Also, the communication capability of these devices facilitates remote

control, monitoring and data transfer. Traditionally, electromechanical and

static protection relays offered single-function, single characteristics,
whereas modern numeric protection offers multi-function and multiple
characteristics. Some protections also offer adaptable characteristics,
which dynamically change the protection characteristic under different
system conditions by monitoring the input parameters.
The measuring principles and techniques of conventional relays
(electromechanical and static) are fewer than those of the numerical
technique, which can differ in many aspects like the type of protection
algorithm used, sampling, signal processing, hardware selection, software
discipline, etc.

First generation numerical relays were mainly designed to meet the static
relay protection characteristic, whereas modern numeric protection devices
are capable of providing complete protection with added functions like
control and monitoring. Numerical protection devices offer several
advantages in terms of protection, reliability, and trouble shooting and fault
information. Numerical protection devices are available for generation,
transmission and distribution systems.
The following sections cover relay hardware, relay software, multiple
protection characteristics, adaptive protection characteristics, data storage,
instrumentation feature, self-check feature, communication capability,
additional functions, size and cost-effectiveness.

Table of Contents:
1. Relay Hardware
2. Relay Software
3. Multiple Protection Characteristics
4. Adaptive Protection Characteristics
5. Data Storage
6. Instrumentation
7. Self-check Relay Feature
8. Relay Communication
9. Additional Functionality of Numerical Relays
10. Size of Numerical Relays
11. Cost of Numerical Relays
12. HV and Environment Testing
13. Let’s Make the Conclusion
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1. Relay Hardware
Numerical relays use a specialised digital signal processor (DSP) as the
computational hardware, along with associated software tools. The relaying
voltage and currents are passed through an isolation transformer. The
voltage inputs of the relay are scaled down from the nominal voltage to a low
level determined by the ADC (analogue-to-digital converter) input range.
The current inputs to the relay are scaled down from nominal 5/1 A and
are converted into equivalent voltages. These scaled signals are filtered by
using a low-pass filter to prevent a liasing of the high-frequency components
into the fundamental frequency component. The filtered signals are
multiplexed using an analogue multiplexer and amplified, if needed, by using
a programmable gain amplifier. The multiplexed analogue signal is sampled
and converted into digital data using the ADC.
The more complex relay uses multi-processor architecture wherein the digital
signal processor executes complex algorithm calculations and the host
processor performs all the other tasks.

F
igure 1 – Block diagram of numerical relay
Communication between the processors is provided by the dual-ported
memory. Flash memory is used for storing the programme and RAM (random
access memory) is used for temporary storage of variables, target
information and oscillography. Contact inputs and outputs, user inter-face
(keyboard and liquid crystal display) and the serial communication ports (RS-
232 and RS-485) are interfaced to the host processor.

The digital signal processor executes a variety of signal processing

algorithms to estimate several parameters of the digitized voltage and
current signals, and transfers them to dual-ported memory. The host
processor receives these parameters from the dual-ported memory and per-
forms relay logic and other timing functions to generate appropriate trip or
alarm output signals.
The host processor, running under a multi-tasking operating system, also
performs several other tasks including communications, set-point updates,
target updates and user interface.

Providing back-up for critical components enhances the reliability of the

relay. Certain digital multi-function relays use redundant power supplies.
Both power supplies are continuously running in a hot stand-by configuration
and if one supply fails, the other continues to provide the required
uninterrupted power to the relay. The relay sends an alarm indication about
the power supply failure to alert maintenance personnel.
The analogue signal inputs (voltage and current), contact status inputs and
communication circuits are conditioned and protected to withstand the harsh
electrical and environmental conditions of the sub-station and power plant.
The design of the relay input, output and power supply circuits must
incorporate filtering to reduce EMI (electromagnetic interference) .
The primary method of reducing unwanted induced AC voltage is to bypass
these voltages to ground with capacitors. Other components such as
varistors, chokes and ferrite beads, are also applied to suppress surge
voltages and EMI.

2. Relay Software
The software provided in a numerical relay is commonly organized in a
series of tasks operating in real time. The main component is the real time
operating system (RTOS) whose function is to ensure that other tasks are
executed as and when required on a priority basis. The software provided
will vary on the basis of the following relay-specific functions.

