THE GLOSSARY

1. Speech – the physical realization of language through coordinated articulation of sounds

produced by the vocal organs, forming a primary medium for spoken language.

2. Language – a structured system of communication that uses sounds organized according

to phonological rules, patterns and principles.

3. Pronunciation – the phonic shaping of oral form of language.

4. Phoneme – the shortest functional unit of a language. Each phoneme exists in speech in
the form of mutually non-distinctive speech sounds, its allophones. Each speech sound is
an allophone of some phoneme.

5. Sound – a material unit, produced by speech organs. A sound can be viewed from the
articulatory, acoustic, auditory and functional points of view.

6. Allophones – variants or members of one and the same phoneme, which never occur in
identical positions, but are said to be in complementary distribution, they are actual
speech sounds.

7. Allochrone – a quantitative variant of a phoneme.

8. Diaphone – allophone of one and the same phoneme, pronounced by different people.

9. Diphthong – a vowel phoneme which consists of two elements: a nucleus and a glide.
The first element of a diphthong is more loud and distinct, the formation of the second
element of a diphthong is not accomplished. English diphthongs can be normal and
centring.

10.Digraph – combination of two letters equivalent to one phoneme.

11.Triphthong – a vowel sound that consists of three elements. The first element is a
diphthong and the second is a neutral vowel |a|.

12.Glide – that part of a diphthong which constitutes its additional element, the full
articulation of which is not accomplished.

13.Enclitic – unstressed word or syllable, which refers to the preceding stressed word or
syllable.

14.Proclitic – a monosyllabic word or particle with no accent of its own, which is

pronounced with the following pre-tonic or accented syllable as one phonetic unit.

15.Lexical stress – the relative prominence given to a specific syllable within a word.

16.Sentence stress – the greater degree of prominence given to certain words in a sentence.

17.Word stress – a singling out of one or more of disyllabic or polysyllabic word’s

syllables by giving them a greater degree of prominence as compared with the other
syllable or syllables in the same word.
18.Accent – is stress and pitch combined. If a stress occurs in the stepping head without a
downward step in pitch, the word concerned is not accented. Stress in such words is
usually weakened because there is no change of pitch accompanying them.

19.Prosody – acoustic properties.

20.Intonation – a component of the phonetic structure which is viewed in the narrow

meaning as pitch variations, or speech melody. It manifests itself in the delimitative
function within a sentence and at its end.

21.Syllable – shortest segment of speech continuum. It is one or more speech sounds,

forming a single uninterrupted unit of utterance, which may be a word, or a commonly
recognized and separable subdivision of a word.

22.Speech melody – variations in the pitch of the voice in connected speech.

23.Pitch – the degree of highness or lowness varying with the number of vibrations of a
note.

24.Assimilation – the result of coarticulation, when one sound is made similar to its
neighbor sound.

25.Types of assimilations:

 Regressive – the process when the second of the neighbouring sounds

influences the first one and makes it similar to itself.

 Progressive – the process when the first of the two neighbouring sounds
influences the second and makes it similar to itself.

 Reciprocal – bilateral assimilation, when the neighbouring sounds are equally

affected by assimilation.

26.Accommodation – adaptation of vowels to different adjacent sounds.

27.Liaison – connecting of the final sound of one word or syllable to the initial sound of the
next.

28.Linking – a phonetic phenomenon in connected speech where a normally silent or final

sound is pronounced to connect words smoothly.

29.Elision – dropping off of a vowel in initial or terminal position.

30.Glottal stop – a sound which reminds a slight cough and is articulated by the vocal
cords, before a vowel sound is heard in cases of emphatic speech.

31.Nasal plosion – plosion formed when the soft palate is separated from the back wall of
the nasal pharynx and the air quickly escapes through the nasal cavity.
 TOPICS
1. Phonetics as a Branch of Linguistics

Phonetics studies the human sounds that express thought and their functions in relation to
meaning.

It is divided into practical (normative) and theoretical phonetics, with the latter focusing on
the functioning of phonetic units in language.

Phonetics also distinguishes between segmental phonetics (individual sounds) and

suprasegmental phonetics (larger connected speech units).

The course will primarily focus on Received Pronunciation and the pronunciation norms of
English, which vary in interpretation among scholars.

Phonetics emphasizes the expression level of language while also considering how sounds
affect meaning; understanding phonetics is essential for any linguistic study.

Traditional Branches of Phonetics

The three recognized branches of phonetics include:

 Articulatory phonetics: Examines how speech sounds are produced by the vocal
organs and air motion.

