FREQUENCY RESPONSE ANALYSIS

Whatis Frequency Response?

The response of a system can be partitioned into both the transient response and the steady
state response. We can find the transient response by using Fourier integrals. The steady state
response of a system for an input sinusoidal signal is known as the frequency response. In this
chapter, we will focus only on the steady state response.

If a sinusoidal signal is applied as an input to a Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) system, then it

produces the steady state output, which is also a sinusoidal signal. The input and output
sinusoidal signals have the same frequency, but different amplitudes and phase angles. Let the
input signal be

Where,

 A is the amplitude of the input sinusoidal signal. 

 ω0 is angular frequency of the input sinusoidal signal.

We can write, angular frequency ω0 as shown below.

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 ω0=2πf0

Here, f0 is the frequency of the input sinusoidal signal. Similarly, you can follow the same
procedure for closed loop control system.
Frequency Domain Specifications
The frequency domain specifications are

 Resonant peak
 Resonant frequency
 Bandwidth.

Consider the transfer function of the second order closed control system as

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 Resonant Peak
It is the peak (maximum) value of the magnitude of T(jω). It is denoted by Mr.
At u=ur, the Magnitude of T(jω) is -

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 Resonant peak in frequency response corresponds to the peak overshoot in the time domain
transient response for certain values of damping ratio δδ. So, the resonant peak and peak
overshoot are correlated to each other.
Bandwidth
It is the range of frequencies over which, the magnitude of T(jω) drops to 70.7% from its zero
frequency value.
At ω=0, the value of u will be zero.
Substitute, u=0 in M.

Therefore, the magnitude of T(jω) is one at ω=0

At 3-dB frequency, the magnitude of T(jω) will be 70.7% of magnitude of T(jω)) at ω=0

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 Bandwidth ωb in the frequency response is inversely proportional to the rise time tr in the
time domain transient response.
Bode plots

The Bode plot or the Bode diagram consists of two plots −

 Magnitude plot
 Phase plot
In both the plots, x-axis represents angular frequency (logarithmic scale). Whereas, yaxis
represents the magnitude (linear scale) of open loop transfer function in the magnitude plot
and the phase angle (linear scale) of the open loop transfer function in the phase plot.

The magnitude of the open loop transfer function in dB is -

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 The phase angle of the open loop transfer function in degrees is -

Basic of Bode Plots

The following table shows the slope, magnitude and the phase angle values of the terms
present in the open loop transfer function. This data is useful while drawing the Bode plots.

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 The magnitude plot is a horizontal line, which is independent of frequency. The 0 dB line itself
is the magnitude plot when the value of K is one. For the positive values of K, the horizontal
line will shift 20logK dB above the 0 dB line. For the negative values of K, the horizontal line

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 will shift 20logK dB below the 0 dB line. The Zero degrees line itself is the phase plot for all the
positive values of K.
Consider the open loop transfer function G(s)H(s)=s
Magnitude M=20logω dB
Phase angle ϕ=900
At ω=0.1rad/sec, the magnitude is -20 dB.
At ω=1rad/sec, the magnitude is 0 dB.
At ω=10 rad/sec, the magnitude is 20 dB.
The following figure shows the corresponding Bode plot.

The magnitude plot is a line, which is having a slope of 20 dB/dec. This line started
at ω=0.1rad/sec having a magnitude of -20 dB and it continues on the same slope. It is
touching 0 dB line at ω=1 rad/sec. In this case, the phase plot is 900 line.
Consider the open loop transfer function G(s)H(s)=1+sτ.
Magnitude

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 Phase angle

For , the magnitude is 0 dB and phase angle is 0 degrees.

For , the magnitude is 20logωτ dB and phase angle is 900.

The following figure shows the corresponding Bode plot

The magnitude plot is having magnitude of 0 dB upto ω=1τω=1τ rad/sec. From ω=1τ rad/sec, it
is having a slope of 20 dB/dec. In this case, the phase plot is having phase angle of 0 degrees
up to ω=1τ rad/sec and from here, it is having phase angle of 90 0. This Bode plot is called
the asymptotic Bode plot.
As the magnitude and the phase plots are represented with straight lines, the Exact Bode plots
resemble the asymptotic Bode plots. The only difference is that the Exact Bode plots will have
simple curves instead of straight lines.

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 Similarly, you can draw the Bode plots for other terms of the open loop transfer function
which are given in the table.

Rules for Construction of Bode Plots

Follow these rules while constructing a Bode plot.

 Represent the open loop transfer function in the standard time constant form.

 Substitute, s=jωs=jω in the above equation. 

 Find the corner frequencies and arrange them in ascending order.