1. System services software – This controls the low level I0 for the relay
(i.e. drivers for the relay hardware, boot-up sequence, etc.).
2. HMI interface software – This is a high level software for communication
with the user via front panel controls that are connected through a data
link to another computer running suitable software, storage and setting
data.
3. Application software – This is a software that defines the protection
function of the relay.
4. Auxiliary function – This software implements other features offered in
the relay. The reliability of software in the digital relay is critical to the
 overall reliability of the product. The majority of software problems in
digital relays can be attributed to design and implementation errors.
Careful planning and designing before coding result in a more reliable
product. A software quality assurance plan must be carried out throughout
the product development programme. Test plans, documentation, detailed
software validation and audit programmes can greatly reduce software
errors. Software verification and testing of multi-function relays provide
greater reliability.
Following are some of the key tests to be conducted at various design
phases of digital multi-function relays:

1. Relay algorithm simulation testing

2. Static functional testing
3. Dynamic functional testing
4. Environmental and hardware-related tests
5. Site installation and testing
Recommended reading: Commissioning of protection relays using test
equipment and software

3. Multiple Protection
Characteristics
In simple Inverse definite minimum time lag (IDMTL) overcurrent and earth
fault relays, multiple characteristics like NI, VI, El, LTI and DTL
characteristics are available in relay and the required characteristics can be
selected at site.

4. Adaptive Protection
Characteristics
Numerical relays can adapt themselves to different system conditions by
monitoring the operat-ing quantities from the digital inputs of the relay. Some
examples of these adaptions are:

Adaption #1 – In motor protection relay, different settings can be adapted for

the starting condition and running condition. Overcurrent protection, earth
fault protection, unbalance protection and stall protection cannot be set at a
very sensitive level during start-up because the starting current will influence
these settings.
However, sensitive settings can be adapted for these protections during the
running conditions of the motor. The relay switchover from one group setting
to the other during the running condition.
Adaption #2 – In transformer protection relay, the third slope is called the
bias slope limit, which is used to afford greater stability and this can be
achieved by monitoring the through fault current. Once the through fault
current is above the set value, the relay bias automatically increases to
facilitate greater stability for through fault condition.

Adaption #3 – In distance relays, for different system configurations like

parallel feeder in, and parallel out and grounded, different settings can be
adapted for this condition.
Adaption #4 – In IDMTL relays, depending upon the system condition like the
number of incomers and outgoing feeders, different settings can be selected
and better protection can be achieved.

Figure 2 –
There are various types of function groups depending on the device type:
Protection function groups and Switching function groups. Protection function
groups combine functions that are assigned to a protected object, that is, to
the line. Depending on the type and nature of the protected object, there are
different types of protection function groups (line, feeder, transformer, motor
etc.).

5. Data Storage
In numerical relay data storage is done in three formats, i.e. fault record,
event record and waveform record. Fault record gives the complete
information about the fault, i.e. fault current magnitude, type of fault, fault
phase details, etc. with time stamping. Also in motor protection relays,
additional information pertaining to positive sequence, negative sequence,
equivalent current and difference current (between phases) is available.
Similarly in distance relays fault location is also possible. The fault record
gives all information about the fault to the operating personnel. Event record
stores inside the relay all the changes taking place in the system like
protection element, pick-up, and drop-off operation, output and input
energization and setting change, etc.

Figure 3 –
Event and Fault records in SIPROTEC protection relays
All the events are time-stamped. Waveform record stores the analogue and
digital channel values during the relay operation or on demand. This record
gives the nature of fault waveforms (transient) and instantaneous values, etc.

It is also possible to calculate the relay operating time and breaker operating
time.

These records can also be converted into the ‘comtrade’ format, with which
data can be played back into the relay using the digital test system. The
records can also be manually triggered and viewed to verify the phase
relationship during commissioning. These records can also be fed to the
harmonic analyzer software to find out the harmonic content in the fault
quantities.
Figure 4 – An Oscillographic Fault Record showing Pre-trigger and Post-fault
recording times

6. Instrumentation
Numerical relays are provided with a metering function and separate panel
mounted meters can be eliminated. Some relays can also give the energy
meter function.