 Acoustic phonetics: Investigates the physical properties of speech sounds as they

travel from speaker to listener.

 Auditory phonetics: Focuses on how speech sounds are perceived by the listener's
auditory system, emphasizing sensations of sound rather than psychological processes.

 Functional phonetics (phonology): Studies the functional aspect of sounds in

specific languages, distinguishing itself from phonetics.

Distinction between Phonetics and Phonology

Phonetics involves the study of how speech sounds are made, transmitted, and received; it
encompasses all possible speech sounds.

Phonology, on the other hand, studies how phonemes and prosodic features systematically
express meaning and compares different sound systems within languages.
 Phonology identifies phoneme patterns, addresses phonological universals, and solves
problems related to phoneme identification and distribution within words.

Introduction to Pronunciation
Pronunciation encompasses both articulation features and broader discourse-related
features.

It relates to several components, including the sound system, syllabic structure, word stress,
and intonation.

The notion of speech is distinguished from language; speech is the practical act of
communication, while language represents the cognitive understanding and system used for
transmitting messages.

Pronunciation is critical for comprehension and communication, integrating various

phonetic and linguistic elements.

Components of Phonic Structure

The phonic structure of language is a complex system that encompasses various elements
essential for effective communication. Here, we will explore the four main components of this
structure: the segmental/phonemic component, syllabic structure, accentual structure (word
stress), and intonation.

1. Segmental/Phonemic Component

The segmental component refers to the smallest units of sound in a language, known as
phonemes. These phonemes are critical as they can differentiate meanings in morphemes,
words, and sentences.

 Phonemes: Abstract representations of speech sounds, forming the basis of a

language's sound system.

 Allophones: Variations of phonemes that occur in specific contexts, contributing to

the richness of spoken language.

 Distribution: The positional occurrence of allophones within words, governed by

specific rules.

2. Syllabic Structure

A syllable is a unit of spoken language that is larger than a single sound but smaller than a
word. It plays a crucial role in both speech production and perception.

 Syllable Formation: The process of creating syllables from phonemes.

 Syllable Division: The separation of syllables within words, often referred to as

syllabification.

 Perception: Listeners recognize syllables as whole units before identifying individual

sounds.

3. Accentual Structure (Word Stress)

Word stress refers to the emphasis placed on certain syllables within words, which can
affect meaning and comprehension.

 Lexical Stress: The amount of effort used in producing a syllable, which can change
the meaning of words.

 Patterns of Stress: Different languages have varying rules for stress placement,
influencing rhythm and flow in speech.

4. Intonation

Intonation involves the variation in pitch while speaking, which can convey different
meanings or emotions.

 Prosodic Features: These include pitch, loudness, and tempo, which add layers of
meaning beyond the individual sounds.

 Communication: Intonation helps to express questions, statements, and emotions,

making it a vital aspect of spoken language.

Intonation and Prosody

Intonation includes variations in pitch used to convey different meanings and is an essential
aspect of spoken language.

The use of pitch contours can differentiate between statements and questions, reflecting the
speaker's intent.

Sentence stress refers to the perceptual prominence given to certain words, influenced by
grammatical and situational context.

Speech tempo also affects meaning, with variations conveying urgency or emotional
involvement.

The rhythm of English is characterized by stress-timed patterns, contrasting with syllable-

timed languages, which impacts language learning and pronunciation skills.

Conclusion on Phonic Substance of Language

A comprehensive study of a language's sound substance involves analyzing its segmental
subsystem, the rules of sound combination, and the prosodic features that create intonation and
rhythm.

Understanding these interconnected elements is crucial for effective communication and

teaching pronunciation within the realm of linguistics.

Phonetics studies the human sounds that express thought and their functions in relation to
meaning.

It is divided into practical (normative) and theoretical phonetics, with the latter focusing on
the functioning of phonetic units in language.

Phonetics also distinguishes between segmental phonetics (individual sounds) and

suprasegmental phonetics (larger connected speech units).

The course will primarily focus on Received Pronunciation and the pronunciation norms of
English, which vary in interpretation among scholars.

Phonetics emphasizes the expression level of language while also considering how sounds
affect meaning; understanding phonetics is essential for any linguistic study.

Traditional Branches of Phonetics

The three recognized branches of phonetics include:

 Articulatory phonetics: Examines how speech sounds are produced by the vocal
organs and air motion.

 Acoustic phonetics: Investigates the physical properties of speech sounds as they

travel from speaker to listener.

 Auditory phonetics: Focuses on how speech sounds are perceived by the listener's
auditory system, emphasizing sensations of sound rather than psychological processes.

