BEC654B_Consumer Electronics Module 2

AUDIO COMPACT DISC SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION
Computers have entered almost every activity. Audio systems has also gone digital. A compact disc is a
special disc in which the audio signals are stored in digital form. The recording and reproduction of sound
on compact disc (CD) is much more complex than on cassettes. However compact discs offer complete
noise free recording and reproduction. As on today compact discs are more costly than tapes but the costs
are likely to come down in future. It is possible that tapes may become completely obsolete in the years to
come.

COMPARISON OF CD AND TAPE

Advantages

Recording and reproduction of audio signals on compact discs offer a number of advantages. Some of
these are
1. Complete elimination of noise and distortion. No Vow, flutter, rumble etc.
2. Better frequency response in the complete audio frequency range.
3. High signal to noise ratio
4. Surface of CD is not affected by dust, grease etc..
5. Even if some bits are lost, error detecting codes can restore the information.
6. High channel separation.
7. More information can be stored over the same area.
Disadvantages
1. High cost.
2. Recording and reproduction processes are more complex.

OPTICAL RECORDING

The audio signals from the microphone are converted into digital signals (strings of 0 and 1) by pulse
code modulation (PCM). The audio signal is sampled and the sample converted to binary. The frequency
of sampling should be twice the highest frequency in the signal. Since highest audio frequency is 20 kHz.
The record of digital audio signals is in the form of pits. Figure 1 Error! Reference source not
found.shows the pits on a CD. Each pit is 1 µm deep and 0.5 μm wide with length of pits varying from
0.9 μm to 3.3 μm.

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These pits are on circular concentric bands called tracks. The separation between tracks (known as pitch
of track) is 1.6 mm. Each sample has 16 bits so that the number of bits per second is 44.1x10 3x16 =
705600. These are only audio bits. Successive blocks of audio bits have parity bits (i.e. bits for correction
and controlling signals). These bits modulate the laser beam in on-off mode. When laser beam is off the
output is 1 and when laser beam is on the output is 0. The modulation of laser beams is shown by block
diagram in Figure 2.

Figure 1: Pits and Tracks on CD

Figure 2: Block Diagram of Modulation of Laser Beam

The microphone converts the sound waves into electrical signals. After amplification these signals are
sampled and conditioned. The next stage is error detection and correction. The sampling, conditioning,
error detection and correction operations are controlled by clock pulses (as in a digital computer). The
corrected signals modulate the laser beam. The modulated laser beam produces the record on a recording
disc known as resist master disc (RMD). This disc is fixed on to a turn table which is rotated by a constant
speed motor as shown in Figure 3.

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Figure 3: Optical Recording on CD

DETAILS OF A COMPACT DISC

The recorded compact disc has the following dimensions and features

Thickness of Disc = 1.2 mm

Diameter of disc = 12 cm

Rotation: Anticlockwise

Velocity of Scanning = 1.2 m/s

Direction of pick up: Linear from centre towards circumference

Speed = 500 rpm to 200 rpm

Storage Capacity = 540 Mega bytes per sides yo

Playing time = 60 minutes

Transducer: infra red photo diode

Sampling frequency = 44.1 kHz

Track pitch = 1.6 μm.

Pick up: Solid state laser using Aluminium Gallium Arsenide

Quantisation = 16 bit

Bit-rate = 43218 M bits/s

Error correction bit = 3548

Number of levels = 65536 per channel

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DETAILS OF RECORDING PROCESS

1. Master Disc Preparation

The raw master disc is made of optically ground glass, which serves as the base for creating the original
pattern of data.

The glass disc is cleaned and polished to remove impurities, ensuring a smooth recording surface.

A photoresistive material (light-sensitive chemical coating) is applied. This layer is 0.12 μm thick and
reacts with laser exposure.

2. Laser Recording
A modulated laser beam is used to encode data onto the disc.

The laser is focused onto the disc and moves from the center towards the circumference as the disc
rotates.

Since the radius increases, the disc’s rotation speed is gradually reduced to keep the velocity of the laser
beam along the surface constant.

The laser exposes specific areas of the photoresistive layer, forming a pattern of pits and lands
(representing binary data).

