Running head: LOGICAL CIRCUITS 1

LOGICAL CIRCUITS

Name

Institution

Instructor’s Name

Course

Date
LOGICAL CIRCUITS 2

Introduction to logic circuits and logical gates

Electronic gates in the logical circuits can be used in implementing Boolean

functions. Therefore, it is important for one to understand the following as far as logical

circuits are concerned. The electronic gates in the logic circuits require a power supply to

operate. The gate inputs are usually driven by voltages that have two minimal values. For

example zero volts and five volts to represent logic zero and one respectively. The outputs of

the gate also provide two nominal values of voltage. For example zero volts and five volts to

represent logic 0 and one respectively (A.P.Godse & D.A.Godse, 2009). Therefore, this

implies that there is only a single output to a logic gate except in some individual cases. A

delay also arises from an input that is applied and the responding output.

TRUTH TABLES

The truth tables for the logic circuits are used to aid in showing the function of a particular

logic gate.

Logic gates

Most digital systems are commonly constructed by using the logic gates. The gates

that are commonly used are the AND, NAND, NOR, EXOR, EXNOR, OR and NOT gates

(A.P.Godse & D.A.Godse, 2009). The basic operation of the gates is described below with

the aid of their respective truth tables.

The AND gate

The AND gate is a circuit that is electronic in nature and gives out a high output of

one (1) when all of its inputs are high. A dot (.) is the symbol that is employed to show the

AND operation that is P.Q. Although sometimes the dot is usually emitted, that is PQ.
LOGICAL CIRCUITS 3

The OR gate

The OR gate is also electronic in nature and usually gives a high output (1) if one or

more of its inputs are at the high state. The plus sign (+) is used to show the OR operation.

The NOT gate.

The NOT gate is defined as an electronic circuit that gives out an output that is

inverted to that of the input. If for example the input variable is Q then the inverted output is

known as the NOT the inverted output can be shown as Q’, or a Q with a bar on top of it

shown at the outputs. In discrete math and electronics, a NOT gate is usually called an

inverter. The circle on the symbol is known as a bubble, and is utilized as a part of logic

diagrams to symbolize a logic negation between the outside logic state and the interior logic

state, 1 to 0 and vice-versa. On a circuit diagram, it must be joined by a statement declaring

that the positive logic convention or negative logic convention is being utilized high voltage

level = 1 or high voltage level = 0, separately (A.P.Godse & D.A.Godse, 2009). The wedge is

employed as a part of circuit diagrams to demonstrate a dynamic low (high voltage level = 0)

input or output without obliging a uniform convention all through the circuit diagram. This is

called Direct Extremity Sign. Both the bubble and the wedge can be utilized on the

rectangular-shaped symbols on circuit diagrams, relying on the logic convention employed.

NAND gate.

The NAND gate is a combination of the AND gate followed by the NOT gate. The

outputs of all the NAND gates are usually high if any inputs are low. The symbol used for the

gate is typically an AND gate but with a circle at its output. The circle is usually the symbol

of inversion.
LOGICAL CIRCUITS 4

The NOR gate

The NOR gate is the combination of the OR gate followed by a NOT gate. If any of

the inputs of the NOR gate are high, then the outputs will be low. The symbol for the gate is

usually an OR gate with a circle at the output. The circle often represents the inversion.

The EXOR gate

Frequently known as the Exclusive-OR gate is also an electronic circuit that produces

a high output if either, but not both of the gates inputs are high. A plus sign that is encircled is

used to symbolize the Exclusive-OR gate.

The EXNOR gate

The Exclusive-NOR gate does the exact opposite of the EXOR gate. If either of the

inputs are high but not both, then the output will be low. The two gates NOR and NAND are

usually referred to as the universal gates. This is because with either one the OR, NOT and

AND functions can be generated. A function that is in the sum of products can be achieved

using only NAND gates by replacing the AND and OR gates by the NAND gate. A product

of sums function can also be implemented by using only NOR gates by replacing the OR and

AND gates with NOR gates.

