Lecture

Runoff and Hydrograph

Subject: Hydrology

Lecture by : Engr. Muhammad AsadUllah

Engg Hydrology 1
 CONTENTS
➢ Summary of Rainfall-runoff Process
➢ Hydrograph
➢ Effective Rainfall
➢ Parts of A Hydrograph
➢ Components of Hydrograph
➢ Separation of Hydrograph Components
➢ Factors Affecting Shape of The Hydrograph
➢ Methods Used For Estimating Maximum Probable Runoff

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 Summary of Rainfall-Runoff Process

• When a rain starts falling, it is first of all intercepted by buildings, trees, and
other objects, which prevent it from reaching the ground. This quantity is
known as rainfall interception.

• Since this quantity is generally very small, it is not of much importance for
intense rains; but many a times, large portions of lighter rains are disposed of
in this manner.
• The difference between the total rainfall and that which is intercepted is called
ground rainfall.

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• when the rainfall rate exceeds the interception rate, water starts reaching the ground and
infiltration into the sub soil starts. The maximum rate at which the soil in a given condition
can absorb water is known as its infiltration capacity.

• The excess rainwater gets collected into the innumerable small and large depressions
existing in the basin, filling them to their overflow levels. This quantity is known as
depression storage.

• The water that reaches the stream channel of a basin in this manner is called surface
runoff (SRO) or direct runoff (DRO).

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• The surface runoff can, therefore, occur only from those storms, which can contribute to
excess rainfall, and are simply not dissipated in fulfilling the interception, depression
storage, and infiltration needs of the basin. Hence,

Excess Rainfall = Rainfall – Interception - Depression storage – Infiltration

• The sum total of interception and depression storage for a basin is usually called the
initial loss or basin loss or initial basin recharge.

• Excess rainfall can therefore be represented as:

Excess rainfall = Rainfall – Initial Basin loss – Infiltration

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• The sum total of initial basin loss and infiltration, is called potential infiltration.

• The excess rainfall is, thus, represented as:

Excess Rainfall = (Rainfall – Potential Infiltration

• The rain that falls in the beginning of a storm before the depression storage is completely
filled is called the initial rain,
• and the rain that falls near the end of the storm at a rate less than the infiltration capacity is
called the residual rain.
.

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• Runoff and surface runoff are two different terms and should not be confused.

• Runoff or Discharge or the Stream flow includes all the water flowing in the stream
channel at any given section.

While

• Surface Runoff or Direct Runoff includes only the water that reaches the stream channel
without first percolating down to the water table.
• Yield of a drainage basin is same as runoff, with the only difference that it is
expressed over long periods (M.m3/year), while

• Runoff is expressed for short periods (m3/sec or m3/hr).

Runoff =Surface runoff + Ground water inflow (i.e. Base flow).

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700.0000

600.0000 Total
Hydrograph

500.0000

Surface
400.0000 R esponse

300.0000

B aseflow
200.0000

100.0000

0.0000
0.0000 0.5000 1.0000 1.5000 2.0000 2.5000 3.0000 3.5000 4.0000

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8
 Hydrograph
 Introduction
▪ When a storm occurs it contributes to the stream flow. Various
instruments are used to document storm characteristics,
▪ for example, rain gauges are used to record period and depth of
rainfall, current meter is used to find discharge in streams, etc.
▪ The data thus collected is analyzed for its beneficial use. The stream
flow characteristics are analyzed by what is called hydrograph analysis.

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 Hydrograph
• The graphical relation between any hydrological quantity (stage,
velocity, discharge, etc.) & the time is known as a hydrograph.

• Hydrographs are of three types:

• Discharge Hydrograph

• Stage Hydrograph

• Velocity Hydrograph

Engg Hydrology Continued.. 10

 Hydrograph
• Discharge Hydrograph
• It is the graphical representation of discharge against time. Generally, a hydrograph means
discharge hydrograph.

• Stage Hydrograph
• It is the graphical representation of stage against time. Stage hydrograph is useful only for
the design of flood-protection works like embankment.