3. Developing Process
Similar to photographic development, the exposed and unexposed areas react differently.

The unexposed areas become hardened, while the exposed areas remain soft.

4. Etching Process
The soft exposed areas are removed through an etching process.

This creates the pits and lands on the disc, which store digital data.

5. Metal Coating
A thin silver layer is applied over the surface to make the disc electrically conductive.

6. Nickel Plating (Master Copy Creation)

A nickel layer is electroplated onto the disc to form a positive master copy.

This master copy acts as a mold for further replication.

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7. Stamper Disc Creation
The nickel-plated master is used to create a stamper disc, which contains the inverse image of the pits and
lands.

This stamper will be used to mass-produce copies of the CD.

8. Mass Production of CDs

A polycarbonate disc is pressed onto the stamper to transfer the pit and land pattern.

Multiple copies can be made from a single stamper.

9. Protective Coating and Final Packaging

A transparent lacquer layer is applied to protect the recorded surface.

The CD is then placed in a plastic jacket (case) for storage and distribution.

Final Structure of a CD
The final CD consists of:

 Polycarbonate base (holding data in pits and lands).

 Reflective layer (aluminum/silver) for laser readability.
 Lacquer protective layer for durability.

DETAILS OF PLAYBACK PROCESS

The compact disc (CD) stores digital information in the form of pits and flats. A laser beam is used to
read this data, which is then converted into an audio or video signal.

1. Laser System in a CD player

The CD is scanned optically using a solid-state laser made of Aluminum Gallium Arsenide (AlGaAs).
This laser operates at a wavelength of 780 nm (not μm, which would be too large).
The diameter of the laser spot on the disc is about 1 μm to read the tiny pits accurately.

2. Role of the Half-Silvered Mirror

The laser beam passes through a half-silvered mirror and is focused onto the disc surface.
The half-silvered mirror allows the laser to pass through, but it does not allow the reflected beam to pass
back in the same direction.
Instead, the reflected beam is directed towards a photodiode for detection.

3. Reading Digital Data (Binary Representation)

When the laser hits a flat surface → Full reflection occurs, which represents binary 1.
When the laser hits a pit (depressed area) → Less reflection occurs, representing binary 0.

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These reflections create a binary sequence (0s and 1s) that represents the stored data.

4. Conversion from Digital to Analog (D/A Conversion)

The photodiode converts the reflected beam into an electrical signal corresponding to the binary data.
This binary signal is then converted into an analog signal using a Digital-to-Analog (D/A) Converter,
producing the final audio or video output.
5. Scanning Mechanism of the Laser Beam
The optical pickup (which holds the laser, lens, and photodetector) moves across the CD surface to read
the entire track.
The pickup is mounted on a pivoting arm that moves in a radial arc across the disc.
The scanning occurs from the center towards the circumference, following the spiral track of the CD.
6. Locating Information on the CD
The CD contains locational bits at the start of each data frame, allowing the player to find and access
specific tracks.
The linear motor controls the movement of the pickup arm across the disc.
When the motor's coil is energized, it moves the pickup to the required location on the disc.

7. Tracking and Error Correction

The tracking servo system ensures that the laser follows the spiral track accurately.

If the pickup deviates from the track, the servo system corrects it to maintain proper alignment.

This prevents errors in reading the data and ensures smooth playback.

Figure 4: Reflection of Laser Beam in a CD player

Figure 4 shows the reflection of the laser beam from the CD so as generate binary signals.

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The block diagram of the optical pick up process shown in Figure 5. Control signals allow the disc to be
scanned in any desired sequence. This sequence can be controlled from a key board. A clock signal
obtained from the disc itself is compared with a signal from a crystal oscillator. This discrepancy gives
rise to an error signal/correction signal which is applied to the servo system. Since the circumference of
outer tracks is more than that of tracks near the center, the rotational speed of the disc is varied from 500
rpm at center to 200 rpm at the outermost edge. This is done by varying the speed of the driving motor.
The disc is scanned at 1.2 m/s. The total length of tracks on a CD is 6 km. Thus we have a playing time of
60 minutes in addition to 20 minutes time for error correction.