Logic gates representation using the Truth table

INPUT | OUTPUT |

P | Q | P AND Q |

0|0|0|

0|1|0|
LOGICAL CIRCUITS 5

1|0|0|

1|1|1|

OR

INPUT | OUTPUT |

P | Q | P OR Q |

0|0|0|

0|1|1|

1|0|1|

1|1|1|

NOT or ~

INPUT | OUTPUT |

P | NOT P |

0|1|

1|0|

INPUT | OUTPUT |

P | Q | P NAND Q |

0|0|1|
LOGICAL CIRCUITS 6

0|1|1|

1|0|1|

1|1|0|

NOR or

INPUT | OUTPUT |

P | Q | P NOR Q |

0|0|1|

0|1|0|

1|0|0|

1|1|0|

XOR

INPUT | OUTPUT |

P | Q | P XOR Q |

0|0|0|

0|1|1|

1|0|1|

1|1|0|
LOGICAL CIRCUITS 7

XNOR or

INPUT | OUTPUT |

P | Q | P XNOR Q |

0|0|1|

0|1|0|

1|0|0|

1|1|1|

Logic circuits

The logic circuit family devices can be categorized into different devices which

include; registers multiplexers, computer memory and Arithmetic logic unit (ALU).

Microprocessors are also part of the logic circuits, and they can contain up to one hundred

million gates. The gates are usually made of field-effect transistors in practice (FETs), mostly

metal-oxide-semiconductor field effect transistors (MOSFETs).

Logic Gates

When employed in electronics, a logic gate is a device that is used in implementing a

Boolean function. That is the logic gate performs a logical operation on either one or more

logic inputs, and it produces only a single logical output. Depending on the situation, the term

can refer to a device that is non-ideal or a logic gate that is ideal that, for example, has a zero

rise time and a fan-out that is unlimited. Logic gates are fundamentally actualized utilizing
LOGICAL CIRCUITS 8

diodes or transistors that act as electronic switches, yet they can likewise be developed by

making use of electromagnetic relays, fluidic logic, mechanical components, optics, particles,

or by using pneumatic logic. When they are amplified, logic gates can befell in the same way

that Boolean functions can be made, permitting the development of a physical model of all of

Boolean logic, and hence, the greater part of the calculations and math that can be portrayed

with Boolean logic method.

The Logic family

To construct a practically finished logic system, relays, valves (vacuum tubes), or

transistors can be utilized. The least complex group of logic gates employing bipolar

transistors is called resistor transistor logic. Not at all like basic diode had logic gates that do

not have an addition component, resistor transistor logic gates can be fallen inconclusively to

deliver more logic functions that are complex. Resistor-transistor logic gates were utilized as

a part of early integrated circuits (A.P.Godse & D.A.Godse, 2009). For higher speed and

better thickness, the resistors used as a part of resistor transistor logic were supplanted by

diodes employing the diode transistor logic. Transistor-transistor logic then replaced the

diode transistor logic. As integrated circuits turned out to be harder, bipolar transistors were

succeeded by smaller field-effect transistors (MOSFETs); to lessen power utilization even

more, most contemporary chip usage of digital systems now utilize CMOS logic (A.P.Godse

& D.A.Godse, 2009). CMOS uses complementary both in the n-channel and p-channel

MOSFET gadgets to accomplish even higher speeds with little power scattering.

For even smaller scale logic, logic designers now use logic gates which have already

been assembled from groups of gadgets, for example, the TTL 7400 series by Texas

Instruments, the CMOS 4000 series by RCA, and their later descendants. Progressively, these

logic gates that are fixed-function are being replaced by programmable logic gadgets, which
LOGICAL CIRCUITS 9

permit designers to pack countless logic gates into a solitarily, integrated circuit. The field-

programmable nature of programmable logic devices, for example, FPGAs has evacuated the

"hard" property of the hardware; it is currently easy to change the logic design of a hardware

system by reconstructing some of its parts, therefore permitting the components or capacity

of a hardware implementation of a logic framework to be altered easily.

The logic gates which are electronic vary essentially from their relay-and-switch

counterparts. They are faster, use considerably less power, and are smaller in size. Likewise,

there is a principal structure difference. The switch circuit makes a metallic way for current

which is continuous for it to stream in either of the directions between its input and output.