• Velocity Hydrograph
• It is the graphical representation of velocity against time.

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 Effective Rainfall
• All of the rain usually does not go into the stream but a certain part of
it reaches the stream & causes rise in the stream flow while the
remaining part of rain is accounted for in various forms of
precipitation losses.

• The portion of rainfall which contributes to stream flow is called

Effective Rainfall.

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 Basin Lag or Time Lag

• A useful index to define the location of the peak of the hydrograph is

the basin lag, which is the time difference between the center of
mass of the rainfall and the center of the mass of the hydrograph.

• Rise of the stream flow depends upon the effective rainfall and type
of the soil, and time lag depends upon type of area & also upon
characteristics of rainfall (Figure 1).

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 Basin Lag or Time Lag
Hydrograph
Lag
5.0
4.5
4.0
3.5
Discharge, Q

3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time, t

DRO Hydrograph

Figure 1: Time Lag in Surface Runoff

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 Parts of a Hydrograph
• Considering a long dry spell, stream flow in the rainfall stream is
mainly contributed from ground water storage as shown by line AB
in Figure 2.
• For if the rainfall occurs which is more than the rate of infiltration
the stream flow begins to increase as shown by BC.
• Peak C will reach when flow from the whole catchment area
reaches the gauging station.

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 Parts of a Hydrograph
• After the rainfall end, the stream flow decreases rapidly first as CD is
shown in the Figure 2.

• And then to DE where surface runoff is drained off and contribution

occurs from ground water storage again.

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 Parts of a Hydrograph
Hydrograph

6.0 Crest
C
5.0
Discharge, Q
4.0 Rising Limb
D Falling Limb or
3.0 Recession Curve
2.0 A

1.0 B E

0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time, t

DRO Hydrograph

Fig 2: Parts of Hydrograph

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 Parts of a Hydrograph
• A hydrograph consists of three Parts (Fig 2):
• The rising Limb ‘BC’

• The crest or peak ‘C’.

• The falling Limb or Recession curve ‘CDE’

• The shape of each part depends on

• Climatic

• Physiographic Characteristics

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 Parts of a Hydrograph
• Climatic Conditions
• Rainfall Intensity
• Duration
• Direction of Storm movement and
• Antecedent moisture conditions of the catchment
• Physiographic Characteristics
• Basin characteristics
• Channel characteristics

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 Parts of a Hydrograph
• Channel Characteristics
• Size

• Shape

• Slope

• Soil type and

• vegetation

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 Parts of a Hydrograph

• Recession curve of the hydrograph does not depend on the

• Intensity of rainfall

• Duration of rainfall

• Antecedent moisture conditions

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 Components of Hydrograph

• A hydrograph normally consists of the four components:

• Channel Precipitation

• Direct Runoff (DRO)

• Inter Flow or Sub-surface Flow

• Ground or Base Flow

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 Components of Hydrograph

• Channel Precipitation
– Amount of the precipitation that falls directly on the stream. But its
amount is so small to be neglected

• Direct Runoff
– After all the losses, component of flow that runs over the ground
constitutes Runoff

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 Components of Hydrograph

• Inter Flow or Sub Surface Flow

– This is the flow which flows laterally in the upper strata and reaches the
stream after a couple of days of the storm

• Ground water flow or Base Flow

– This flow is consisted of deep percolation and can take even months or
years to reach the stream after the storm

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 Separation of Hydrograph Components
• Area under the curve is given as

• Volume = Q. ∆t

Where

• Q is the Discharge

• t is the time since rise began

• Volume of the runoff is the sum of direct runoff and the base flow

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 Separation of Hydrograph Components

• For if we want to determine Direct Runoff, it is necessary to

separate the hydrograph into two components
– Direct Runoff

– Base Flow

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 Separation of Hydrograph Components

• Empirical methods are proposed, as to separate the flows exactly is

almost impossible which are
– Straight Line Method

– Fixed Base Length Method

– Variable Slope Method

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 Separation of Hydrograph Components
• Straight Line Method
– A hydrograph as shown in Figure 3. From point ‘A’ draw a straight horizontal line
which meets the falling limb of hydrograph at point ‘B’. The line is based on the
assumption that a constant amount of base flow is maintained during the storm
runoff.

