs, (16 Labradors and the reference interval of auricular temperature in canines
16 Beagles) found that auricular temperatures can also to be 36.6°C–38.8°C, which is lower than the company
vary based on the breed, time of day, and activity level reported (37.7°C–39.4°C) (Hall and Carter, 2017b).
(Zanghi, 2016). Auricular temperatures had a reference Ocular temperature
interval of 0.1°C–0.3°C, which was lower than the Measurement of ocular temperature has been used
rectal temperature in sedentary animals (Zanghi, 2016). widely in ophthalmology in humans to diagnose and
Temperature readings are taken from animals presenting treat diseases such as inflammation of the human
exercise-induced hyperthermia underestimated rectal lacrimal drainage system, glaucoma, and carotid artery
temperature by 0.4°C–0.6°C (Zanghi, 2016). The stenosis (Oztas et al., 2016). The ocular temperature
correlation between the ear and rectal temperatures was was first measured by a bolometer in 1968, which
(r2 = 0.615). This study is important to note because it assessed the IR radiation and temperature of different
suggests auricular temperatures may vary from rectal regions of the eye globe (Oztas et al., 2016). There
temperature based on the breed of the dog, as well have been increasing studies done on horses relating
as their activity level (Zanghi, 2016). This study also to eye thermography, but fewer studies have been done
suggests that Labradors display consistently higher measuring the eye temperature of canines (Biondi et al.,
body temperatures in comparison to Beagles (Zanghi, 2013). A summary of these studies is listed in Table 3.
2016). It has been documented that smaller breeds tend OST has gained popularity as a potential method to
to run higher temperatures than larger breeds. However, obtain body temperature in veterinary medicine due

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 Table 2. Comparison of auricular temperature to rectal temperature in canines with and without physical activity. The same digital thermometer was used within each study to
measure auricular and rectal temperatures. There is low correlation between the axilla and rectal temperature readings among the two studies.
E. Kahng and C. Brundage

Study: Female/ Exercise/

Subject Time of day Rectal °C Auricular °C r2 Device used: Rectal Device used: Auricular
Auricular Male Rest
16 Labradors 16 Male
http://www.openveterinaryjournal.com

Zanghi, 2016 9:00 am 38.3 ± 0.5 38.4 ± 0.6 0.615 Rest Digital thermometer Pet-Temp PT-300
16 Beagles 16 Female
11:30 am 38.1 ± 0.5 38.1 ± 0.5 0.615 Rest Digital thermometer Pet-Temp PT-300
12:30 pm 38.0 ± 0.4 37.7 ± 0.6 0.615 Rest Digital thermometer Pet-Temp PT-300
4:30 pm 38.0 ± 0.5 36.9 ± 1.0 0.615 Rest Digital thermometer Pet-Temp PT-300
Pre-exercise
38.3 ± 0.5 37.5 ± 0.8 0.615 Exercise Digital thermometer Pet-Temp PT-300
30 minutes
Post exercise
39.7 ± 0.9 39.2 ± 1.1 0.615 Exercise Digital thermometer Pet-Temp PT-300
0 minutes
Post exercise
38.8 ± 0.7 38.4 ± 0.6 0.615 Exercise Digital thermometer Pet-Temp PT-300
15 minutes
Post exercise
38.3 ± 0.6 37.9 ± 0.7 0.615 Exercise Digital thermometer Pet-Temp PT-300
30 minutes
Human IR auricular
Sousa, 2016 88 Canines N/A N/A 38.8 ± 0.4 39.0 ± 0.5 0.343–0.372 Rest Digital thermometer
thermometer
187 74 females Vet-Temp VT-150
Hall et al., 2019 N/A N/A 36.6°C–38.8°C N/A Rest Unspecified
canines 113 males Instant Ear Thermometer
pre-exercise: pre-exercise:
15 males
24 38.3 ± 0.39 37.9 ± 0.53 Vicks Comfortflex Vet-Temp VT-150
N/A N/A Exercise
canines post exercise: post exercise: Digital Thermometer Instant Ear Thermometer
9 females
39.0 ± 0.41 38.6 ± 0.50
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E. Kahng and C. Brundage Open Veterinary Journal, (2019), Vol. 9(4): 301–308