The relay provides metering facility, where the operating personnel can view
online different parameters and these metering features can be used as a
valuable tool during the commissioning period when primary injection is
carried out. This is perhaps the most obvious and simplest function to
implement, as it involves the least additional processor time.
The values that the relay must measure to perform its protection function
have already been acquired and processed. It is therefore a simple task to
display them on the front panel, and/or transmit them as required to a
remote computer/HMI station.
A number of extra quantities can be derived from the measured quantities,
depending upon the input signals available. These may include:

1. Sequence quantities (positive, negative, zero)

2. Power, reactive power and power factor
3. Energy (kWh, kvarh)
4. Maximum demand in a period (kW, kvar; average and peak values)
5. Harmonic quantities
6. Frequency
7. Temperatures /RTD status
8. Motor start information (start time, total number of starts/re-accelerations,
total running time)
9. Distance to fault
The accuracy of the measured values can only be as good as the accuracy
of the transducers used (VTs, CTs, A/D converter, etc.). As CTs and VTs
used for protection functions may have a different accuracy specification
than those used for metering functions, such data cannot be sufficiently
accurate for tariff purposes.

However, it is sufficiently accurate for an operator to assess the system

conditions and take appropriate decisions.

In motor protection relay, the instrumentation mode can also display motor
status, time to trip (during abnormal condition), time to start (if the protection
is locked out), the last starting time, last starting current, positive, negative,
difference current values, etc.

7. Self-check Feature
Self-diagnostics is one of the most important features of numerical
relays; it was not available in either electromechanical or static relay design.
The ability to detect and correct a failure before the protection system has to
operate is in contrast to the traditional protection system wherein a relay
failure remains undetected until it fails to operate correctly during an event or
until the next maintenance test
The most important self-diagnostic functions implemented in digital multi-
function relays are detailed below.

7.1 Data Acquisition System Testing

Power supply voltages and ground are connected to the analogue input
channels of the multiplexer and checked against warning and failure
thresholds. This also verifies the analogue data acquisition system including
multiplexer, programmable gain amplifier and ADC. The ADC’s conversion
time is also checked to see if it is within the specification.
7.2 Memory Testing
The flash ROM contents are checked by calculating the check-sum and
comparing it with the pre-computed and stored check-sum. The check-sum is
calculated as the modul-256 sum of all the bytes. The RAM is tested by
writing and reading a test pattern.

7.3 Set-point Testing

Set-points are stored in the serial EEPROM and a copy of these set-points is
also stored in the RAM for executing relay logic. Whenever any set-point is
changed, the check-sum of the set-points is calculated from the contents of
the EEPROM. This check-sum is then compared with the calculated check-
sum of the set-points stored in the RAM every time a set-point task is
executed.

7.4 Watchdog Timer

The relay hardware design includes a watchdog timer re-set circuit to take
the processor through an orderly re-set should the programme get lost due to
hardware/software glitches.

The relay hardware and software are continuously monitored by the relay
itself and if any abnormality is detected, the relay shuts down safely and
indicates the nature of failure. Operating personnel can immediately take
corrective action, if the relay fails in service.
Interesting reading: Fault event reconstruction using data pulled from
intelligent electronic devices (IEDs)

8. Communication
Communication makes the relay more intelligent and the operating personnel
can set the relay and also download the fault information. It is also
possible to upload the revised software to the relay at site without sending
the relay back to the manufacturer.
Thus improvements in numerical relays can be upgraded at site without
despatching the relay to the manufacturer which reduces the relay downtime.

Figure 5 – Self-
monitoring system
Numerical relays carry out the processing of input quantities using a digital
technique. The processed data can be accessed through the relay
communication port. Although a separate high-end communication system is
available today for numerical relay data communication and control, a simple
communication system is also possible for remote control and monitoring
using telephone line as a communication medium.

IEC 61850
In a nutshell, in the conventional protection schemes, all primary equipment
such as circuit breakers, CT/VTs and power transformers are connected to
the secondary system using the hardwires. There is normally a single
function in the old relays so that lots of equipment are used to protect,
control and monitor a substation bay.
On the other hand, in the modern protection schemes, smart protection
relays support more functions in one piece of device. This is the result of the
huge development of computer technologies that are used in power system
protection. So a single intelligent device can support different functions such
as protection, control, metering and fault recording.
Nowadays all protection relay manufacturers are trying to comply with
different parts of IEC 61850 standard. 61850-compatible relays replace
most of the hard wires with a few network cables and improve the system
performance at the same time. By taking advantage of the latest electronics,
communication and computer technologies, 61850-compatible devices
enable the end-users to design, build and maintain substations in a
convenient way.
IEC 61850 based solutions are now supporting a full interoperability between
intelligent electronic devices (IED) from different manufactures. Utilities are
now demanding IEC 61850 capabilities available in any substation related
hardware or software.

9. Additional Functionality
Modern numerical relays have other additional functions like:

1. Circuit breaker fail

2. Loss of load, conductor broken
3. Trip circuit supervision
4. Circuit breaker conditions monitoring including programmable digital
output and inputs for various logic build generally for blocking
5. Auxiliary relays like Buchholz relay alarm/trip, and winding temperature
alarm/trip contacts, which can be connected to relay as logic input and
details of relay operation can be seen in the event log sheet.
6. The relay user can also make custom built logic by using internal
elements and inputs, i.e. VT/CT supervision.
Recommended reading: Mastering switchgear control circuits – AC/DC
circuits and circuit breaker closing circuit

10. Size of Numerical Relays

The size of the numerical relays is much less as compared to that of
electromechanical and static relays due to the multi-functionality approach of
the former. For example, we have the following protections in numerical
relays in-built into one relay.

Motor Protection Features Available:

1. Thermal protection
2. Unbalance protection
3. Undercurrent protection
4. Overcurrent and earth fault protection, and temperature protection
5. Number of starts
6. Hour run meter
7. Ammeter
All these functions can be built into one relay, which will be very compact in
size and also reduced weight.

11. Cost of Numerical Relays

Modern numerical protection devices have multiple protection elements and
this technique makes the cost of the relay comparable with that of
electromechanical and static relays (discrete). The cost of the
microprocessor and digital hardware is falling day by day and the end-user
can get a cost benefit in numerical relays in terms of greater functionality at a
reduced price.
The following cost reduction benefit the consumer:
1. The number of protective relays and auxiliary relays are reduced.
2. CT and PT of lower VA burden are sufficient. Thus the cost of CT and PT
is reduced.
3. The panel space required is very less. Thus the size of instrument panels
is reduced, thereby resulting in further cost reduction.
4. The wiring of relay is much less as compared to electromechanical
relays/static relays. This adds to savings in wiring material and labour.
Figure 6 – Front panel of EASERGY protection relay

12. HV and Environment Testing

Numerical relays are tested as per IEC 255-5 for dielectric, impulse
voltage and insulation resistance. It should be suitable for 2 kV dielectric
voltage, 5 kV impulse voltage and insulation resistance > than 1000 M-ohms.

12.1 Electrical Environment

Relay is tested for high frequency disturbance, fast transient, electrostatic
discharge, radio frequency and impulse as per IEC 1000-4 and ANSI 37.90.
12.2 Atmospheric Environment
A relay is generally suitable for temperature as per IEC 255-6 for storage at
-25°C to +70°C, and for operation at -25°C to +55°C. A relay is generally
suitable for humidity as per IEC 68-2-3, for enclosure protection IP 52 as per
IEC 529, for siesmic, shocks and bumps as per IEC 255-21 for Class 1 and
for Class for vibration test as per IEC 255-21.
Recommended reading: Testing protection IEDs in IEC 61850 based
substation automation systems

13. Let’s Make the Conclusion

Modern numerical protection devices offer innumerable features as
compared to static and electromechanical protection system. These are
given below.

 Protection is enhanced due to their complex, multiple protection

characteristic.
 Self-check feature improves the protection system reliability.
 Communication capability makes the numerical protection system more
intelligent and pro-vides valuable information to the user.
Hence for complex, reliable, multi-functional requirement numerical relays
shall be used.