 Functional phonetics (phonology): Studies the functional aspect of sounds in

 specific languages, distinguishing itself from phonetics.

Distinction between Phonetics and Phonology

Phonetics involves the study of how speech sounds are made, transmitted, and received; it
encompasses all possible speech sounds.

Phonology, on the other hand, studies how phonemes and prosodic features systematically
express meaning and compares different sound systems within languages.

Phonology identifies phoneme patterns, addresses phonological universals, and solves

problems related to phoneme identification and distribution within words.

Introduction to Pronunciation
Pronunciation encompasses both articulation features and broader discourse-related
features.

It relates to several components, including the sound system, syllabic structure, word stress,
and intonation.

The notion of speech is distinguished from language; speech is the practical act of
communication, while language represents the cognitive understanding and system used for
transmitting messages.

Pronunciation is critical for comprehension and communication, integrating various

phonetic and linguistic elements.

Components of Phonic Structure

The phonic structure of language is a complex system that encompasses various elements
essential for effective communication. Here, we will explore the four main components of this
structure: the segmental/phonemic component, syllabic structure, accentual structure (word
stress), and intonation.

1. Segmental/Phonemic Component

The segmental component refers to the smallest units of sound in a language, known as
phonemes. These phonemes are critical as they can differentiate meanings in morphemes,
words, and sentences.

 Phonemes: Abstract representations of speech sounds, forming the basis of a

 language's sound system.

 Allophones: Variations of phonemes that occur in specific contexts, contributing to

the richness of spoken language.

 Distribution: The positional occurrence of allophones within words, governed by

specific rules.

2. Syllabic Structure

A syllable is a unit of spoken language that is larger than a single sound but smaller than a
word. It plays a crucial role in both speech production and perception.

 Syllable Formation: The process of creating syllables from phonemes.

 Syllable Division: The separation of syllables within words, often referred to as

syllabification.

 Perception: Listeners recognize syllables as whole units before identifying individual

sounds.

3. Accentual Structure (Word Stress)

Word stress refers to the emphasis placed on certain syllables within words, which can
affect meaning and comprehension.

 Lexical Stress: The amount of effort used in producing a syllable, which can change
the meaning of words.

 Patterns of Stress: Different languages have varying rules for stress placement,
influencing rhythm and flow in speech.

4. Intonation

Intonation involves the variation in pitch while speaking, which can convey different
meanings or emotions.

 Prosodic Features: These include pitch, loudness, and tempo, which add layers of
meaning beyond the individual sounds.

 Communication: Intonation helps to express questions, statements, and emotions,

making it a vital aspect of spoken language.

Intonation and Prosody

 Intonation includes variations in pitch used to convey different meanings and is an essential
aspect of spoken language.

The use of pitch contours can differentiate between statements and questions, reflecting the
speaker's intent.

Sentence stress refers to the perceptual prominence given to certain words, influenced by
grammatical and situational context.

Speech tempo also affects meaning, with variations conveying urgency or emotional
involvement.

The rhythm of English is characterized by stress-timed patterns, contrasting with syllable-

timed languages, which impacts language learning and pronunciation skills.

Conclusion on Phonic Substance of Language

A comprehensive study of a language's sound substance involves analyzing its segmental
subsystem, the rules of sound combination, and the prosodic features that create intonation and
rhythm.

Understanding these interconnected elements is crucial for effective communication and

teaching pronunciation within the realm of linguistics.

2. The Phoneme and its definition

Sound Production in Language

The understanding of how sounds are produced by speech organs requires more than mere
description and classification of sounds as language units.

The term "sound" can be interpreted in two distinct ways when discussing a language.

 One interpretation involves the phonemic aspect, as seen in the examples of [t] and
[d], where they create meaningful distinctions (e.g., "tie" vs. "die" and "seat" vs.
"seed").

 The second interpretation entails the allophonic aspect, demonstrated by contrasting

the [t] in "let us" (alveolar) and "let them" (dental). Although different, these [t]
sounds do not yield meaningful distinctions in this context.
 To mitigate ambiguity, linguists use the terms "phoneme" for contrastive sounds and
"allophone" for variant sounds that do not alter meaning and occur in different environments
within speech.

Definition and Nature of Phonemes

The most comprehensive definition of a phoneme was introduced by linguist L. V.
Shcherba.

According to Shcherba, a phoneme is defined as a minimal abstract linguistic unit that is

realized in speech through sounds that can be contrasted with other phonemes in the same
language.

This contrast serves to distinguish the meanings of morphemes and words.