Table 3. Comparison of ocular temperature to rectal temperature in canines with and without physical activity. The same digital
thermometer was used within each study to measure ocular and rectal temperatures. There is low correlation between the axilla
and rectal temperature readings among the two studies.
Study: Female/ Rectal Ocular Exercise/ Device Device used:
Subject Time of day r2
Ocular Male °C °C Rest used: Rectal Ocular
16 16
Labradors males Digital Thermal IR
9:00 am: 38.3 ± 0.5 37.5 ± 0.8 0.145 Rest
16 16 thermometer camera
Beagles females
Digital Thermal IR
11:30 am: 38.1 ± 0.5 37.3 ± 0.9 0.145 Rest
thermometer camera
Digital Thermal IR
12:30 pm: 38.0 ± 0.4 36.7 ± 0.8 0.145 Rest
thermometer camera
Zanghi, Digital Thermal IR
4:30 pm: 38.0 ± 0.5 36.9 ± 0.9 0.145 Rest
2016 thermometer camera
Pre-exercise Digital Thermal IR
38.3 ± 0.5 37.5 ± 1.1 0.145 Exercise
30 minutes thermometer camera
Post exercise Digital Thermal IR
39.7 ± 0.9 39.9 ± 1.3 0.615 Exercise
0 minutes thermometer camera
Post exercise Digital Thermal IR
38.8 ± 0.7 38.7 ± 0.9 0.615 Exercise
15 minutes thermometer camera
Post exercise Digital Thermal IR
38.3 ± 0.6 38.4 ± 1.0 0.615 Exercise
30 minutes thermometer camera
Non
Kreissl 300 Un Un Digital
38.3 37.7 0.67 Rest contact IR
et al., 2015 Canines specified specified thermometer
thermometer

to the advantages of not having to make direct contact ranging from 30 minutes before exercise to 0, 15, and
with the animal (Collins et al., 2015). The ocular 30 minutes after exercise. The data collected from
temperature has also been used as a method in detecting canines after exercise had a closer connection to rectal
dry eye in canines as an alternative to the Schirmer tear and ocular temperature immediately after exercise
test (Biondi et al., 2013). (Zanghi, 2016). However, after 15–30 minutes of post-
Zanghi (2016) examined ocular temperature in exercise rest, ocular readings became similar to pre-
reference to rectal temperature (Zanghi, 2016). exercise readings. Correlation for both pre and post-
Ocular temperatures were obtained using IR thermal exercise was not significant (r2 = 0.145).
camera, directed at both eyes in 16 Labradors and 16 Another study performed with various breeds (n =
Beagles. The reference range of ocular temperature 300) also tested ocular temperature in relation to rectal
was determined by creating a rectangular area that temperature using a non-contact IR ocular thermometer.
encompassed the whole eyeball, leaving around one cm Rectal temperature was taken by a digital thermometer
outside of the eyelids (Zanghi, 2016). The temperature and ocular temperature was taken by placing a non-
of the eyes and rectum were taken at four different times contact IR thermometer perpendicular to the left cornea
throughout the day before exercise (9:00 am, 11:30 am, (Kreissl and Neiger, 2015). The dogs were allowed to
12:30 pm, and 4:30 pm). The dogs were housed within adjust to the indoor room for 30 minutes of unspecified
an indoor kennel, with the ambient temperature of room temperature. Both thermometers were also
78°F–80°F and humidity being at 78%. The reference compared to a calibrated thermometer before the
interval for ocular temperature was determined from experiment took place. The mean temperature readings
the four data collection times (9:00 am, 11:30 am, 12:30 for ocular temperature with an experienced handler
pm, and 4:30 pm was 37°C ± 0.1°C in Labradors and was 37.7°C, with a range of (35.9°C–40.1°C) (Kreissl
36.9°C ± 0.1°C in Beagles. It was found that Labradors and Neiger, 2015). The mean rectal temperature was
also had a higher rectal temperature (38.3°C ± 0.1°C) in 38.3°C, with a range of (35.3°C–41.1°C) (Kreissl and
comparison to Beagles (37.8°C ± 0.1°C). Neiger, 2015). The correlation between IR and rectal
The reference range for rectal temperatures was usually readings was higher than the first study (r2 = 0.67). This
one degree higher than in ocular temperatures. Data could be due to the use of instruments that were better
was also obtained from the animals after exercise, equipped to measurement eye temperature.

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E. Kahng and C. Brundage Open Veterinary Journal, (2019), Vol. 9(4): 301–308

A study carried out by Hall et al. (2019), Fleming, and

Carter examined IR ocular temperature in comparison

non-contact thermometer
and used as a reference for body temperature. Two devices were used to obtain ocular temperature, thermofocus animal non-contact thermometer and Rycom IR Thermometer
Table 4. Comparison of ocular temperature to auricular temperature in canines after exercise. Auricular temperature was taken by Vet-Temp VT-150 Instant Ear Thermometer

Rycom IR thermometer
to auricular temperature. Studies comparing ocular

Thermofocus animal
Ocular device
and auricular temperatures in canines are summarized

RC004T
in Table 4. Active canines (n = 30) of various breeds
participating in canicross were used; there was
no specification as to the ambient temperature or
location. Ocular temperatures were taken with two
different devices, Thermofocus Animal non-contact
thermometer and Rycom non-contact IR thermometer
model RC004T. The auricular temperature was taken
first (Vet-Temp VT-150) followed by immediately
Vet-Temp VT-150 Instant

measuring ocular temperature using the Rycom device

Auricular device

ear thermometer

by the same handler (Hall et al., 2019). The auricular

temperature readings ranged from 36.3°C to 42.2°C
(median = 38.6°C) and the temperatures read from the
Thermofocus device were 34.0°C–41.6°C (median =
38.1°C) (Hall et al., 2019). The Rycom device read
32.1°C–39.1°C (median = 37.4°C). There was a low
correlation between auricular and ocular temperature
(Hall et al., 2019).
Exercise/

Exercise

A study carried out in humans by Jen Tan has found

Rest

that ocular temperature varies between young and older

patients. Older patients were found to have a lower
corneal temperature, which was speculated to be due
to a slower metabolism (Tan et al., 2011). Further study
N/A
r2

should be performed in canines to examine if OST

also varies in older animals, and the accuracy of ocular
34.0°C–41.6 °C

32.1°C–38.2°C
Mean: 38.1°C

Mean: 35.5°C
RC004T. There is low correlation between auricular and ocular temperature within the study.

temperature as a reflection of core body temperature.

Ocular °C

Conclusion
Based on the current literature, axillary, auricular,
and ocular do not show a strong correlation to rectal
temperature. Studies regarding temperature obtained
36.3°C–42.2°C
Mean: 38.6°C
Auricular °C

from axillary regions could further be improved by

testing the effects fluctuating ambient temperatures
upon surface temperature readings, as well as the effect
of coat color and coat length. The variability of canine
pinna can also affect auricular temperature readings,
and further studies should be performed to determine
Time of day

Unspecified

if breed variability alone can resolve correlation issues

with rectal temperature. Ocular temperature readings
have been used mainly in horses and people, but few
studies have occurred using canines. Ocular temperature
studies could improve by finding the optimal distance
12 females

and ambient temperature needed to provide accurate

18 males
Female/
Male

readings of surface ocular temperature. References

ranges of each location must also be established with
each diagnostic tool (Sousa, 2016). Based on the current
evidence, rectal thermometry remains the only reliable
30 Canines

standard of estimating canine core body temperature in

Subject

clinical veterinary medicine.

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G. 2014. Tympanic, infrared skin, and temporal

Hall

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