 Consider the starting frequency of the Bode plot as 1/10th of the minimum corner
frequency or 0.1 rad/sec whichever is smaller value and draw the Bode plot upto 10
times maximum corner frequency.

 Draw the magnitude plots for each term and combine these plots properly. 

 Draw the phase plots for each term and combine these plots properly. 

Note − The corner frequency is the frequency at which there is a change in the slope of the
magnitude plot.

Example
Consider the open loop transfer function of a closed loop control syste

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 Stability Analysis using Bode Plots
From the Bode plots, we can say whether the control system is stable, marginally stable or
unstable based on the values of these parameters.

 Gain cross over frequency and phase cross over frequency

 Gain margin and phase margin
Phase Cross over Frequency
The frequency at which the phase plot is having the phase of -1800 is known as phase cross
over frequency. It is denoted by ωpc. The unit of phase cross over frequency is rad/sec.
Gain Cross over Frequency
The frequency at which the magnitude plot is having the magnitude of zero dB is known
as gain cross over frequency. It is denoted by ωgc. The unit of gain cross over frequency
is rad/sec.
The stability of the control system based on the relation between the phase cross over
frequency and the gain cross over frequency is listed below.

 If the phase cross over frequency ωpc is greater than the gain cross over frequency ωgc,
then the control system is stable.
 If the phase cross over frequency ωpc is equal to the gain cross over frequency ωgc,
then the control system is marginally stable.
 If the phase cross over frequency ωpcis less than the gain cross over frequency ωgc,
then the control system is unstable.
Gain Margin
Gain margin GMGM is equal to negative of the magnitude in dB at phase cross over frequency.
GM=20log(1Mpc)=20logMpc

Where, MpcMpc is the magnitude at phase cross over frequency. The unit of gain margin (GM)
is dB.
Phase Margin
The formula for phase margin PMPM is
PM=1800+ϕgc

Where, ϕgc is the phase angle at gain cross over frequency. The unit of phase margin
is degrees.

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 NOTE:

The stability of the control system based on the relation between gain margin and phase
margin is listed below.

 If both the gain margin GM and the phase margin PM are positive, then the control
system is stable.
 If both the gain margin GM and the phase margin PM are equal to zero, then the
control system is marginally stable.
If the gain margin GM and / or the phase margin PM are/is negative, then the control
system is unstable.
Polar plots
Polar plot is a plot which can be drawn between magnitude and phase. Here, the
magnitudes are represented by normal values only.

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 This graph sheet consists of concentric circles and radial lines. The concentric circles and
the radial lines represent the magnitudes and phase angles respectively. These angles are
represented by positive values in anti-clock wise direction. Similarly, we can represent angles
with negative values in clockwise direction. For example, the angle 270 0 in anti-clock wise
direction is equal to the angle −900 in clockwise direction.

Rules for Drawing Polar Plots

Follow these rules for plotting the polar plots.

 Substitute, s=jω in the open loop transfer function.

 Write the expressions for magnitude and the phase of G(jω)H(jω)
 Find the starting magnitude and the phase of G(jω)H(jω) by substituting ω=0. So, the
polar plot starts with this magnitude and the phase angle.
 Find the ending magnitude and the phase of G(jω)H(jω) by substituting ω=∞ So, the
polar plot ends with this magnitude and the phase angle.
 Check whether the polar plot intersects the real axis, by making the imaginary term
of G(jω)H(jω) equal to zero and find the value(s) of ω.
 Check whether the polar plot intersects the imaginary axis, by making real term
of G(jω)H(jω) equal to zero and find the value(s) of ω.
 For drawing polar plot more clearly, find the magnitude and phase of G(jω)H(jω) by
considering the other value(s) of ω.
Example
Consider the open loop transfer function of a closed loop control system.

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 So, the polar plot starts at (∞,−900) and ends at (0,−2700). The first and the second terms
within the brackets indicate the magnitude and phase angle respectively.

Step 3 − Based on the starting and the ending polar co-ordinates, this polar plot will intersect
the negative real axis. The phase angle corresponding to the negative real axis is −180 0 or 1800.
So, by equating the phase angle of the open loop transfer function to either −180 0 or 1800, we
will get the ω value as √2.
By substituting ω=√2 in the magnitude of the open loop transfer function, we will get M=0.83.
Therefore, the polar plot intersects the negative real axis when ω=√2 and the polar coordinate
is (0.83,−1800).
So, we can draw the polar plot with the above information on the polar graph sheet.

Nyquist Plots

Nyquist plots are the continuation of polar plots for finding the stability of the closed loop
control systems by varying ω from −∞ to ∞. That means, Nyquist plots are used to draw the
complete frequency response of the open loop transfer function.

