2023 PYQ Embedded system Best of Luck

What is embedded system? Comment on the embedded system characteris cs.

What is an Embedded System?

An embedded system is a special-purpose computer system designed to perform one or a few

dedicated func ons, o en within a larger system.
It is a combina on of hardware and so ware, where the so ware is embedded into the
hardware to perform a specific task.

Unlike general-purpose computers (like laptops), embedded systems are designed for specific
control applica ons such as washing machines, microwave ovens, ATMs, smartphones, etc.

Characteris cs of Embedded Systems:

1. Dedicated Func onality

o Designed to perform a specific task or func on repeatedly.

o Example: A digital camera only captures and processes images.

2. Real-Time Opera on

o Many embedded systems work in real- me, meaning they must respond to
inputs within a fixed me.

o Example: Airbags in cars must deploy immediately upon crash detec on.

3. Low Power Consump on

o Usually op mized for low energy use since many run on ba ery or limited
power.

4. Compact Size

o Designed to be small and lightweight to fit into devices.

5. Reliability and Stability

o Must work con nuously and without failure over long periods.

6. Memory and Resource Constraint

o Have limited memory, processing power, and storage compared to general-

purpose computers.
 7. Embedded So ware (Firmware)

o The so ware is burned into ROM or Flash memory and not usually changed by
the user.

8. Hardwired or Programmable

o Some are hardwired for specific opera ons, while others can be reprogrammed
for updates or new tasks.

9. Cost-Effec ve

o O en designed to be low-cost to be used in mass-produced devices.

What is the role of microprocessor of microcontroller in embedded system

design? List down other technologies usable for embedded design.
What is the Role of Microprocessor or Microcontroller in Embedded System Design?

In embedded system design, the microprocessor or microcontroller acts as the brain of the
system. It controls, monitors, and executes the specific tasks of the embedded applica on.

Microprocessor:

 A microprocessor is a general-purpose CPU integrated on a single chip.

 It needs external components such as memory (RAM, ROM), mers, and I/O ports to
func on.

 It is mainly used in complex embedded systems where high processing power is needed
(e.g., smart phones, advanced robo cs).

Microcontroller:

 A microcontroller is a complete computer on a chip, containing:

o CPU

o Memory (RAM, ROM)

 o Timers

o I/O ports

o Communica on ports (UART, SPI, I2C)

 It is best suited for simple to medium-complexity embedded systems (e.g., microwave

ovens, washing machines, sensors).

 Since everything is integrated, it is cost-effec ve, small-sized, and power-efficient.

Roles in Embedded Design:

1. Processing Input Data

o Processes data received from sensors or input devices.

2. Controlling Output Devices

o Sends control signals to actuators, displays, motors, etc.

3. Program Execu on

o Runs the embedded so ware (firmware) to carry out the system’s specific
func ons.

4. Real-Time Opera on

o Performs opera ons within the required me constraints.

5. Communica on

o Interfaces with other devices using communica on protocols like SPI, I2C, UART,
etc.

Other Technologies Usable for Embedded Design:

1. DSP (Digital Signal Processor)

o Used for high-speed signal processing in audio, video, and communica on

systems.

2. FPGA (Field Programmable Gate Array)

o Used when custom logic or parallel processing is required.

 o Reprogrammable hardware, ideal for high-performance systems.

3. ASIC (Applica on-Specific Integrated Circuit)

o A chip designed for a specific applica on.

o Used in mass produc on for speed and efficiency.

4. PLD (Programmable Logic Device)

o General term for programmable chips like CPLD and FPGA.

o Used where flexibility in logic design is required.

5. RTOS (Real-Time Opera ng System)

o So ware technology used in embedded systems requiring precise ming and

task scheduling.

o Used in automo ve, aerospace, and medical systems.

Briefly explain the embedded system design process.

Embedded System Design Process (Brief Explana on):

The embedded system design process involves a series of steps to develop a reliable, efficient,
and func onal embedded device that performs a specific task. The process ensures that both
hardware and so ware components work together seamlessly.

Steps in Embedded System Design Process:

1. Requirement Analysis

o Understand the problem statement and define the func onal requirements.

o Iden fy inputs, outputs, performance, cost, power, and ming constraints.

2. System Specifica on

o Create a detailed specifica on document outlining the system behavior,

interface requirements, and performance criteria.

o Specify hardware-so ware boundaries.

3. Hardware-So ware Par oning

 o Decide which parts of the system will be implemented in hardware (e.g.,
sensors, microcontroller) and which in so ware (e.g., control logic, user
interface).

4. Hardware Design

o Design the hardware components, such as selec ng a microcontroller, I/O

devices, sensors, actuators, power supply, etc.

o Design schema c diagrams and circuit layout.

5. So ware Design

o Develop embedded so ware (firmware) using programming languages like C,

C++, or Assembly.

o Write code for data processing, control algorithms, I/O handling, communica on,
etc.

6. Integra on

o Combine the hardware and so ware components.

o Make sure they interact correctly and perform the desired func on.

7. Tes ng and Debugging

o Test the system for func onality, performance, and reliability.

o Fix any bugs or issues in hardware or so ware.

8. Deployment

o Once the system is working properly, it is deployed in the actual applica on

environment.

o O en programmed into ROM or Flash memory.

9. Maintenance and Upgrades

o Regular updates or improvements may be required.

o Support for firmware updates if necessary.

Define requirements in perspec ve of embedded system design process. Explain with proper
categoriza on of the requirements.
Defini on of Requirements in Embedded System Design Process
In the embedded system design process, requirements refer to the detailed specifica ons of
what the system must do, how it should behave, and under what constraints it should operate.

Understanding and defining the correct requirements is the first and most important step, as it
guides the en re development process.

Categories of Requirements in Embedded Systems:

Embedded system requirements are generally categorized into the following types:

1. Func onal Requirements:

These define what the system should do — the core func onality of the embedded system.

Examples:

 A temperature sensor should measure and display room temperature.

 A washing machine controller should manage wash cycles, rinse, and spin func ons.

2. Non-Func onal Requirements:

These define how the system should perform — not the func on itself, but the quality
a ributes of the system.

Examples:

 Performance: The system should respond within 1 second.

 Power Efficiency: Ba ery life should last at least 10 hours.

 Reliability: The system should operate con nuously without failure for 5 years.

 Maintainability: Firmware should be upgradable.

3. Hardware Requirements:

These specify the hardware components needed for the system to func on.

Examples:
  Microcontroller with at least 32KB Flash memory.

 5V Power supply.

 Temperature sensor (e.g., LM35), LCD display, actuators.

4. So ware Requirements:

These define the so ware func onality, including firmware, drivers, and algorithms.

Examples:

 Code should be wri en in C language.

 Real-Time Opera ng System (RTOS) needed.

 UART communica on protocol support.

5. Interface Requirements:

These specify how the system will interact with other systems or users.

Examples:

 LCD for displaying output.

 Keypad for user input.

 Bluetooth interface for wireless communica on.

6. Environmental Requirements:

These include the condi ons under which the system must operate.

Examples:

 Must operate between -20°C to 60°C.

 Must withstand vibra on or dust.

Take an example applica on "GPS Moving Map". Create a requirement form

which well describes the requirements of this applica on, for its design.
Requirement Form for GPS Moving Map Applica on

1. Func onal Requirements:

Requirement ID Descrip on

FR-01 The system shall acquire real- me loca on data using GPS.

FR-02 The system shall display the current posi on on a digital map.

FR-03 The system shall update the map in real- me as the device moves.

FR-04 The system shall allow zoom-in and zoom-out of the map.

FR-05 The system shall show route and direc on to a selected des na on.

FR-06 The system shall save travel history (op onal).

2. Non-Func onal Requirements:

Requirement ID Descrip on

NFR-01 The system should update the user’s posi on on the map every 1 second.

NFR-02 The map must be smooth and scrollable without delay.

NFR-03 The device should consume low power and run on ba ery for at least 8 hours.

NFR-04 The system should start in less than 5 seconds a er power-on.

NFR-05 User interface should be simple and responsive.

3. Hardware Requirements:

Requirement ID Descrip on

HR-01 GPS module (e.g., u-blox NEO-6M) for loca on tracking.

HR-02 Microcontroller (e.g., ARM Cortex-M series) to control the system.

Requirement ID Descrip on

HR-03 TFT or LCD screen to display the map and UI.

HR-04 Ba ery and power management unit.

HR-05 SD card for storing map data (op onal).

4. So ware Requirements:

Requirement ID Descrip on

SR-01 Embedded firmware to communicate with GPS module using UART.

SR-02 So ware to render map based on GPS coordinates.

SR-03 Interface code for screen display and user input.

SR-04 Op onal: Route calcula on algorithm for naviga on.

5. Interface Requirements:

Requirement ID Descrip on

IR-01 UART interface between microcontroller and GPS module.

IR-02 SPI or parallel interface between microcontroller and screen.

IR-03 Push bu ons or touch interface for zoom and menu op ons.

IR-04 USB/Serial interface for firmware updates.

6. Environmental Requirements:

Requirement ID Descrip on

ER-01 The device must operate in outdoor environments (-10°C to 60°C).

ER-02 Must be portable and withstand minor vibra on and dust.

 Conclusion:

This requirement form defines all essen al aspects of the GPS Moving Map embedded
applica on, ensuring proper hardware-so ware integra on, performance, usability, and
reliability in real-world environments.

Explain the all steps of compila on techniques with appropriate examples.

Steps of Compila on Techniques (with Examples)

Compila on is the process of conver ng high-level programming language code (like C/C++)
into machine code (binary) that a computer or embedded system can execute.

The compila on process typically involves the following 5 main stages:

1. Lexical Analysis (Tokenizer or Scanner)

Purpose:
Converts the source code into a stream of tokens (smallest units like keywords, iden fiers,
operators, literals, etc.).

Example:
For the C code:

int a = 10;

Tokens will be:

 int → keyword

 a → iden fier

 = → assignment operator

 10 → constant

 ; → delimiter

2. Syntax Analysis (Parser)

Purpose:
Checks whether the sequence of tokens follows the grammar rules of the programming
language. It creates a Parse Tree or Syntax Tree.

Example:
For the same code:

int a = 10;

The parser checks if it matches the pa ern:

<data_type> <iden fier> = <value>;

If not, a syntax error is reported.

3. Seman c Analysis

Purpose:
Checks for seman c errors (meaningful correctness), such as type checking, undeclared
variables, etc.

Example:

int a = "Hello";

This is a seman c error because a string cannot be assigned to an integer.

4. Intermediate Code Genera on

Purpose:
Generates an intermediate code (IC) that is not specific to any hardware but can be easily
converted to machine code later.

Example (Three Address Code):

5. Code Op miza on

Purpose:
Improves the intermediate code for be er performance and efficiency (e.g., faster execu on,
less memory).

Example (Removing Redundancy):

 6. Code Genera on

Purpose:
Converts op mized intermediate code into target machine code (assembly or binary
instruc ons for a microcontroller or processor).

Example:
For a = b + c, the output in assembly (for a specific processor) might look like:

MOV R1, b

ADD R1, c

MOV a, R1

7. Linking and Loading (Post Compila on)

Purpose:
Links other necessary files (like libraries or header files) and loads the final executable into
memory.

Summary Table:

Step Name Purpose Output

1 Lexical Analysis Break code into tokens Token stream

2 Syntax Analysis Build parse tree using grammar Parse Tree

3 Seman c Analysis Check meaning/type errors Annotated Tree

4 Intermediate Code Gen Convert to intermediate format IC (e.g., 3AC)

5 Code Op miza on Improve performance Op mized IC

6 Code Genera on Create machine/assembly code Object Code

7 Linking & Loading Combine with libraries Executable File

Discuss the debugging techniques in short.
Debugging Techniques (Short Notes)

Debugging is the process of finding and fixing errors (bugs) in a so ware or embedded system
program.

1. Print Statement Debugging

 Most basic method.

 Insert print() or prin () statements in the code to display values of variables or the flow
of execu on.

 Helps in iden fying where the program goes wrong.

Example:

CopyEdit

prin ("Value of x: %d\n", x);

2. LED Indica on (Embedded Systems)

 Used in embedded systems without display.

 Toggle LEDs at key points to track code flow or detect faults.

Example:
Turn on LED1 a er sensor reading, LED2 a er processing.

3. Using a Debugger Tool

 Tools like GDB, Keil, MPLAB, or STM32CubeIDE.

 Allows step-by-step execu on (single-stepping), breakpoints, and variable inspec on.

Helps to:

 Pause code

 Watch variables
  Check memory and register values

4. Breakpoints

 A pause point set in the code using a debugger.

 Program stops at that line so you can inspect the state.

Used to detect where errors start happening.

5. Logic Analyzer / Oscilloscope

 For hardware-level debugging.

 Checks signal ming and communica on between components (like UART, I2C, SPI).

6. Simula on

 Run code in a simulated environment before loading onto real hardware.

 Catch errors like buffer overflows, logic faults early.

Tools: Proteus, Mul sim, MATLAB Simulink

7. Watch Window

 Shows real- me values of selected variables during debugging.

 Useful in IDEs like Keil or MPLAB.

8. Asser ons

 Use assert() statements to test condi ons during run me.

 If condi on fails, program stops and shows error.

Example:

assert(sensor_value > 0);

 Conclusion:

Debugging is essen al in embedded systems to ensure correct func onality. Choosing the right
technique depends on the system complexity and available tools.

Discuss the different types of code op miza on used for assembly code compila on.

Types of Code Op miza on in Assembly Code Compila on

Code Op miza on is the process of improving the efficiency of assembly or machine code
without changing its output or func onality.

It helps in:

 Reducing code size

 Increasing execu on speed

 Saving power (important for embedded systems)

1. Peephole Op miza on

 A small set of instruc ons (a "peephole") is examined and replaced with a more efficient
version.

Example:

MOV A, B

MOV B, A

Can be op mized to:

NOP ; (No Opera on) or Remove completely

2. Constant Folding

 Computes constant expressions during compila on instead of at run me.

Example:
x = 5 * 2;

Op mized to:

x = 10; // Compiler calculates at compile me

3. Dead Code Elimina on

 Removes code that never gets executed or whose result is never used.

Example:

int a = 5;

a = 10; // The value 5 is never used → can remove this line

4. Strength Reduc on

 Replaces costly opera ons (like mul plica on/division) with cheaper ones (like shi ).

Example:

MUL R1, 2

Can be op mized to:

SHL R1, 1 ; Shi le by 1 bit = mul ply by 2

5. Loop Op miza on

Makes loops faster since they execute many mes.

Types:

 Loop Unrolling: Expand loop body to reduce control overhead.

 Loop Invariant Code Mo on: Move code that doesn’t change in the loop outside the
loop.

Example:

for(i=0; i<10; i++) {

 a = 5; // loop invariant

Op mized to:

a = 5;

for(i=0; i<10; i++) {

// no need to assign a again

6. Register Alloca on

 Frequently used variables are stored in CPU registers instead of memory to reduce
access me.

7. Common Subexpression Elimina on

 Reuses the result of iden cal expressions computed mul ple mes.

Example:

x = (a + b) * c;

y = (a + b) * d;

Op mized to:

t = a + b;

x = t * c;

y = t * d;

Conclusion:

Op miza on Type Goal

Peephole Op miza on Local instruc on improvements

Op miza on Type Goal

Constant Folding Precompute constants

Dead Code Elimina on Remove unused code

Strength Reduc on Replace costly ops with simple

Loop Op miza on Improve loop execu on speed

Register Alloca on Reduce memory access

Common Subexpression Elim. Avoid redundant calcula ons

How do we interface memory chip with CPU? Also explain the mul chip
memory interfacing.
How Do We Interface a Memory Chip with CPU?

What is Memory Interfacing?

Memory interfacing means connec ng external memory chips (RAM/ROM) to a

CPU/microprocessor/microcontroller, so that the CPU can read/write data from/to the
memory.

Basic Steps for Memory Interfacing with CPU:

1. Address Bus

o Carries memory addresses from CPU to memory chip.

o CPU uses it to select a specific memory loca on.

2. Data Bus

o Carries data between CPU and memory.

o Bidirec onal in case of RAM, unidirec onal in case of ROM.

3. Control Signals

o RD (Read): To read data from memory

o WR (Write): To write data into memory

 o CS (Chip Select): To ac vate a specific memory chip

4. Address Decoding Circuit

o A decoder is used to generate Chip Select (CS) signals based on CPU address
lines.

o Ensures only the intended chip is ac ve at a me.

Example: Interface 4KB RAM to 8085 CPU

 4KB = 2¹² bytes → 12 address lines needed (A0–A11)

 Remaining higher address lines (A12–A15) are used for chip select logic

CPU Address Bus (A0 to A15)

A0–A11 → Connected to RAM address pins

A12–A15 → Used in decoder to generate CS signal

Mul chip Memory Interfacing

Why Use Mul chip Memory?

 To expand memory beyond the size of a single chip

 To combine RAM + ROM together in a system

Types of Mul chip Interfacing

1. Parallel (Address) Memory Interfacing

 Each chip is given a unique address range using address decoding.

 Only one chip is ac ve at a me.

Example:

 8KB ROM → address range: 0000H–1FFFH

 8KB RAM → address range: 2000H–3FFFH

  Decoder generates CS for each based on higher address lines.

2. Parallel (Data) Memory Interfacing

 When a memory chip is 8-bit, but CPU is 16-bit, two chips are used:

o One for lower byte (D0–D7)

o One for upper byte (D8–D15)

 Controlled using an extra signal like A0 or BHE (Bus High Enable).

Differen ate between I/O instruc ons and memory mapped instruc ons. Why
do most CPU architectures use memory-mapped I/O? Explain.
Difference between I/O Instruc ons and Memory-Mapped Instruc ons

Aspect I/O Mapped I/O (Isolated I/O) Memory-Mapped I/O

Uses special I/O instruc ons like Uses normal memory instruc ons like
Instruc on Set
IN, OUT MOV, LDA, STA

Has a separate address space for I/O devices are assigned memory
Address Space
I/O addresses

Address Lines Uses fewer address lines (e.g., 8-

Uses full address lines (e.g., 16-bit)
Used bit I/O address)

Only the accumulator (A register) Any general-purpose register can be

Data Transfer
can be used used

Memory Can access both memory and I/O with

Cannot access I/O devices
Instruc ons same instruc ons

Uses special control signals like Uses regular memory control signals
Control Signals
IO/M (RD, WR)

Flexibility Less flexible More flexible and uniform

Why Most CPU Architectures Use Memory-Mapped I/O?

Advantages of Memory-Mapped I/O:

 1. Uniform Addressing:

o Same instruc ons for accessing memory and I/O, reducing complexity in
programming.

2. Full Instruc on Set Usage:

o Can use all arithme c, logical, and data movement instruc ons on I/O devices.

3. More Registers:

o Allows access to I/O using any register, not just the accumulator.

4. Efficient Use of CPU Resources:

o The CPU doesn’t need separate instruc ons for I/O → simplifies CPU design.

5. Be er Performance:

o Code is faster because of fewer and more powerful instruc ons.

6. Wider Address Range:

o I/O devices can be assigned addresses within full addressable memory range
(e.g., 64K for 16-bit CPU).

Explain the priority inheritance protocol.

Priority Inheritance Protocol (PIP)

Defini on:

Priority Inheritance Protocol is a real- me opera ng system (RTOS) technique used to prevent
priority inversion when mul ple tasks share a resource (like a semaphore or a mutex).

What is Priority Inversion?

Priority inversion occurs when:

 A low-priority task holds a shared resource (e.g., a lock),

 And a high-priority task needs that resource to con nue,

 But the high-priority task gets blocked because the low-priority one is using it,
  While a medium-priority task, which doesn’t need the resource, keeps running.

This causes the high-priority task to wait longer than it should → viola ng real- me
constraints.

How Priority Inheritance Protocol Solves This:

When a high-priority task is blocked by a low-priority task, the low-priority task temporarily
inherits the high priority un l it releases the shared resource.

This ensures:

 The low-priority task completes faster,

 Releases the resource quickly,

 And allows the high-priority task to resume execu on.

Steps of PIP Working (Example):

1. Low-priority task (Task L) locks a resource.

2. High-priority task (Task H) wants the same resource → gets blocked.

3. The system raises the priority of Task L to match Task H.

4. Task L now preempts medium-priority tasks (if any), finishes its job, and releases the
resource.

5. Task H resumes execu on with the resource.

Key Points:

 Priority inheritance is temporary.

 Helps prevent unbounded blocking.

 Used in real- me embedded systems, automo ve systems, avionics, etc.

 Requires RTOS support.

Explain memory management in task control Block-model.
Memory Management in Task Control Block (TCB) Model

What is a Task Control Block (TCB)?

 A Task Control Block (TCB) is a data structure used by the opera ng system (OS) to keep
all the important informa on about a task (process/thread).

 It acts as a repository of task-specific informa on to manage and control the task

execu on.

Role of TCB in Memory Management

 TCB contains informa on about the memory resources allocated to the task.

 Helps OS manage task memory during context switches, task crea on, and termina on.

Memory Management Informa on Stored in TCB

Informa on Descrip on

Program Counter (PC) Points to the next instruc on of the task

Points to the task’s stack memory (used for func on calls, local
Stack Pointer (SP)
variables)

Data Segment Pointers Points to data areas allocated to the task

Heap Informa on Dynamic memory allocated to the task

Defines the address range (start & end) of memory assigned to the
Memory Limits/Bounds
task

Page Table or Segment Maps virtual addresses to physical memory (in systems with virtual
Table memory)

Memory Management Tasks in TCB Model

1. Memory Alloca on:

 o When a task is created, OS allocates memory for code, data, stack, and heap.

o TCB stores the pointers and size informa on.

2. Context Switching:

o During a task switch, OS saves the current task’s memory-related registers (like
SP, PC) in the TCB.

o Loads the next task’s memory pointers from its TCB.

3. Memory Protec on:

o Using memory limits or segmenta on info in TCB, OS prevents one task from
accessing another task’s memory.

4. Memory Dealloca on:

o When a task terminates, OS frees the allocated memory using info from the TCB.

Why is TCB Important for Memory Management?

 Centralized Storage: All memory info related to a task is stored in one place.

 Efficient Switching: Quick save and restore of memory context during mul tasking.

 Safety: Helps implement memory protec on and isola on between tasks.

 Flexibility: Supports both sta c and dynamic memory alloca on models.

Discuss the instruc on set available in ARM processor with example.

Instruc on Set in ARM Processor

Overview:

 ARM processors use a RISC (Reduced Instruc on Set Computer) architecture.

 The instruc on set is designed to be simple, uniform, and efficient.

 ARM instruc ons are mostly 32-bit fixed length (except for Thumb mode which uses 16-
bit instruc ons).

 Instruc ons are categorized into different types based on their func ons.
 Main Types of ARM Instruc ons:

Example
Instruc on Type Purpose Explana on
Instruc on

Arithme c and logic Adds contents of R2 and R3,

Data Processing ADD R1, R2, R3
opera ons result in R1

Access memory (load or Load data from memory

Load/Store LDR R0, [R1]
store data) address in R1 to R0

Change flow of execu on

Branch B label Branch to instruc on at label
(jumps)

Mul ply R5 and R6, store

Mul ply Mul plica on opera ons MUL R4, R5, R6
result in R4

Status Register Access or modify Move current program status

MRS R0, CPSR
Access condi on flags register to R0

So ware Interrupt Call OS services or Generate so ware interrupt

SWI 0x123
(SWI) excep on with code 0x123

Details and Examples:

1. Data Processing Instruc ons:

 Perform arithme c or logical opera ons.

 Support opera ons like ADD, SUB, AND, ORR, EOR, MOV, CMP (compare).

Example:

ADD R1, R2, R3 ; R1 = R2 + R3

SUB R4, R1, #5 ; R4 = R1 - 5 (immediate value)

AND R0, R0, R5 ; R0 = R0 AND R5

2. Load and Store Instruc ons:

 Load data from memory into a register or store from register to memory.
  LDR (Load Register), STR (Store Register).

Example:

LDR R0, [R1] ; Load data from address in R1 into R0

STR R2, [R3] ; Store value in R2 into address pointed by R3

3. Branch Instruc ons:

 Used for condi onal and uncondi onal jumps.

 B for uncondi onal branch, BL for branch with link (call subrou ne).

Example:

B LOOP ; Jump to label LOOP

BL SUBROUTINE ; Call subrou ne SUBROUTINE (store return address in LR)

4. Mul ply Instruc ons:

 Mul ply registers.

Example:

MUL R0, R1, R2 ; R0 = R1 * R2

5. Status Register Access Instruc ons:

 Move to/from program status registers (CPSR/SPSR) to check or change condi on flags.

Example:

MRS R0, CPSR ; Move CPSR contents to R0

MSR CPSR_c, R1 ; Move value in R1 to CPSR control bits

6. So ware Interrupt (SWI):

 Used to invoke OS func ons or excep ons.

Example:

SWI 0x0 ; Call OS service with code 0x0

Condi on Codes:

 ARM instruc ons can execute condi onally based on flags.

  Condi on codes like EQ (equal), NE (not equal), GT (greater than), etc.

 Example: ADDEQ R0, R1, R2 (add only if equal flag is set).

Discuss about the special features of SHARC processor as compared with ARM processor.

Special Features of SHARC Processor Compared to ARM Processor

Feature SHARC Processor ARM Processor

Processor Type Digital Signal Processor (DSP) General-purpose RISC processor

Op mized for high-performance signal Designed for general embedded

Primary
processing tasks like audio, video, applica ons including mobile,
Applica on
communica ons automo ve, IoT

Mostly 32-bit fixed-point integer

Supports 32-bit floa ng-point and fixed-
Data Types opera ons (some versions
point opera ons
support floa ng-point)

Complex, specialized instruc ons RISC instruc ons, op mized for

Instruc on Set op mized for DSP algorithms, including general-purpose compu ng, with
MAC (Mul ply-Accumulate) opera ons simpler and fewer instruc ons

Supports Very Long Instruc on Word Mostly single instruc on per

Parallelism (VLIW) architecture enabling mul ple cycle (superscalar versions
opera ons per cycle available in advanced ARM cores)

Uses mul -port memory for simultaneous Typically Harvard or modified

Memory
data and instruc on access (Harvard Harvard architecture, but with
Architecture
architecture) fewer simultaneous memory ports

Mul ple specialized execu on units for General ALU, mul plier, and
Execu on Units
MAC, shi ers, and address generators op onal floa ng-point unit

Pipelining op mized for general-

Deep pipelines designed for high
Pipelining purpose tasks, balancing power
throughput in DSP tasks
and speed
Feature SHARC Processor ARM Processor

Supports real- me, but general-

Real-Time Designed specifically for real- me digital
purpose RTOS needed for full real-
Capabili es signal processing
me capabili es

Power Generally higher due to complex DSP Op mized for low power, widely
Consump on opera ons and parallelism used in ba ery-operated devices

Examples of Audio processing, radar, medical imaging, Smartphones, embedded

Usage telecommunica ons controllers, automo ve systems

Wide ecosystem with compilers,

Development DSP-specific tools with signal processing
debuggers, and extensive
Tools libraries
so ware support

Cost and Typically more expensive and complex due Cost-effec ve and simpler for
Complexity to specialized DSP features general embedded development

Why do you require a limit on the minimum size of Ethernet frame?

Why is there a Minimum Size Limit on Ethernet Frame?

1. Purpose of Minimum Frame Size:

 The minimum Ethernet frame size is 64 bytes (including header and CRC).

 This minimum size ensures that the frame is long enough for the sender to detect
collisions on the network.

2. Reason Explained:

 Ethernet uses Carrier Sense Mul ple Access with Collision Detec on (CSMA/CD) to
manage data transmissions.

 When two devices send data at the same me, a collision occurs.

 The transmi ng device must detect this collision while it is s ll sending the frame.

 If the frame is too short, the transmission could finish before a collision is detected,
causing errors and data loss.
3. How Minimum Size Helps:

 Ensures the frame takes enough me to transmit on the wire so that a collision (if any)
can be detected before transmission ends.

 Helps maintain the reliability and integrity of the communica on.

What are the different types of cabling supported by Ethernet

standard?
Different Types of Cabling Supported by Ethernet Standard

Ethernet supports several types of physical cabling to connect devices in a network. The main
types are:

1. Coaxial Cable

 Used in: Early Ethernet (10BASE2, 10BASE5)

 Descrip on: Single copper conductor with insula on, shielding, and outer jacket.

 Examples:

o 10BASE5 (Thicknet): Thick coaxial cable, long distance (up to 500 meters).

o 10BASE2 (Thinnet): Thin coaxial cable, shorter distance (up to 185 meters).

 Status: Mostly obsolete today.

2. Twisted Pair Cable

 Most widely used cabling type in Ethernet networks today.

 Types:

o Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): Most common, economical, less protec on from
interference.

o Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): Contains shielding to reduce electromagne c

interference.

 Standards:
 o 10BASE-T: 10 Mbps over UTP (Cat3 or higher), max 100 meters.

o 100BASE-TX (Fast Ethernet): 100 Mbps over UTP (Cat5 or higher), max 100
meters.

o 1000BASE-T (Gigabit Ethernet): 1 Gbps over UTP (Cat5e or Cat6), max 100
meters.

o 10GBASE-T: 10 Gbps over UTP (Cat6a or Cat7), max 100 meters.

3. Fiber Op c Cable

 Used for: High-speed, long-distance communica on.

 Types:

o Single-mode fiber: For long distances (up to kilometers), uses laser light.

o Mul -mode fiber: For shorter distances (hundreds of meters), uses LED light.

 Ethernet standards using fiber:

o 100BASE-FX: 100 Mbps over mul -mode fiber.

o 1000BASE-SX/LX: 1 Gbps over mul -mode or single-mode fiber.

o 10GBASE-SR/LR: 10 Gbps short or long reach fiber.

 Advantages: Immune to electromagne c interference, supports very high speeds and

long distances.

Write short notes:

ARM Processor

SHARC Processor

Basic compila on techniques

Component interfacing

1. ARM Processor
 ARM (Advanced RISC Machine) is a widely used 32-bit RISC (Reduced Instruc on Set
Computer) processor architecture.
  Known for its low power consump on and high performance, making it popular in
embedded systems like smartphones, tablets, and IoT devices.

 Features a simple and efficient instruc on set, pipelining, and support for Thumb (16-
bit) instruc ons to improve code density.

 Supports various modes (user, supervisor) and has features like interrupts, memory
protec on, and DSP extensions.

 ARM cores are licensed to many manufacturers and come in different versions (Cortex-
M, Cortex-A, etc.) tailored for specific applica ons.

2. SHARC Processor
 SHARC (Super Harvard Architecture Single-Chip Computer) is a high-performance DSP
(Digital Signal Processor).

 Op mized for real- me signal processing tasks such as audio, video, and
telecommunica ons.

 Supports 32-bit floa ng-point opera ons and has mul ple execu on units for parallel
processing.

 Uses Very Long Instruc on Word (VLIW) architecture allowing mul ple instruc ons per
cycle.

 Features a Harvard memory architecture with mul -port memory for simultaneous data
and instruc on access.

 Compared to ARM, SHARC is specialized for computa onally intensive DSP applica ons.

3. Basic Compila on Techniques

 Compila on translates high-level source code into machine code.

 Key steps include:

o Lexical Analysis: Converts code into tokens.

o Syntax Analysis (Parsing): Checks syntax and generates a parse tree.

o Seman c Analysis: Ensures seman c correctness and type checking.

o Intermediate Code Genera on: Creates a pla orm-independent code.

 o Op miza on: Improves code efficiency.

o Code Genera on: Converts intermediate code to target machine code.

o Code Linking and Loading: Combines modules and prepares code for execu on.

4. Component Interfacing
 Refers to connec ng different hardware components (CPU, memory, I/O devices) so
they can communicate.

 Key techniques:

o Memory Interfacing: Connec ng memory chips to CPU via address and data
buses.

o I/O Interfacing: Using I/O ports, memory-mapped I/O, or dedicated I/O

instruc ons.

o Bus Interfacing: Sharing data/address lines among mul ple devices using control
signals.

o Interrupts: Allow devices to signal CPU asynchronously.

 Proper interfacing ensures data transfer is correct, mely, and efficient.