The logic gate that is a semiconductor, also, goes about as a high pick up voltage enhancer,

which sinks a little current at its input and produces a low-impedance voltage at its output. It

is impractical for current to stream between the output and the input of a semiconductor logic

gate.

Standardized integrated circuits like the 4000 and 7400 families have a crucial

advantage because they can be cascaded. This implies that the output of one gate can be

wired to the inputs of one or a few different gates. Many systems with shifting degrees of

complexity can be constructed without so much concern of the designer for the interior

workings of the gates, gave the confinements of each integrated circuit considered.

The output of one gate can just drive a limited number of inputs to different gates, a

number known as the fan-out limit. Additionally, there is a delay, known as the propagation

delay, from an adjustment in the input of a gate to the comparing change in its output. At the

point when gates are cascaded, the aggregate delay in the propagation is normally the sum of

the individual delays, an impact that can turn into an issue in circuits that are of high-speed.

Additional delay can be created when an extensive number of inputs are joined with an
LOGICAL CIRCUITS 10

output because of the dispersed capacitance of the considerable number of inputs and wiring

and the limited measure of current that every output can give.

The logic Propositions

Mathematical statements are usually specified precisely by the rules that apply to

logic. For example, this rules give the denotation of declarations such as if there is an integer

that exists that is greater than one hundred that is a power of maybe two. Another statement

that can be explained is, ‘for each integer n the sum of all positive integers greater than n is.'

All mathematical reasoning make the use of the logic. The logic also has other applications

in the design of a computer, artificial intelligence, programming languages and computer

programming. The proposition statement in logic is can either be true or false but never both

of them.

Just as letters are used to indicate variables, they are also used to denote propositions.

The most commonly used conventional letters in discrete mathematics are P, Q, R and S.

Truth values used in proposition is denoted by the letter T and a false Proposition is

indicated by the letter F. The known propositions can be used to produce new propositions.

So many statements in mathematics are fabricated by joining one or more propositions

together. The new propositions commonly known as the compound prepositions are made

from propositions that already exist by making use of logic operators.

Letting P to be a proposition. The statement “Not the case that P” is an additional

proposition referred to as the negation of P. The negated P is denoted by P but is read as NOT

P.

The truth table for the negation of a proposition is as shown.

P|p|
LOGICAL CIRCUITS 11

TF | FT |

The result that is obtained from the operation of the negation operator on the

proposition can be considered as the negation of the proposition. A new proposition from an

existing proposition can be formulated by making use of the negation operator. Introducing

the logical operators that are mainly used to express new propositions from existing

propositions. The logical operators are also referred to as the connectives.

Let P and Q be the propositions. The two propositions P and Q denoted by ^ is the

proposition that is true when both propositions are true and is false F otherwise. The

conjunction of P and Q is what the proposition is referred.

The truth table is displaying the two propositions.

P|Q|

TTFF | TFTF | TFFF |

Letting the propositions be P and Q. The two propositions symbolized by ‘v’ is the

proposition that is false when both are false and true the other way. The disjunction of P and

Q is what is commonly known referred.

Truth table showing the disjunction of P and Q

P|Q|

TTFF | TFTF | TTTF |

The utilization of the connective or in a disjunction relates to one of the two ways the

word or is utilized as a part of English, specifically, in a comprehensive way. A disjunction is

genuine when both of the two propositions in it is genuine or when both are valid. For
LOGICAL CIRCUITS 12

example, the inclusive or is being utilized as a part of the statement "Students who have taken

Mathematics or software engineering can take this class". Here, we imply that students who

have taken both mathematics and software engineering can take the class, and also the

students who have taken only one of the two subjects. Then again, we are utilizing the

exclusive-or when we say "Students who have taken Mathematics or software engineering,

yet not both can enrol in the class." Here, we imply that students who have taken both

mathematics and software engineering course cannot take the class. Just the individuals who

have made precisely one of the two courses can take the class.