The phoneme comprises three key aspects: material, abstract, and functional, demonstrating
its multifaceted nature in language.

3. General Characteristics of Phonemes

Phonemes are fundamental units of sound in a language that serve to distinguish meaning.
Understanding their characteristics is crucial for grasping how languages function. Here’s a
structured overview of the general characteristics of phonemes.

Definition of Phonemes
 Phoneme: The smallest indivisible unit of sound that can differentiate meaning in speech.

 Allophone: Variants of a phoneme that do not create meaningful distinctions and occur in
different environments.

Key Characteristics of Phonemes

1. Functional Unit

 Phonemes serve a discriminatory function; they differentiate morphemes and words.

 Changes in phonemes can alter the meaning of entire phrases, e.g.,

 "He was heard badly" vs. "He was hurt badly".

2. Material and Objective

 Phonemes are realized in speech as allophones.

  Allophones may vary in articulation but retain phonetic similarities.

 Example with the English phoneme [d]:

 Principal allophone: [d] in isolation (e.g., "door").

 Variants influenced by surrounding sounds (e.g., [d] in "bread" vs. "breadth").

3. Abstract and Generalized

 Phonemes are abstract representations that classify sounds.

 Native speakers are often more aware of phonemes than allophones.

 Example: Distinction between [d] in "bread" (alveolar) and [d] in "breadth" (dental) may
not be consciously perceived.

Distinctive Features of Phonemes

 Relevant Features: Articulatory characteristics that distinguish phonemes (e.g., labial vs.
backlingual).

 Non-Distinctive Features: Features that do not affect meaning (e.g., aspiration in

English).

 Invariant of the Phoneme: The core set of articulatory features that must remain
unchanged to preserve meaning.

Transcription of Phonemes
 Broad (Phonemic) Transcription: Represents phonemes with symbols, focusing on
functional aspects.

 Narrow (Allophonic) Transcription: Includes details about articulatory features of

allophones, useful for research.

4. Classification of consonants

Classification of English Consonants

English consonants can be classified primarily based on the type of obstruction and manner
of noise production, as proposed by V.A. Vassilyev.

Two main classes of consonants are distinguished: occlusive (complete obstruction) and
constrictive (incomplete obstruction).

Each class (occlusive and constrictive) further divides into noise consonants and sonorants
based on whether the sound features a dominant noise or tone component.

Noise consonants are further divided into plosives (stops) and affricates.

Sonorants and Their Characteristics

Sonorants differ from noise consonants due to a wider air passage during their production,
which creates a tone rather than noise.

Some British phoneticians classify certain sonorants like [r], [j], and [w] as semivowels due
to their vowel-like characteristics.

Sonorants are opposed to other consonants acoustically, characterized by a defined formant

structure and high total energy.

While functionally, [r], [j], and [w] are considered consonantal based on their position in
syllables, they are phonetically described as vowel glides.

Place of Articulation
The place of articulation classifies English consonants based on the active organ of speech
against the point of obstruction, resulting in categories such as labial, lingual, and glottal.

Specific subclasses include:

 Labial consonants: bilabial and labio-dental

 Lingual consonants: subdivided into forelingual, mediolingual, and backlingual

Voiced and Voiceless Consonants

Consonants can be categorized as voiced or voiceless based on vocal cord vibrations.
Voiced consonants include [b], [d], [g], [z], [v], and [ʒ], while voiceless consonants include [p],
[t], [k], [s], [f], and [ʃ].

In articulatory terms, voiced consonants are noted for their weak (lenis) quality, while
voiceless consonants are considered strong (fortis).

Additionally, consonants can be classified as oral or nasal based on the position of the soft
palate. Nasal occlusive sonorants, such as [m], [n], and [ŋ], allow airflow into the nasal cavity
due to the lowered position of the soft palate.

Affricates in English
The phonological status and classification of affricates, specifically [ʧ] (as in "chop") and
[ʤ] (as in "judge"), raise questions about whether they are single phonemic entities or
biphonemic combinations.

There is some debate regarding the number of affricates in English. According to standard
views, English has two: [ʧ] and [ʤ].

D. Jones suggests six, including [ts, ʤ] and [tr, dr], while A.C. Gimson adds [tθ, dð] to this
list.

Ukrainian phoneticians typically analyze affricates through a phoneme theory lens,

emphasizing articulatory, acoustic, and functional aspects, whereas British phoneticians focus
more on the practical application of these sounds in teaching.

N.S. Trubetskoy states that a sound complex can be nonphonemic if it meets three criteria:
the elements are in the same syllable, produced with one effort, and have a duration that doesn't
exceed normal limits for each element.

5. Modification of sounds in connected speech

Modifications of Consonants in Connected Speech

Everyday language is performed in connected sequences rather than isolated units, leading
to modifications in consonants based on their place of articulation.

Assimilation occurs when a sound changes to become more like a neighboring sound,
primarily affecting plosives and nasals.

Examples include the dental sounds [t] and [d] influenced by interdental sounds [θ] and [ð]
(e.g., "eighth," "at the," "said that"), and post-alveolar sounds [t] and [d] influenced by [r] (e.g.,
"free," "that right word").

The affricative combinations [t + j] and [d + j] demonstrate incomplete regressive

assimilation, as seen in "graduate" and "did you."

Manner of articulation may also change due to assimilation, which includes:

 Loss of plosion in sequences of plosive consonants (e.g., "glad to see you"), where
one sound loses its plosion.

 Nasal plosion, where a plosive followed by a nasal sonorant results in nasalization

(e.g., "sudden," "let me see").

 Lateral plosion occurs when a plosive is followed by a lateral sonorant [l], changing
its sound production (e.g., "settle," "table").
 Voicing Changes During Assimilation
Voicing features may shift during assimilation, where lenis voiced sounds can become
voiceless fortis when followed by voiceless consonants.

In informal speech, voicing changes might be heard in phrases like "have to do it"
becoming ['hæf tə 'du:] and "five past two" ['faif past 'tu:].

Weak forms of "is" and "has" merge with preceding voiceless consonants (e.g., "What’s
your name?" and "Your aunt's coming.").

English sonorants [m, n, r, l, j, w] can also be partially devoiced when preceded by

voiceless consonants (e.g., "smart," "tray," "twins").

Effects of Accommodation in Speech

Lip position can change during accommodation, especially with back vowels affecting
consonants (e.g., "pool," "moon," "rude").

Spread lip positions occur with front vowels, while slight nasalization in vowels may occur
due to neighboring sonorants (e.g., "and," "morning").

Elision, or complete sound loss, is prevalent in quick speech, particularly for:

The loss of [h] in "he," "her," and auxiliary verbs like "have."

The elimination of [l] when preceded by [ɔ:] (e.g., "always," "already").

Alveolar plosives being omitted, as seen in "next day" ['neks 'dei'] or "just one" ['ʤʌs
'wʌn'].

Insertion and Linking in Connected Speech

A consonant-like sound is sometimes inserted between words with vowel endings, such as
the intrusive "r" (e.g., "Asia and Africa" becomes ['eiʃər ənd 'æfrikə']).

Linking "r" occurs commonly, seen in words like "clearer" and in phrases where word-final
vowels are followed by vowels.

Insertion may include sounds [j] or [w] for diphthongs gliding, like "saying" ['seijiŋ'] and
"going" ['gəuwiŋ'].

Such insertions serve to make articulation easier rather than provide clarity for the listener.

Coarticulatory Phenomena and Adjustments in Speech

Natural pronunciation in conversational English involves stress-timing, resulting in syllable
blending, reductions, and omissions.
 Coarticulatory adjustment phenomena encompass:

 Change of consonant or vowel quality.

 Loss of consonants or vowels, sometimes entire syllables.

6. Definition and Nature of Stress. Production and Reception

Stress and Accent in Language

The concept of stress in language refers to the varying prominence of syllables within a
word, where some syllables are pronounced more prominently than others.

Stressed syllables can be identified by their greater degree of prominence, which is

achieved through phonetic parameters such as pitch, loudness, length, and vowel quality.

The term "accent" is often used in phonetic literature alongside stress, specifically relating
to the pitch component of syllable prominence. However, stress encompasses a broader range
of attributes beyond just pitch.

Even within single words, pitch changes can create an accent effect, which is also present in
utterances or phrases, highlighting the connection between accent and intonation.

The study of word stress can be approached from both production and perception
perspectives, with stressed syllables requiring more muscular energy, resulting in higher
subglottal pressure and increased intensity, duration, and frequency.

Types of Word Stress

There are two primary types of word stress observed in languages: dynamic and tonic
(musical).

Dynamic stress, observed in languages such as English, German, and Russian, relies on
greater force of pronunciation, leading to notable intensity and duration.

Tonic (musical) stress, found in languages like Chinese and Japanese, is characterized by
changes in pitch rather than forceful pronunciation.

The balance of stress components (intensity, duration, pitch) may vary across different
languages, influencing how stress is perceived and produced.

English Word Stress: Parameters

English linguists, including D. Crystal and A. Gimson, agree that word stress is complex
and influenced by variations in loudness, pitch, length, and quality, though there is no
consensus on the relative importance of these parameters.

Loudness is a significant factor in stress perception; stressed syllables are often heard as
louder than unstressed ones.

Pitch change plays a crucial role in identifying stressed syllables; a high pitch can signal
stress, regardless of whether it rises or falls.

Length is another critical element, as stressed syllables generally possess greater length due
to increased energy in production compared to unstressed syllables.

Vowel quality impacts stress perception; stressed syllables typically contain vowels that are
less reduced than those in unstressed syllables, enhancing their prominence.

7. Intonation and its components, structure and function

Structure and Function of Intonation

Intonation is a universal feature of all languages; no language is spoken in a monotone
manner, meaning there are changes in prosodic parameters.

Prosody is viewed as a complex whole formed by variations in pitch, loudness, tempo, and
rhythm, with speech timbre sometimes included by linguists.

The primary elements affecting intonation are pitch (fundamental frequency), loudness
(amplitude of vibrations), and tempo (duration of speech units and pauses).

Each syllable in speech has a unique pitch, with variations in tone creating an intonation
pattern, a fundamental unit that consists of a nucleus and may include other syllables.

Intonation patterns help to emphasize syntagms, which are groups of words that are
complete both semantically and syntactically.

Intonation Patterns and Nuclear Tones

Each intonation pattern has a nucleus (the focal point) which bears the most prominence
among stressed syllables, and its direction of pitch change is crucial for meaning.

Roger Kingdon's classification of nuclear tones includes Kinetic (moving) tones, where
pitch changes, and Static tones, where pitch remains constant. Examples include Low Fall,
High Fall, Low Rise, High Rise, Fall-Rise, Rise-Fall, and Mid-Level tones.

The Low Fall indicates calm finality, the High Fall expresses warmth and interest, while the
Low Rise conveys hesitation and incompleteness.

The High Rise is often used in questions indicating a search for information, while the Fall-
Rise tone can suggest contradiction or correction of earlier statements.

Each tone has specific emotional implications, e.g., the Rise-Fall suggests deep impression,
and the Mid-Level tone expresses non-finality without expectation.

Role of Pauses and Rhythm in Intonation

The tempo of speech is a key component of intonation, with normal, slow, and fast rates
being identifiable. Important parts of speech are pronounced slower, while unimportant parts
are spoken more quickly.

Pauses serve to separate phonetic wholes, phrases, and intonation groups, with short,
longer, and very long pauses differentiating between them.

Syntactic pauses organize speech units; emphatic pauses highlight specific utterances, while
hesitation pauses are used in spontaneous speech to allow the speaker to gather thoughts.

A perceived change in pitch often indicates a boundary of an intonation unit, regardless of

audible pauses, while segmental phonetic modifications may also contribute.

Notation of Intonation Patterns

Various methods for recording intonation patterns exist, focusing on capturing pitch
variations, which include drawing lines around sentences to show pitch heights, vertically
positioning syllables, and using discrete levels of pitch measurement.

Each method has advantages and disadvantages, with some being more cumbersome than
others; for instance, the method favored by Bolinger requires a specially designed print model.

8. Definition of Intonation

Intonation in Language
Intonation is a significant aspect of suprasegmental phonetics, which involves more than
just individual speech sounds; it encompasses other phonetic means that characterize sequences
of speech.

Every language exhibits intonation, and none are spoken in a monotone; however, the
function of intonation can vary across different languages.

Intonation is crucial for effective communication as it is essential for conveying meaning. A

sentence cannot exist meaningfully without a specific intonation pattern.

Intonation can be analyzed at three levels: acoustic (characteristics like frequency and
intensity), perception (human interpretation), and linguistic (meanings conveyed through
intonation).

An apt analogy for intonation's complexity is its similarity to ocean waves, as described by
Bolinger (1972).

Approaches to Intonation
There are multiple approaches to defining and describing intonation, reflecting its intricate
nature.

Linguists typically define intonation at the perception level as a combination of pitch,

loudness, and tempo, sometimes including timbre, though the latter is contested due to
insufficient research into its impact on meaning.

In contrast, the British and American traditions primarily associate intonation with pitch
variation, noting its prominence in communication, as evidenced by definitions from British
phoneticians like D. Jones (1976) and A. Cruttenden (1986).

Broader Definitions and Prosody

While some definitions focus on pitch changes, it is important to note that all three prosodic
parameters—pitch, loudness, and tempo—function together in a cohesive manner, necessitating
a broader definition of intonation.

The term "prosody" encompasses the variations in pitch, loudness, and tempo alongside
intonation and is a frequent term in linguistic literature.

British phoneticians see prosody as a more comprehensive term than intonation, including
rhythm as a key feature alongside the other prosodic characteristics established by linguists like
D. Crystal and J. Wells.

For consistency in teaching practice, the term "intonation" will be primarily used, while
also acknowledging relevant prosodic features where appropriate.

9. Rising and falling intonation

Key Concepts
 Kinetic Tones: Pitch varies during the tone's duration, moving upwards or
 downwards.

 Static Tones: Pitch remains constant throughout the tone, including High Level
Tones and Low Level Tones.

 Simple Tone: Pitch changes in one direction only.

 Complex Tone: Pitch changes in multiple directions.

Tone Meanings
 Falling Tone: Conveys certainty, completeness, and independence.

• Example: Straightforward statements typically end with a falling tone for

finality.

 Rising Tone: Indicates uncertainty, incompleteness, or dependence.

• Example: Questions commonly use a rising tone due to uncertainty about the
answer.

Types of Tones
1. Low Fall

 Starts: Mid-level, Ends: Lowest pitch.

 Tone Mark: ↘

 Conveys: Calm, neutral finality.

 Example: Category-based assertions sound definite.

2. High Fall

 Starts: Very high, Ends: Lowest pitch.

 Tone Mark: ↘

 Conveys: Personal interest, warmth, and emotional tone.

 Example: Lively statements that engage listeners.

3. Low Rise

 Starts: Lowest, Ends: Medium level.

 Tone Mark: ↗
  Conveys: Non-finality and encouragement.

 Example: Phrases that invite further conversation.

4. High Rise

 Starts: Medium, Ends: High pitch.

 Tone Mark: ↗

 Conveys: Active searching for information or continuation of dialogue.

 Example: Echo questions seeking clarity.

5. Fall-Rise

 Combines: Low Fall-Low Rise or High Fall-Low Rise.

 Tone Mark: ↘↗

 Conveys: Emphasis on main ideas and invites interpretation.

 Example: Mild corrections and friendly conversations.

6. Rise-Fall

 Starts: Low, Rises: High, then Falls: Low.

 Tone Mark: ↗↘

 Conveys: Impression of being deeply affected or denial.

 Example: Statements or questions that indicate strong feelings.

7. Mid-Level

 Tone Mark: >

 Characteristics: Maintains a medium pitch throughout.

 Conveys: Non-finality without expectation.

 Example: Statements that provide additional context without conclusive emotions.

10. Rhythmic group as the basic unit of rhythm

Rhythmic Group in Speech

 The basic unit of rhythm is defined as the rhythmic group, which consists of a stressed
syllable and its accompanying unstressed syllables, known as proclitics (preceding) and
enclitics (following).

There are two views among phoneticians regarding how stressed and unstressed syllables
are grouped: one view emphasizes the semantic principle, where unstressed syllables associate
with the stressed syllable of the same word or a semantically related lexical unit.

The alternate view is the enclitic principle, suggesting that unstressed syllables attach to the
preceding stressed syllable, resulting in the same phrase being divided into rhythmic groups
differently.

The enclitic tendency is more typical in rapid colloquial speech, while the semantic
grouping becomes more prevalent during careful, slow speech.

The rhythmic group is recognized as the fundamental unit of rhythm across all text types,
though descriptions of rhythm extend beyond just this unit.

Hierarchy of Rhythmic Units

The rhythmic structure of speech is a hierarchy of different rhythmic units.

This hierarchy includes various levels of rhythmic units such as rhythmic groups, intonation
groups, phrases, and phonopassages.

Rhythm in speech results from the interaction between lexical, syntactic, and prosodic
elements, which are critical to marking every text segment.

Each type of text may exhibit different rhythmic characteristics due to the integration of
these elements across the hierarchy of units.

The broader understanding of rhythm enhances the analysis of speech beyond just the
concept of rhythmic groups, emphasizing the complexity and dynamics of spoken language.

11. Dialectology, definition of diglossia

Dialects and Accents

Dialects differ based on pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary, while "accent" refers
specifically to variations in pronunciation.

Local accents may share many pronunciation features, leading to groupings like the
"Northern accent," which includes accents from Yorkshire, Lancashire, and Cheshire in Britain.
 Many phonetics textbooks still use "dialect" to refer to regional pronunciation, although
recent editions distinguish between "dialects" and "accents."