Nyquist Stability Criterion

The Nyquist stability criterion works on the principle of argument. It states that if there are P
poles and Z zeros are enclosed by the ‘s’ plane closed path, then the
corresponding G(s)H(s)G(s)H(s) plane must encircle the origin P−ZP−Z times. So, we can write
the number of encirclements N as,
N=P−ZN=P−Z

 If the enclosed ‘s’ plane closed path contains only poles, then the direction of the
encirclement in the G(s)H(s)G(s)H(s) plane will be opposite to the direction of the
enclosed closed path in the ‘s’ plane. 
 If the enclosed ‘s’ plane closed path contains only zeros, then the direction of the
encirclement in the G(s)H(s)G(s)H(s) plane will be in the same direction as that of the
enclosed closed path in the ‘s’ plane. 

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 Let us now apply the principle of argument to the entire right half of the ‘s’ plane by selecting
it as a closed path. This selected path is called the Nyquist contour.

We know that the closed loop control system is stable if all the poles of the closed loop
transfer function are in the left half of the ‘s’ plane. So, the poles of the closed loop transfer
function are nothing but the roots of the characteristic equation. As the order of the
characteristic equation increases, it is difficult to find the roots. So, let us correlate these roots
of the characteristic equation as follows.

 The Poles of the characteristic equation are same as that of the poles of the open loop
transfer function.

 The zeros of the characteristic equation are same as that of the poles of the closed loop
transfer function.

We know that the open loop control system is stable if there is no open loop pole in the the
right half of the ‘s’ plane.

i.e.,P=0⇒N=−ZP=0⇒N=−Z
We know that the closed loop control system is stable if there is no closed loop pole in the
right half of the ‘s’ plane.

i.e.,Z=0⇒N=PZ=0⇒N=P
Nyquist stability criterion states the number of encirclements about the critical point (1+j0)
must be equal to the poles of characteristic equation, which is nothing but the poles of the
open loop transfer function in the right half of the ‘s’ plane. The shift in origin to (1+j0) gives
the characteristic equation plane.

Rules for Drawing Nyquist Plots

Follow these rules for plotting the Nyquist plots.

 Locate the poles and zeros of open loop transfer function G(s)H(s) in ‘s’ plane.
 Draw the polar plot by varying ω from zero to infinity. If pole or zero present at s = 0,
then varying ω from 0+ to infinity for drawing polar plot.
 Draw the mirror image of above polar plot for values of ω ranging from −∞ to zero (0 − if
any pole or zero present at s=0).
 The number of infinite radius half circles will be equal to the number of poles or zeros
at origin. The infinite radius half circle will start at the point where the mirror image of
the polar plot ends. And this infinite radius half circle will end at the point where the
polar plot starts.

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 After drawing the Nyquist plot, we can find the stability of the closed loop control system
using the Nyquist stability criterion. If the critical point (-1+j0) lies outside the encirclement,
then the closed loop control system is absolutely stable.

Stability Analysis using Nyquist Plots

From the Nyquist plots, we can identify whether the control system is stable, marginally stable
or unstable based on the values of these parameters.

 Gain cross over frequency and phase cross over frequency

 Gain margin and phase margin
Phase Cross over Frequency
The frequency at which the Nyquist plot intersects the negative real axis (phase angle is 1800)
is known as the phase cross over frequency. It is denoted by ωpc.
Gain Cross over Frequency
The frequency at which the Nyquist plot is having the magnitude of one is known as the gain
cross over frequency. It is denoted by ωgc.
The stability of the control system based on the relation between phase cross over frequency
and gain cross over frequency is listed below.

 If the phase cross over frequency ωpc is greater than the gain cross over frequency ωgc,
then the control system is stable.
 If the phase cross over frequency ωpc is equal to the gain cross over frequency ωgc,
then the control system is marginally stable.
 If phase cross over frequency ωpc is less than gain cross over frequency ωgc, then the
control system is unstable.
Gain Margin
The gain margin GM is equal to the reciprocal of the magnitude of the Nyquist plot at the
phase cross over frequency.

Where, Mpc is the magnitude in normal scale at the phase cross over frequency.
Phase Margin
The phase margin PM is equal to the sum of 1800 and the phase angle at the gain cross over
frequency.

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 PM=1800+ϕgc

Where, ϕgc is the phase angle at the gain cross over frequency.

The stability of the control system based on the relation between the gain margin and the
phase margin is listed below.

 If the gain margin GM is greater than one and the phase margin PM is positive, then the
control system is stable.
 If the gain margin GMs equal to one and the phase margin PM is zero degrees, then the
control system is marginally stable.
 If the gain margin GM is less than one and / or the phase margin PM is negative, then
the control system is unstable.

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 STATE SPACE ANALYSIS OF CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS

The state space model of Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) system can be represented as,
X˙=AX+BU

Y=CX+DU

The first and the second equations are known as state equation and output equation
respectively.

Where,

 X and X˙ are the state vector and the differential state vector respectively.
 U and Y are input vector and output vector respectively.

 A is the system matrix.

 B and C are the input and the output matrices.

 D is the feed-forward matrix.

Basic Concepts of State Space Model

The following basic terminology involved in this chapter.

State
It is a group of variables, which summarizes the history of the system in order to predict the
future values (outputs).

State Variable
The number of the state variables required is equal to the number of the storage elements
present in the system.

Examples − current flowing through inductor, voltage across capacitor

State Vector
It is a vector, which contains the state variables as elements.
In the earlier chapters, we have discussed two mathematical models of the control systems.
Those are the differential equation model and the transfer function model. The state space
model can be obtained from any one of these two mathematical models. Let us now discuss
these two methods one by one.

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 State Space Model from Differential Equation
Consider the following series of the RLC circuit. It is having an input voltage, vi(t) and the
current flowing through the circuit is i(t).

There are two storage elements (inductor and capacitor) in this circuit. So, the number of the
state variables is equal to two and these state variables are the current flowing through the
inductor, i(t) and the voltage across capacitor, vc(t).
From the circuit, the output voltage, v0(t) is equal to the voltage across capacitor, vc(t).

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 State Space Model from Transfer Function
Consider the two types of transfer functions based on the type of terms present in the
numerator.

 Transfer function having constant term in Numerator.

 Transfer function having polynomial function of ‘s’ in Numerator.
Transfer function having constant term in Numerator
Consider the following transfer function of a system

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 and u(t)=u

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 Then,

Here, D=[0].

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 Example
Find the state space model for the system having transfer function.

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 Transfer function having polynomial function of ‘s’ in Numerator
Consider the following transfer function of a system

Rearrange, the above equation as

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 and u(t)=u
Then, the state equation is

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 Transfer Function from State Space Model

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 We know the state space model of a Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) system is -
X˙=AX+BU

Y=CX+DU

Apply Laplace Transform on both sides of the state equation.

sX(s) =AX(s)+BU(s)

⇒ (sI−A)X(s)=BU(s)

⇒ X(s) = (sI−A)−1BU(s)

Apply Laplace Transform on both sides of the output equation.

Y(s) =CX(s) + DU(s)

Substitute, X(s) value in the above equation.

⇒Y(s) =C ( sI−A)−1BU(s)+DU(s)

⇒Y(s) = [C (sI−A)−1B+D]U(s)

⇒Y(s) U(s) = C(sI−A)−1 B+D

The above equation represents the transfer function of the system. So, we can calculate the
transfer function of the system by using this formula for the system represented in the state
space model.

Note − When D=[0], the transfer function will be

Example

Let us calculate the transfer function of the system represented in the state space model as,

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 Therefore, the transfer function of the system for the given state space model is

State Transition Matrix and its Properties

If the system is having initial conditions, then it will produce an output. Since, this output is
present even in the absence of input, it is called zero input response xZIR(t). Mathematically,
we can write it as,

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 From the above relation, we can write the state transition matrix ϕ(t) as

So, the zero input response can be obtained by multiplying the state transition
matrix ϕ(t) with the initial conditions matrix.
Properties of the state transition matrix

 If t=0, then state transition matrix will be equal to an Identity matrix.

ϕ(0)=I

 Inverse of state transition matrix will be same as that of state transition matrix just by
replacing ‘t’ by ‘-t’.

 If t=t1+t2 , then the corresponding state transition matrix is equal to the multiplication
of the two state transition matrices at t=t1t=t1 and t=t2t=t2.

ϕ(t1+t2)=ϕ(t1)ϕ(t2)

Controllability and Observability

Let us now discuss controllability and observability of control system one by one.

Controllability
A control system is said to be controllable if the initial states of the control system are
transferred (changed) to some other desired states by a controlled input in finite duration of
time.

We can check the controllability of a control system by using Kalman’s test.

 Write the matrix Qc in the following form.

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  Find the determinant of matrix QcQc and if it is not equal to zero, then the control
system is controllable.
Observability
A control system is said to be observable if it is able to determine the initial states of the
control system by observing the outputs in finite duration of time.

We can check the observability of a control system by using Kalman’s test.

 Write the matrix Qo in following form.

 Find the determinant of matrix QoQo and if it is not equal to zero, then the control
system is observable.
Example

Let us verify the controllability and observability of a control system which is represented in
the state space model as,

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 Since the determinant of matrix Qc is not equal to zero, the given control system is
controllable.
For n=2, the matrix Qo will be –

Since, the determinant of matrix Qo is not equal to zero, the given control system is
observable.Therefore, the given control system is both controllable and observable.

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