Since implications emerge in numerous spots in mathematical operations, a broad

scope of wording is utilized to express them. A percentage of the more regular methods for

communicating this suggestion can be: "if p, then q", "p infers q", "if p, q", "p just if q", "p is

adequate for q", "q if p", "q at whatever point p", "q is vital for p" (Heinz-Dieter, Wolfgang,

& Jörg, 2008).

We can develop compound propositions utilizing the negation operator and the

distinctive connectives characterized in this way. Enclosures are employed to determine the

request in which the different logical operators in a compound proposition are connected.

Specifically, the logical operators in the inmost brackets are connected first. For example, is

the conjunction of AND (David & Fred, 2010). To eliminate the quantity of brackets

required, we determine that the negation operator is connected before all other logical

operators. This implies that is the conjunction of AND, specifically, not the negation of the

conjunction AND, to be specific.

Letting p and q be propositions. The biconditional is the proposition that is genuine

when p and q have the same truth values and is false if not.
LOGICAL CIRCUITS 13

The Truth Table of the Biconditional

P|Q|

TTFF | TFTF | TFFT |

The biconditional is genuine decisively when both the suggestions AND are valid.

Due to this, the phrasing "p if and if q" is utilized for this bi-conditional. Other methods for

communicating the proposition include: "p is fundamental and adequate for q" and "if p then

q, and alternately".

The Propositional Equivalence

An imperative sort of step utilized as a part of a mathematical contention is the

supplanting of a statement with another proclamation with the same truth value. In light of

this, the ways that create propositions with the same truth value as a given compound

proposition are utilized broadly as a part of the development of mathematical contentions

(James, 2003).

A compound proposition that is consistently correct, regardless of what truth values of

the proposition that happen in it, is known as a tautology. A compound proposition that is

always false is called a contradiction. Lastly, a proposition that is neither a contradiction nor

a tautology is known as a contingency. Tautologies and contradictions are frequently

imperative in mathematical problems (Susanna, 2011). The accompanying table shows cases

of contradiction and a tautology utilizing only one proposition.

The examples of a contraction and tautology.

TF | FT | TT | FF |
LOGICAL CIRCUITS 14

The Logical Equivalences

Compound propositions that have the same truth values in every single likely

circumstance are called logically proportional. We can likewise characterize this idea in the

manner: The proposition p and q are logically equivalent if it is a tautology. The

representation signifies that p and q are equal logically (Susanna, 2011). One approach to

figuring out if two propositions are equivalent is to utilize a truth table. Specifically, the

propositions p and q are identical if and only if the sections giving their truth values concur.

The Common Laws that govern the Logic propositions in Logic Circuits

The Associative Law

(P q) r≡p (q r)

(P ∨ q) ∨ R ≡ p ∨ (q ∨ r)

The Commutative Law

P q≡q p

P∨q≡q∨p

The Distributive Law

P (q ∨ r) ≡ (p q) ∨ (p r)

P ∨ (q r) ≡ (p ∨ q) (p ∨ r)

The Identity Laws

P T≡p

P∨F≡p

The De Morgan’s Laws

¬ (p ∨ q) ≡ (¬p) (¬q)

¬ (p q) ≡ (¬p) ∨ (¬q)

In conclusion from the above discussion, it can be seen that logical circuits play a

crucial role in modern digital systems. The logical circuits like the logic gates have simplified

the circuits used in different devices. The laws that are also employed in the Boolean

functions have also simplified the mathematical problems employed in solving the logical

gates problems. The introduction of the exclusive gates also aided in the implementation and

simplification of the logical circuits.

References

A.P.Godse, & D.A.Godse. (2009). Digital Logic Circuits. NewYork: Technical Publications.

David, G., & Fred, B. S. (2010). A logical approach to discrete math. NewYork: Springer.

Heinz-Dieter, E., Wolfgang, T., & Jörg, F. (2008). Mathematical logic. Biejing: World

Publishing Corporation .

James, L. H. (2003). Discrete mathematics. Boston, Mass: Jones and Bartlett.

Steven, R. G., & Paul, R. H. (2009). Introduction to boolean algebras. NewYork: Springer.

Susanna, S. E. (2011). Discrete mathematics : An introduction to mathematical reasoning.

Boston, MA: Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning.