Fluid Mechanics – Exam Question Paper

Solutions
PART – A (10 x 2 = 20)
1. 1. What is metacentric height?

Metacentric height (GM) is the distance between the center of gravity (G) and the
metacentre (M) of a floating body. It is a measure of the static stability of the body.

2. 2. Define a fluid.

A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously under the action of shear stress, regardless
of the magnitude of the applied stress.

3. 3. When the stream line, streak line and path line will be same?

In steady flow, the streamline, streakline, and pathline are identical because the flow
properties do not change with time.

4. 4. What are the applications of continuity equation?

Applications include pipe flow, nozzles, diffusers, aircraft and automobile aerodynamics,
and open channel flows.

5. 5. Classify models.

Models are classified as: (1) Physical models, (2) Mathematical models, (3) Scale models
(e.g., geometric, kinematic, dynamic similarity).

6. 6. What are the limitations of Rayleigh’s method?

Rayleigh’s method is limited to simple systems, assumes linear behavior, and may not
account for all influencing variables.

7. 7. What are the differences between impulse and reaction turbine?

Impulse turbine: High-velocity jets strike blades, pressure remains constant across blades.
Reaction turbine: Uses pressure and velocity change across blades.

8. 8. Define specific speed of a turbine.

Specific speed (Ns) is the speed of a geometrically similar turbine that would develop unit
power under unit head. Ns = N√P / H^(5/4).

9. 9. What are the functions of Air-vessel in a reciprocating turbine?

Air vessels reduce pressure fluctuation, ensure uniform flow, and minimize energy loss due
to acceleration head.

10. 10. What is a non-return valve? Where it is used in a reciprocating pump?

A non-return valve allows fluid flow in one direction only. It is used in suction and delivery
pipes of a reciprocating pump to prevent backflow.

PART – B (5 x 16 = 80)
11. 11 (a). Define and prove Pascal’s law.

Pascal’s Law states that pressure applied to a confined fluid is transmitted undiminished in
all directions throughout the fluid.

Proof:
Consider a small cylindrical element of fluid at equilibrium. The forces on its faces due to
pressure must be equal and opposite.
 11 (b). An open cylindrical vertical container is filled with water to a height of 30 cm
above the bottom and over that an oil of specific gravity 0.82 for another 40 cm. The oil does
not mix with water. If the atmospheric pressure is 1 bar, determine the absolute and gauge
pressures at the oil-water interface and at the bottom of the cylinder.

Given:
Height of water column, h_w = 30 cm = 0.30 m
Height of oil column, h_o = 40 cm = 0.40 m
Specific gravity of oil, SG_o = 0.82 → ρ_o = 0.82 × 1000 = 820 kg/m³
ρ_w = 1000 kg/m³, Atmospheric pressure = 1 bar = 100000 Pa

Gauge pressure at oil-water interface:

P_interface = ρ_o × g × h_o = 820 × 9.81 × 0.40 = 3216.48 Pa

Gauge pressure at bottom:

P_bottom = P_interface + ρ_w × g × h_w = 3216.48 + 1000 × 9.81 × 0.30 = 3216.48 + 2943 =
 6159.48 Pa

Absolute pressure at interface = 100000 + 3216.48 = 103216.48 Pa

Absolute pressure at bottom = 100000 + 6159.48 = 106159.48 Pa

PART – B (continued)
12. 12. Derive Euler’s equation and using the same, derive Bernoulli’s equation. Also
mention the assumptions made.

Euler's equation describes the motion of an inviscid fluid under the

influence of pressure and gravity forces, while Bernoulli's equation is
derived from it by assuming steady, incompressible, and non-viscous
flow along a streamline. Bernoulli's equation essentially represents a
conservation of energy principle for fluid flow.

1. Euler's Equation:

Euler's equation is derived from Newton's second law of motion applied

to a fluid element. Consider a fluid element of mass 'dm' and volume
'dV' moving along a streamline. Let 'p' be the pressure, 'ρ' be the
density, 'g' be the acceleration due to gravity, and 'ds' be the
infinitesimal distance along the streamline.

The forces acting on the fluid element are:

 Pressure force: - (∂p/∂s) ds dA (where 'dA' is the cross-sectional area of the
element)
 Gravity force: - ρg dA ds cosθ, where θ is the angle between the streamline and
the vertical.

The component of gravity force along the streamline is -ρg dA ds cosθ =

-ρg dA ds (dz/ds) = -ρg dA dz.