Figure 5: Block Diagram of Pick up System in CD Player

GEOMETRY OF AUDIO DISC

Figure 6 shows the edge view of an audio disc, which is a compact disc (CD) used for storing audio data.
The key points regarding the operation and structure of the disc are as follows:

Playing Direction and Rotation:

The disc is designed to be played from the inner tracks to the outer tracks, rotating in a counterclockwise
direction. This means that as the laser reads the data, it moves outward from the center of the disc.

Constant Linear Velocity (CLV):

The compact disc player operates at a constant linear velocity. This means that the speed at which the
laser moves across the disc surface remains constant, regardless of whether it is reading inner or outer
tracks. Since the inner tracks are shorter in length than the outer tracks, the angular velocity (the rate of
rotation) of the disc must change continuously. As the laser moves outward, the disc must spin faster to
maintain the same linear speed.

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Reading Mechanism:
The disc is read using a laser beam that is focused on the signal surface from the underside of the disc.
The surface of the disc has pits (depressions) and lands (flat areas) that encode the audio data.

Reflective Layer:
To enhance the reflectivity of the disc, the pitted surface is covered with a layer of evaporated aluminum.
This reflective layer allows the laser light to be effectively reflected back to the sensor after interacting
with the pits and lands.

Light Interaction with the Disc:

The laser beam passes through the polycarbonate plastic base of the disc, which has a refractive index (n)
of 1.5. The GaAlAs laser used emits infrared light with a wavelength (λ) of 0.78 μm in air. However,
when considering the effective wavelength in the medium (polycarbonate), the wavelength is reduced due
to the refractive index.

Pits and Phase Shift:

The pits on the disc are designed to be a specific depth. If the pits are 0.13 μm deep, they will cause a
phase shift in the reflected light. Specifically, the light reflected from a pit will be shifted by half a
wavelength (λ/2 or 180°) compared to the light reflected from a flat area (land). This phase difference is
crucial for the optical reading process, as it allows the laser system to distinguish between the pits and
lands, thereby interpreting the encoded audio data.

Figure 6: Edge view of Compact Disc

This reflected beam is summed with the incident beam. The reflected beam from flats would be in phase
with incident beam and would interfere with the incident beam constructively. The reflected beam from
pits would be 180° out of phase with the incident beam and interfere with it destructively.

A photoconductor translates the variation in light intensity into a digital pulse train. In actual practice the
pits are 0.11 μm deep. Still the difference between beams reflected from pit and flat are substantially
different in phase.

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The nominal linear velocity of disc is 1.3 m/s with 1.4 m/s and 1.2 m/s as the maximum and minimum
values.

The innermost track of CD has radius of 25 mm and the outermost track has a radius of 58 mm. The
angular velocity varies from 500 rpm at the innermost track to 200 rpm at the outermost track. The
spacing between centers of adjacent tracks is called pitch and is 1.6 mm. The pits along each track may
have lenghts varying from 0.9 mm and 3.3 mm. The width of pits in radial direction is 0.5 mm.

ENCODING PROCESS AND ERROR CORRECTION

Digital Audio Sampling and Error Protection in CDs

Compact Discs (CDs) store high-quality digital audio using sampling, bit encoding, and error protection
techniques.

The explanation is divided into:

 Sampling Rate and Data Rate Calculation
 Audio Data Organization in Frames and Symbols

Error Countermeasures

 Interleaving for Error Reduction

 Delaying and Scrambling Symbols for Error Correction

1. Sampling Rate and Data Rate Calculation

• The human hearing range is from 20 Hz to 20 kHz, so CD audio is designed to support frequencies
up to 20 kHz.
• Nyquist Theorem states that to accurately digitize a signal, it must be sampled at at least twice its
highest frequency.
• The chosen sampling frequency for CDs is 44.1 kHz (44,100 samples per second).
• Each sample is 16 bits wide (for high-quality resolution).
• Since CDs use stereo (two channels: left and right), the total bit rate is:
2 × 16 × 44100 = 1.4112 × 106 bits per second(1.411Mbps)
Each sample consists of 32 bits (16 bits per channel).
Time per sample:

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2. Audio Data Organization in Frames and Symbols
• To improve error handling, each sample is repeated 6 times before being written to the disc.
• Each frame consists of:
• 6 samples (from both left and right channels).
• Each sample contains 32 bits (16 bits for left, 16 bits for right).
• Total bits per frame = 32×6=19232 \times 6 = 19232×6=192 bits.
• These 192 bits are divided into 24 symbols (8 bits each).
Symbol Representation in a Frame is as given below,
SR1A SR1B SL1A SL1B SR2A SR2B SL2A SL2B SR3A SR3B SL3A SL3B

SR4A SR4B SL4A SL4B SR5A SR5B SL5A SL5B SR6A SR6B SL6A SL6B

In above representation
 S: Symbol (8-bit chunk).
• R/L: Right or Left channel.
• 1-6: Sample number.
• A/B: Most significant (A) or least significant (B) bits

Figure 7: One frame of Audio CD

3. Error Countermeasures
• Error handling is critical for CD audio playback because scratches, dust, or imperfections can
cause data loss.
(i) Interleaving for Error Reduction
• The first error countermeasure is to arrange data in an alternating sequence.
• Instead of storing all 16 bits of one channel first, it interleaves left and right channel data.
• This ensures that if a part of the disc is damaged, both channels lose only a small portion of data,
preventing complete audio loss in one ear.

(ii) Delaying and Scrambling for Error Correction (Second error countermeasure)
• Some symbols (with even subscripts) are delayed and their order is scrambled.
• This spreads out errors over multiple frames, making error correction more effective.
• The new arrangement of symbols is
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SR1A SR1B SR3A SR3B SR5A SR5B SL1A SL1B SL3A SL3B SL5A SL5B
SR2A SR2B SR4A SR4B SR6A SR6B SL2A SL2B SL4A SL4B SL6A SL6B
• The even-numbered samples (SR2, SR4, SR6, SL2, SL4, SL6) are delayed.
• This means that even-numbered symbols come from two frames earlier than the rest.
• If an error occurs, the original data can still be reconstructed from nearby frames using error
correction algorithms.

(iii) Third error counter measure

The third error counter measure is to add a group of 4 parity bytes into the above data stream at the mid
point of the frame. Figure 8 shows the frame after addition of parity bytes.

Figure 8: One frame of Audio CD after addition of parity Bytes

The fourth, fifth, and sixth error countermeasures focus on advanced techniques to spread and correct
errors.

(iv) Cross-Interleaving (Fourth Error Countermeasure)

• Some errors may corrupt an entire frame of data.
• If the data is stored sequentially, an error can cause an unrecoverable loss in the audio.
• Cross-Interleaving spreads the data across multiple frames. Each of the 28 symbols (after adding
parity bits) is delayed by different amounts before being written to the disc.

• The delay for a symbol = n × D, where:

• 0 ≤ n ≤ 27 (different delay values).

• D = 4 frame times (each symbol is spread across every 4th frame).

• This means that the data of one frame is distributed across 112 frames.

• If one frame is completely corrupted, only 1/4th of a symbol is lost in each of 112 frames, making
it much easier to reconstruct.

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(v) Parity Byte Addition (Fifth Error Countermeasure)

 Even after interleaving, some errors span multiple frames and must be corrected.
 4 more parity bytes are added to each data block.
 This increases the total number of parity bytes to 8.
 The total bit rate increases from:
 This is done by increasing the clock frequency of the CD system.
 These 8 parity bytes allow the system to correct errors caused by over 4000 consecutive lost bits
due to scratches or defects.

(vi) One-Symbol Interleave (Sixth Error Countermeasure)

Even after interleaving and parity, random errors (e.g., dust particles, laser misalignment) can still affect
playback.

 Encoded symbols are spread over two frames.

 Instead of writing symbols sequentially, each symbol is interleaved between two frames.
 This means that even if one frame has an error, part of the lost symbol is still available in the next
frame.
 Reduces the impact of random, small-scale errors on playback.
 Improves the system’s ability to correct single-symbol errors without affecting sound quality.

The string shown in Figure 8 is prefaced by one C and D (Control and Display) byte. This is shown in
Figure 9 DAD stands for digitified audio data.