There is significant overlap between the terms "dialects" and "accents," and one dialect can
become the standard language due to various factors. The London dialect's accent became the
"RP" (Received Pronunciation) associated with Britain.

Influence of Standard English

The influence of Standard English on regional dialects in Great Britain is increasing,
resulting in many people behaving as if they are bilingual.

Individuals may use an imitation of RP when interacting with teachers and revert to their
native accent among peers, demonstrating a state known as diglossia.

Diglossia involves using the standard language and a regional dialect in different social
situations, differentiated from bilingualism, which entails command over two distinct
languages.

Code-switching occurs in both diglossia and bilingualism, and recent studies by

sociolinguists and psychologists are exploring these linguistic behaviors.

Social Context and Language Variation

Language variation, particularly in spoken form, is influenced significantly by the social
context of its use.

The social differentiation of language correlates with the social differentiation of society,
although it is essential to note that linguistic facts cannot be directly attributed to class
structure.

Every linguistic community, whether small or large, possesses its own social dialect and
corresponding social accent, reflecting the community's unique linguistic identity.

12. Changes in Consonant Quality: voicing and devoicing

Voicing and Devoicing

Voicing and devoicing are essential phonetic features in Received Pronunciation (RP),
particularly concerning final consonants. This phenomenon affects how consonants are
articulated and perceived, especially in relation to their preceding vowels.

Final RP consonants lack a distinct voiced/voiceless opposition due to partial devoicing,

especially in stops. These sounds can be perceived following long vowels and diphthongs, as
exemplified in the word "deed" [di:d].

Although final consonants are devoiced when following a vowel, they are not identical to
their fully voiceless counterparts, which are articulated with greater breath-force.

The voiced/voiceless distinction in minimal pairs like [sed] vs. [set] and [dog] vs. [dok]
may seem absent; however, the weak consonants do not convert to their voiceless forms and
remain devoiced without becoming aspirated.

There is a close interrelation between final consonants and the preceding stressed vowels,
illustrated by the pairs "cap" and "cab."

A. C. Gimson classifies initial lenis stops [b, d, g] as partially devoiced, while final stops
are categorized as voiceless. In intervocalic positions, the sound [t] is realized as voiced, as
seen in "better" ['betə] compared to "letter" ['letǝ].

Loss of [h]
The initial [h] sound is commonly lost in rapid speech, particularly in function words, and
may be entirely omitted even by educated speakers. For example, "She wants her to come" may
be pronounced as [i: wonts 3 tə kam].

The loss of [h] is particularly noticeable in unstressed syllables, while its omission in
stressed syllables is generally perceived as incorrect.

Initial "hw"
Some conservative RP speakers maintain an initial breathy [h] sound in words like "why,"
"when," and "which." However, the general trend is to articulate these with [w].

Loss of Final [l]

The traditional pronunciation with final [l] has been increasingly replaced with [in] in
words like “sittin’” and “lookin’.” This usage reflects an archaic form of RP, but is unlikely to
become mainstream.

Spread of "Dark" [ł]

The prevalence of "dark" [ł] is attributed to American pronunciation influences. Advanced
RP speakers sometimes use [ł] instead of [l] in words like "believe."

Vocalization of final [l] is occasionally observed, especially in words like "people," but this
trend is not expected to establish itself as a norm.

Glottal Stop
 In RP, the glottal stop can be produced in two contexts: as a realization of syllable-final [t]
before another consonant, e.g., "batman" ['bætman] becoming ['bæ?mn'], and in specific
consonant clusters.

Additional Phonetic Changes

Palatalized final [k'] is noted in words like "week" and "quick," pronounced as [wik'] and
[kwik'], respectively.

English accents are categorized into "rhotic" (those that pronounce [r]) and "non-rhotic"
(those that do not, such as RP). However, RP can exhibit linking [r] when it appears before a
vowel, leading to phrases like "It is a faraway country."

The intrusive [r] phenomenon involves inserting “r” before a vowel in certain contexts,
despite its absence in spelling, such as “idea of” and “China and.”

There is a noticeable trend towards elision, reduction, and assimilation in colloquial speech
among younger RP speakers. Examples include "tutor" ['tfu:tə] and "second year" ['sekəndzıə].

Combinative changes occur where sound combinations like [tj] and [dj] are articulated as [t]
and [dʒ], respectively. This is evident in words like "actual" ['æktjuəl] and "graduate"
['grædjuǝıt].

The loss of [j] frequently occurs after sounds like [l, s, z] as in "suit" [su:t] and after [n] as
in "news" [nu:z].