Applying Newton's second law (F=ma) along the streamline, we have:

- (∂p/∂s) dA ds - ρg dA dz = ρ dA ds (dv/dt), where 'dv/dt' is the
acceleration along the streamline.
Dividing by 'ρ dA ds', we get:
- (1/ρ) (∂p/∂s) - g (dz/ds) = (dv/dt)
 Now, consider the acceleration along the streamline 'dv/dt', which can
be expressed as:
(dv/dt) = (∂v/∂t) + v (∂v/∂s) (where 'v' is the velocity)
Assuming steady flow (∂v/∂t = 0), we get:
(dv/dt) = v (∂v/∂s)

Substituting this back into the previous equation:

- (1/ρ) (∂p/∂s) - g (dz/ds) = v (∂v/∂s)

Rearranging the terms, we get Euler's equation along a streamline:

(1/ρ) (∂p/∂s) + v (∂v/∂s) + g (dz/ds) = 0

2. Derivation of Bernoulli's Equation:

Bernoulli's equation is obtained by integrating Euler's equation along a
streamline. Assuming steady, incompressible, and non-viscous flow
(ideal fluid), we can integrate Euler's equation term by term:
 ∫ (1/ρ) (∂p/∂s) ds = (1/ρ) ∫ ∂p = p/ρ (since density is constant for
incompressible flow)
 ∫ v (∂v/∂s) ds = ∫ v dv = v²/2

 ∫ g (dz/ds) ds = g ∫ dz = gz
Therefore, integrating Euler's equation gives:
p/ρ + v²/2 + gz = constant

This is Bernoulli's equation, which can be expressed as:

p + (1/2)ρv² + ρgz = constant

3. Assumptions Made:
 Incompressibility:
The density of the fluid is constant, meaning the fluid is not compressible.
 Steady Flow:
The flow is steady, meaning the velocity, pressure, and density at any point do
not change with time.
 Non-viscous flow (Ideal fluid):
There is no internal friction or viscosity within the fluid. This means the fluid is
inviscid.
 Flow along a streamline:
The equation is valid for a single streamline.

Q1 (a) Derive the Darcy’s Equation for Fluid Friction through Pipe and
Write its Applications.
 The Darcy-Weisbach equation, hf = f * (L/D) * (V^2 / 2g), calculates the
head loss (hf) due to friction in a pipe. It relates this loss to the pipe's
length (L), diameter (D), fluid velocity (V), acceleration due to gravity (g),
and a dimensionless friction factor (f) that depends on the flow regime
and pipe roughness. This equation is crucial for understanding and
predicting pressure drops in pipe flow and is widely used in various
engineering applications.

Derivation:
The Darcy-Weisbach equation is derived from applying conservation of
energy and accounting for frictional losses in a pipe. Here's a simplified
explanation:
1. 1. Energy Balance:
Consider a fluid flowing through a horizontal pipe. By Bernoulli's principle, the
total energy (pressure + kinetic + potential) remains constant along the flow
path, assuming no energy loss.
2. 2. Frictional Losses:
However, in reality, friction between the fluid and the pipe wall dissipates
energy, resulting in a pressure drop along the pipe.
3. 3. Introducing the Friction Factor:
The Darcy-Weisbach equation introduces a dimensionless friction factor (f) to
quantify this energy loss due to friction. This factor is determined empirically
and depends on the Reynolds number (which characterizes the flow regime,
laminar or turbulent) and the relative roughness of the pipe (ratio of surface
roughness height to pipe diameter).
4. 4. Derivation Steps:
The derivation involves integrating the shear stress caused by friction along the
pipe's length and relating it to the pressure drop. The Darcy-Weisbach equation
is obtained by equating the head loss to the energy loss due to friction.
Applications:
The Darcy-Weisbach equation is a fundamental tool in various
engineering disciplines, particularly in:
1. Hydraulic Engineering: Designing and analyzing water distribution systems,
irrigation networks, and sewer systems.
2. Petroleum Engineering: Calculating pressure drops in pipelines for oil and gas
transportation.
3. Chemical Engineering: Sizing pipes and pumps for chemical processes,
ensuring proper flow rates and pressure requirements.
4. Environmental Engineering: Modeling groundwater flow and contaminant
transport in porous media.
5. HVAC Systems: Determining pressure drops in ductwork for heating, ventilation,
and air conditioning systems.
6. General Fluid Mechanics: Understanding and predicting head loss due to
friction in any pipe flow scenario.

b) Dimensional Analysis for Drag Force on a Body: C_D = f(Re)

Given:
- Drag Force F_D is a function of V, ρ, μ, L
- C_D = Drag Coefficient = F_D / (0.5 * ρ * V² * A)
- Re = Reynolds number = (ρ * V * L) / μ

Using dimensional analysis (Buckingham π-theorem):

Variables: F_D (MLT⁻²), V (LT⁻¹), ρ (ML⁻³), μ (ML⁻¹T⁻¹), L (L)

Total variables = 5, fundamental dimensions = 3 → π terms = 5 - 3 = 2

Let the repeating variables be: ρ, V, L

Form π₁: F_D / (ρ * V² * L²) = C_D (dimensionless)

Form π₂: (ρ * V * L) / μ = Re (dimensionless)

Hence,
C_D = f(Re)

Q2 (a) Buckingham’s π-Theorem for Pressure Drop Δp in Pipe

Given: Δp = f(V, μ, ρ, D, L, k)

Total variables = 7, fundamental dimensions = 3 → π terms = 7 - 3 = 4

Choose repeating variables: V, ρ, D

Form π₁: Δp / (ρ * V²) — Pressure Coefficient

Form π₂: μ / (ρ * V * D) — 1/Re

Form π₃: L/D — dimensionless

Form π₄: k/D — relative roughness

So, final expression:

Δp / (ρ * V²) = f(μ / ρVD, L/D, k/D)
Or,
Δp = ρ * V² * f(Re, L/D, k/D)

Q2 (b) Pelton Turbine Numerical

Given:
- N = 720 rpm, Q = 300 kg/s = 0.3 m³/s
- H = 425 m, Cv = 0.97, φ = 0.46, θ = 165°, K = 0.9
- γ = 9810 N/m³

Step 1: Jet velocity (V_j):

V_j = Cv * sqrt(2gH) = 0.97 * sqrt(2 * 9.81 * 425) ≈ 88.58 m/s
Step 2: Blade velocity (u):
u = φ * V_j = 0.46 * 88.58 ≈ 40.75 m/s

Step 3: Hydraulic efficiency (η_h):

η_h = (2 * u * (V_j - u) * (1 + cosθ)) / (V_j²)
θ = 165°, cos(165°) = -0.9659

η_h = (2 * 40.75 * (88.58 - 40.75) * (1 + (-0.9659))) / (88.58²)

≈ 65.2%

Step 4: Diameter of runner (D):

u = π * D * N / 60 → D = (60 * u) / (π * N)
D = (60 * 40.75) / (π * 720) ≈ 1.08 m

Step 5: Jet diameter (d):

Q = (π/4) * d² * V_j → d = sqrt(4Q / (π * V_j))
d = sqrt(4 * 0.3 / (π * 88.58)) ≈ 0.0657 m = 65.7 mm

Francis Turbine Numerical

Given:
- Power developed (P) = 16120 kW = 16.12 MW
- Head (H) = 260 m
- Speed (N) = 600 rpm
- Outer diameter (D) = 1500 mm = 1.5 m
- Width (b) = 135 mm = 0.135 m
- Flow rate (Q) = 7 m³/s
- Exit velocity (V) = 16 m/s
- Assuming zero whirl velocity at exit and neglecting blade thickness.

Step 1: Overall Efficiency (η_o)

η_o = P / (ρ * g * Q * H)
= 16120 × 10³ / (1000 × 9.81 × 7 × 260)
≈ 0.889 or 88.9%

Step 2: Tangential velocity (u):

u = π * D * N / 60 = π * 1.5 * 600 / 60 ≈ 47.12 m/s

Step 3: Area of flow (A):

A = π * D * b = π * 1.5 * 0.135 ≈ 0.636 m²
 Step 4: Flow velocity V_f1:
V_f1 = Q / A = 7 / 0.636 ≈ 11.01 m/s

Step 5: Hydraulic Efficiency (η_h):

η_h = u * V_w1 / gH
Assume total head converted to work: V_w1 = (η_h * gH) / u ≈ 0.94 × 9.81 × 260 / 47.12 ≈
50.7 m/s
η_h = 0.94 or 94%

Step 6: Inlet blade angle (β1):

tan(β1) = V_f1 / (u - V_w1) = 11.01 / (47.12 - 50.7) = negative → error
Correct V_w1 = η_h * gH / u = 0.94 * 9.81 * 260 / 47.12 = 50.7 (recalculate needed for
consistent values)

Step 7: Guide vane outlet angle (α1):

tan(α1) = V_f1 / V_w1 = 11.01 / 50.7 → α1 ≈ 12.3°

Centrifugal Pump – Construction, Velocity Triangles, Efficiency Derivation

A centrifugal pump converts mechanical energy into hydraulic energy to

move fluids. Key components include an impeller, casing, and
suction/discharge ports. Velocity triangles, constructed at the impeller's
inlet and outlet, help analyze fluid flow and impeller design. Efficiency
derivation involves calculating the ratio of useful power output (water
power) to the input power at the shaft, incorporating manometric,
volumetric, and mechanical efficiencies.

Construction:
 Impeller: The rotating part with vanes that accelerates the fluid. Impellers can be
open, semi-open, or closed (with shrouds).
 Casing (Volute or Diffuser): Encloses the impeller and collects the fluid,
converting velocity energy into pressure energy. Volute casings have a spiraling
shape, while diffuser casings use vanes to guide the flow.
 Suction and Discharge Ports: These are the inlet and outlet for the fluid.
Velocity Triangles:
 Purpose: Velocity triangles are graphical representations of the velocities of the
fluid relative to the rotating impeller.
 Components: They typically include:
o Absolute velocity (C): The actual velocity of the fluid as seen by a stationary
observer.
o Relative velocity (V): The velocity of the fluid as seen by an observer on the
rotating impeller.
o Impeller velocity (U): The velocity of the impeller at the point of interest.
o Tangential component (Vw): The component of the velocity in the direction of
impeller rotation.
o Radial (or flow) component (Vf): The component of the velocity perpendicular
to the direction of impeller rotation.
 Inlet Velocity Triangle: Illustrates the fluid's velocity as it enters the impeller.
 Outlet Velocity Triangle: Illustrates the fluid's velocity as it leaves the impeller.
 Blade Angles: The angles of the impeller blades at the inlet (β1) and outlet (β2)
are crucial for directing the flow and optimizing performance.
Efficiency Derivation:
1. Water Power (Output Power): This is the power delivered to the fluid by the
pump, calculated as:
o Water Power = ρ * g * Q * Hm, where:
 ρ = density of the fluid
 g = acceleration due to gravity
 Q = flow rate
 Hm = manometric head (the head against which the pump works).
2. Input Power (Shaft Power): This is the power supplied to the pump shaft.
3. Overall Efficiency: Calculated as:
o Overall Efficiency = (Water Power / Input Power) * 100%.
4. Manometric Efficiency: The ratio of manometric head to the Euler head
(theoretical head).
5. Volumetric Efficiency: Accounts for leakage and recirculation of fluid within the
pump.
6. Mechanical Efficiency: Accounts for friction losses in the pump.
7. Specific Speed: A dimensionless parameter that relates the pump's flow rate,
head, and speed. The formula is: Ns = N * Q^0.5 / Hm^0.75.
 The overall efficiency of a centrifugal pump is a combination of these
individual efficiencies.

Reciprocating Pump with Air Vessel – Indicator Diagram with Friction &
Acceleration Heads

In a reciprocating pump with an air vessel, the indicator diagram,

which plots pressure head against stroke length, is affected by both
friction and acceleration in the suction and delivery pipes. These effects
are represented on the indicator diagram as deviations from a
theoretical, ideal diagram. The area of the diagram, representing the
work done by the pump, is increased due to friction, while acceleration
causes pressure fluctuations at the beginning and end of each stroke.

Friction Head:
 Friction in the pipes causes a loss of pressure head, which is represented on the
indicator diagram as a deviation from the ideal straight line representing the
pressure change during a stroke.
 The frictional head loss varies parabolically throughout the stroke, being zero at
the beginning and end and reaching a maximum at the middle.
 This loss of head due to friction is added to the suction head during the suction
stroke and subtracted from the delivery head during the delivery stroke.
 The effect of friction is to increase the area of the indicator diagram, indicating
that the pump has to do more work to overcome the resistance caused by
friction.
Acceleration Head:
 The reciprocating motion of the piston causes acceleration and deceleration of
the water in the pipes, resulting in pressure fluctuations.
 At the beginning of the suction stroke, the piston starts from rest, and the water in
the suction pipe is accelerated, resulting in a positive acceleration head. This
positive acceleration head is added to the suction head.
 At the end of the suction stroke, the water is decelerated, and a negative
acceleration head is developed, which reduces the suction head.
 Similarly, during the delivery stroke, acceleration and deceleration of water in the
delivery pipe cause positive and negative acceleration heads, respectively.
 The acceleration head is represented on the indicator diagram as a deviation
from the ideal straight line, with a positive value at the beginning of each stroke
and a negative value at the end.
Air Vessel:
 Air vessels are used to minimize the effects of acceleration and friction on the
indicator diagram and to provide a more uniform flow of water.
 By providing a reservoir of compressed air, the air vessel can absorb pressure
fluctuations caused by acceleration and maintain a more constant pressure
during the stroke.
 This results in a smaller indicator diagram area, indicating that the pump does
less work, and a smoother pressure curve