Figure 9: One frame of Audio disc after addition of C and D Byte

EFM (EIGHT-TO-FOURTEEN MODULATION) AND FRAME STRUCTURE IN CD PLAYERS

The process of reading data from a CD involves modulation, synchronization, and error correction to
ensure accurate playback. One of the critical modulation techniques used is Eight-to-Fourteen
Modulation (EFM), which helps in maintaining data integrity and ensuring proper signal
reconstruction.
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1. Logic 1 is produced only at transitions

 The CD player generates a logic 1 only when the laser moves from a pit to a flat or from a flat
to a pit.
 This means that long sequences of continuous 0s or 1s must be avoided to ensure proper clock
recovery.
2. Pit and Flat Length Constraints

• Lower limit: A pit or flat must be at least 3 bits long.

• Upper limit: A pit or flat cannot be longer than 11 bits.

• These constraints are due to the optical resolution of the laser and the need for clock signal
reconstruction from the data stream.

3. Eight-to-Fourteen Modulation (EFM)

• The standard 8-bit binary representation (0 to 255) does not guarantee that there will be no
sequences of bits violating the 3-bit minimum and 11-bit maximum rule. Hence,

• Each 8-bit data word is converted into a 14-bit code using EFM.

• The total number of possible 14-bit patterns = 214=163842^{14} = 16384214=16384, allowing

selection of codes that avoid forbidden patterns.

• This ensures that the length of pits and flats always remains between 3 and 11 bits.

4. Merging Bits (Additional 3 Bits per Word)

• Even though EFM ensures that individual 14-bit words follow the rules, the transition from one
word to the next might still create forbidden bit sequences (e.g., too many consecutive 0s or 1s).
hence,

• 3 additional merging bits are inserted between consecutive 14-bit words.

• These merging bits ensure smooth transitions while avoiding DC bias (which can interfere with
signal accuracy).

Now, each word consists of 14 + 3 = 17 bits.

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5. CD Frame Structure

• Each CD frame consists of:

• 33 words of 17 bits each → 33×17=56133 \times 17 = 56133×17=561 bits.

• Frame sync word (24 bits) → A unique bit pattern (100000000001000000000010) that helps
locate the start of each frame.

• Extra merging bits (3 bits).

• Total bits per frame:

561+24+3=588 bits

6. CD Bit Rate Calculation

• The original audio data rate was 1.4112 MHz for 192 bits per frame.
Since the final frame now contains 588 bits, the new bit rate is:

• Standard CD clock frequency = 4.3218 MHz.

7. Data Efficiency and Overhead

• Audio data accounts for 32.7% of the total bits in a CD frame:

• The remaining 67.3% is overhead, including:

• Error correction codes.

• Synchronization bits.

• Merging bits for EFM.

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Figure 10: Frame of compact disc with EFM data word lengths, sync, word, EFM parity word lengths and merging bits (Total 588
bits)

D/A CONVERTOR

Figure 11shows a circuit known as binary ladder network for D/A conversion. From node 1 the resistance
to the digital source is 2R and resistance to ground is also 2R. From node 2 the resistance to digital source
(2𝑅)(2𝑅)
is 2R as shown and resistance to ground is = 𝑅 +( = 2R
2𝑅)+(2𝑅)

Thus from each of nodes 1, 2, 3, 4, the resistance to source and ground is 2R each.

Figure 11: D/A Convertor

A digital input 0001 means that D is connected to a voltage V and all other inputs A, B, C are grounded.
The output voltage Vo is V/16. A digital input 0010 means that C is connected to V and A, B, D are
grounded giving an output of 2V/ 16. Thus as input varies from 0000 to 1111, the output varies from V/16
to V in steps of V/16.

A complete D/A converter consists of a number of such ladder networks (to deal with more bits of data)
and other devices like gates, operational amplifiers etc.

HANDLING OF COMPACT DISC

Compact discs require care in handling. The following precautions in handling are necessary:

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1. Do not expose the disc to direct sunlight, high humidity or high temperature.

2. Return the disc to case after use.

3. Do not write anything on disc surface.

4. Do not touch the playing surface. Handle by edge

5. Wipe off dust etc with soft cloth.

6. Wipe in straight motion form centre to edge.

7. Don't use any chemical or fluid for cleaning the disc.

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