– Above line ‘AB’ is the direct runoff and below this line is the base flow.

– The volumes of direct runoff and base flow (i.e. area under the curve) can be
calculated by any suitable method.

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 Hydrograph Analysis
Hydrograph

6.0

5.0 Horozontal Line from the

Discharge, Q point of rise in rising limb
4.0
of hydrograph
3.0

2.0

1.0 A B
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time, t

DRO Hydrograph

Fig. 3: Separation of Hydrograph Components

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 Hydrograph Analysis
• Fixed Base Length Method
– Let us have the hydrograph shown in Figure 4. From point ‘A’ (existing prior to
the storm) extend the curve to point ‘B’ which is vertically below the peak.
– Now draw a line from point ‘B’ to point ‘C’ on the hydrograph equal to a
distance on X-axis given by equation below:
N = Ad0.2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1
Where,
N = Length of time in days, and
Ad = Drainage area in square miles
– This line will meet the falling limb at, say point ‘C’. Join the point ‘B’ to ‘C’ by a
line ‘BC’.
– Area below ‘ABC’ is the base flow and that above it is the direct runoff.

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 Hydrograph Analysis
Hydrograph
0.2
600 A

500
Discharge, Q Extended
400 Recession
Curve
300

200
A B C
100

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time, t

DRO Hydrograph

Figure 4: Separation of Base Flow by Fixed Base Length Method

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 Hydrograph Analysis
• Variable Slope Method
– This method is based on the fact that if water rises in the stream the water level in
the stream becomes greater than the adjoining ground water table level.

– As a result the flow occurs from the stream to the groundwater and is stored there
as bank storage.

– Refer to Figure 5, below. Take a point ‘A’ on the previous recession curve, and the
line ‘AE’ by extending the previous recession curve. Point ‘E’ is under the peak.

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 Hydrograph Analysis
• Now take a point ‘B’ on the recession curve and extend it backward. Take a
point ‘C’ on recession curve where the recession curve is changing slope.

• This point is called the point of inflexion. Draw a vertical line from the point
‘C’.

• It cuts the line drawn backward from point ‘B’, at point ‘D’. Join point ‘E’ and
point ‘D’.

• The area under the line ‘AEDB’ shows the base flow component

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 Hydrograph Analysis
Hydrograph

600

500
Extended

400 Recession
C
Curve Point of Inflexion
300
Discharge, Q

200
B
100 A E
D
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Time, t

DRO Hydrograph

Figure 5: Separation of Base Flow by Variable Slope Method

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 Hydrograph Analysis

• This method is not a well defined one. It depends upon experience, so it may
vary from one expert to another.

• In general, Straight Line Method is the simplest and easiest but also the least
accurate.

• Fixed Base Method is widely used and gives practically good results.

• Whereas Variable Slope Method is not commonly used and is difficult but can
give better results depending upon the expertise of the person using it.

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Factors Affecting Shape of the Hydrograph
• Storm Characteristics
– Intensity of rainfall
– Duration of rainfall
– Weather conditions
• Catchment Characteristics
– Size of the catchment
– Shape of the catchment
– Elevation of the catchment
– Slope of the catchment

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 Storm Characteristics
• Intensity of Rainfall
• The intensity of rainfall has a predominant effect on the shape of the
hydrograph.

• If other conditions remain the same, a higher intensity storm will produce a
rapid rise in the hydrograph and a higher peak than that in case of a low
intensity rainfall.

• Such floods give little warning time and so are dangerous.

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 Storm Characteristics
• Duration of Rainfall
• The duration of rainfall is important if it is greater than the time of
concentration (defined as the time of travel from the farthest point in the
catchment area to the gauging station).

• In such a situation, if the rainfall of certain intensity occurs uniformly, the

whole of the catchment area is contributing runoff at the gauging station and
the hydrograph attains its high peak.

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 Storm Characteristics
• Weather

• The shape of the hydrograph greatly depends on the seasonal distribution of

rainfall. During summer losses due to evaporation may produce a small peak
hydrograph.

• On the other hand, in winter, losses are small with the result that even a
small intensity storm may produce a relatively rapid rise and high peak of the
hydrograph.

• Antecedent soil moisture conditions (generally being higher in winter) are

important as for high soil moisture; the storm will produce more runoff.

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 Catchment Characteristics
• Size of Catchment
• The catchment area affects the stream flow in a variety of ways. Even if the
intensity and depth of precipitation is assumed to be constant, the
hydrograph of a smaller catchment rises to its peak and then recedes more
rapidly than that for a larger catchment, because for the latter, it takes
longer for the runoff to reach the gauging station.

• Moreover, the larger the area, the greater will be the diversity in soil and
vegetation cover, with a consequent effect on the stream flow of each part of
the catchment. The vegetation cover increases the time of concentration.

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 Catchment Characteristics
• Shape of the Catchment Area
• The shape of the catchment area affects stream flow by altering the time of
concentration and the pattern of drainage tributaries.

• If the length of the catchment along the main stream is less than the width
across the same stream, separate runoff peaks generated by a heavy rainfall
are likely to reach the gauging station at the same time from the tributaries,
with the result that the flood peak in the main stream increases.

• Thus a hydrograph with a high peak and narrow base is obtained.

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 Catchment Characteristics
• However, if the length of the catchment along the main stream is larger than
width, the tributaries will be of shorter length and contribution from each
tributary area is likely to reach the gauging stations at intervals.

• The hydrograph will therefore, have a low peak and broader base, because
the remote tributaries will continue contributing for some time even after the
rain fall has stopped.

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 Catchment Characteristics
• Elevation of the Catchment
• The elevation of the catchment also plays an important role in some
hydrologic characteristics of hydrograph, particularly due to variation in
temperature and precipitation.

• The temperature reduces with the increase in elevation with the result that
above a certain elevation, the temperature becomes so low that all
precipitation falls as snow.

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 Catchment Characteristics
• In the Indo-Pakistan Sub-continent, contribution from areas, at altitude
15,000 ft. above the mean sea level, is mainly due to snowmelt.

• The floods from snowmelt are of usually low peak and broader base.

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 Catchment Characteristics
• Catchment Slope
• The slope of the catchment affects stream flow by reducing the rate of
infiltration due to increased speed of water-movement towards drainage
channels.

• The steeper the slope the faster will be the flow and rise in the hydrograph.
The hydrograph in such a situation will have higher peak and smaller base.

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 METHODS USED FOR ESTIMATING MAXIMUM
PROBABLE RUNOFF
• While designing hydraulic structures, we are mostly interested in
estimating maximum probable rate of runoff.

• Various methods of estimating maximum probable rate of runoff are

as under:

• Frequency Analysis
• It may be used provided adequate stream flow records are available.

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 METHODS USED FOR ESTIMATING MAXIMUM
PROBABLE RUNOFF

 Empirical Formulae
▪ Involving various physical characteristics of the basin i.e.
Q = C I A (Rational Formula)
Where,
I = Intensity of rainfall,
C = Coefficient of runoff, and
A = Drainage Area.
▪ Very detailed rainfall-runoff models have been developed which
estimate losses separately and hence calculate the direct runoff

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Example: Consider a section of a downtown business area of 35,400 square
feet that drains to a particular storm water inlet. The runoff coefficient for
this drainage area has been estimated to be 0.85. Based on a specified design
return period and the time of concentration of the drainage area, the design
storm intensity has been determined to be 5.1 in/hr. What is the peak runoff
rate from this area to be used for design of the storm water inlet?
Solution:
A= 35400 ft^2
i= 5.1 in/hr= 5.1/(60x60x12)= 0.00012 ft/sec
Q = CiA = (0.85)(0.00012)(35,400) = 3.6 cfs.

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The End

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