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Other documents randomly have
different content
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Experimental
Mechanics
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
you are located before using this eBook.

Title: Experimental Mechanics

Author: Robert S. Ball

Release date: April 1, 2020 [eBook #61732]

Most recently updated: October 17, 2024

Language: English

Credits: Produced by deaurider, Paul Marshall and the Online

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EXPERIMENTAL

MECHANICS ***
EXPERIMENTAL MECHANICS

THE PATH OF A PROJECTILE IS A PARABOLA.

EXPERIMENTAL MECHANICS

A COURSE OF LECTURES
DELIVERED AT THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE
FOR IRELAND

BY
SIR ROBERT STAWELL BALL, LL.D., F.R.S.
ASTRONOMER ROYAL OF IRELAND

FORMERLY PROFESSOR OF APPLIED MATHEMATICS AND

MECHANISM IN THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE
FOR IRELAND (SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT)

WITH ILLUSTRATIONS

SECOND EDITION

London
MACMILLAN AND CO.
AND NEW YORK
1888.

The Right of Translation and Reproduction is reserved

Richard Clay and Sons, Limited,

LONDON AND BUNGAY.

The First Edition was printed in 1871.

 PREFACE.
I here present the revised edition of a course of lectures on
Experimental Mechanics which I delivered in the Royal College of
Science at Dublin eighteen years ago. The audience was a large
evening class consisting chiefly of artisans.
The teacher of Elementary Mechanics, whether he be in a Board
School, a Technical School, a Public School, a Science College, or a
University, frequently desires to enforce his lessons by exhibiting
working apparatus to his pupils, and by making careful
measurements in their presence.
He wants for this purpose apparatus of substantial proportions
visible from every part of his lecture room. He wants to have it of
such a universal character that he can produce from it day after day
combinations of an ever-varying type. He wishes it to be composed
of well-designed and well-made parts that shall be strong and
durable, and that will not easily get out of order. He wishes those
parts to be such that even persons not specially trained in manual
skill shall presently learn how to combine them with good effect.
Lastly, he desires to economize his money in the matters of varnish,
mahogany, and glass cases.
I found that I was able to satisfy all these requirements by a
suitable adaptation of the very ingenious system of mechanical
apparatus devised by the late Professor Willis of Cambridge. The
elements of the system I have briefly described in an Appendix, and
what adaptations I have made of it are shown in almost every page
and every figure of the book.
In revising the present edition I have been aided by my friends
Mr. G. L. Cathcart, the Rev. M. H. Close, and Mr. E. P. Culverwell.

Robert S. Ball.
Observatory, Co. Dublin,
3rd August, 1888.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS.
LECTURE I.
THE COMPOSITION OF FORCES. PAGE

Introduction.—The Definition of Force.—The

Measurement of Force.—Equilibrium of
Two Forces.—Equilibrium of Three
Forces.—A Small Force can sometimes
balance Two Larger Forces
1

LECTURE II.
THE RESOLUTION OF FORCES.
Introduction.—One Force resolved into Two
Forces.—Experimental Illustrations.—
Sailing.—One Force resolved into Three
Forces not in the same Plane.—The Jib
and Tie-rod
16

LECTURE III.
PARALLEL FORCES.
Introduction.—Pressure of a Loaded Beam
on its Supports.—Equilibrium of a Bar
supported on a Knife-edge.—The
Composition of Parallel Forces.—Parallel
Forces acting in opposite directions.—The
Couple.—The Weighing Scales 34

LECTURE IV.
THE FORCE OF GRAVITY.
Introduction.—Specific Gravity.—The
Plummet and Spirit-Level.—The Centre of
Gravity.—Stable and Unstable
Equilibrium.—Property of the Centre of
Gravity in a Revolving Wheel
50

LECTURE V.
THE FORCE OF FRICTION.
The Nature of Friction.—The Mode of
Experimenting.—Friction is proportional
to the pressure.—A more accurate form
of the Law.—The Coefficient varies with
the weights used.—The Angle of Friction.
—Another Law of Friction.—Concluding
Remarks 65

LECTURE VI.
THE PULLEY.
Introduction.—Friction between a Rope and
an Iron Bar.—The Use of the Pulley.—
Large and Small Pulleys.—The Law of
Friction in the Pulley.—Wheels.—Energy 85

LECTURE VII.
THE PULLEY-BLOCK.
Introduction.—The Single Movable Pulley.—
The Three-sheave Pulley-block.—The
Differential Pulley-block.—The
Epicycloidal Pulley-block 99

LECTURE VIII.
THE LEVER.
The Lever of the First Order.—The Lever of
the Second Order.—The Shears.—The
Lever of the Third Order 119

LECTURE IX.
THE INCLINED PLANE AND THE SCREW.
The Inclined Plane without Friction.—The
Inclined Plane with Friction.—The Screw.
—The Screw-jack.—The Bolt and Nut
131

LECTURE X.
THE WHEEL AND AXLE.
Introduction.—Experiments upon the Wheel
and Axle.—Friction upon the Axle.—The
Wheel and Barrel.—The Wheel and
Pinion.—The Crane.—Conclusion 149

LECTURE XI.
THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF TIMBER.
Introduction.—The General Properties of
Timber.—Resistance to Extension.—
Resistance to Compression.—Condition of
a Beam strained by a Transverse Force
169

LECTURE XII.
THE STRENGTH OF A BEAM.
A Beam free at the Ends and loaded in the
Middle.—A Beam uniformly loaded.—A
Beam loaded in the Middle, whose Ends
are secured.—A Beam supported at one
end and loaded at the other 188
 LECTURE XIII.
THE PRINCIPLES OF FRAMEWORK.
Introduction.—Weight sustained by Tie and
Strut.—Bridge with Two Struts.—Bridge
with Four Struts.—Bridge with Two Ties.
—Simple Form of Trussed Bridge 203

LECTURE XIV.
THE MECHANICS OF A BRIDGE.
Introduction.—The Girder.—The Tubular
Bridge.—The Suspension Bridge
218

LECTURE XV.
THE MOTION OF A FALLING BODY.
Introduction.—The First Law of Motion.—The
Experiment of Galileo from the Tower of
Pisa.—The Space is proportional to the
Square of the Time.—A Body falls 16' in
the First Second.—The Action of Gravity
is independent of the Motion of the Body.
—How the Force of Gravity is defined.—
The Path of a Projectile is a Parabola 230

LECTURE XVI.
INERTIA.
Inertia.—The Hammer.—The Storing of
Energy.—The Fly-wheel.—The Punching
Machine
250

LECTURE XVII.
CIRCULAR MOTION.
 The Nature of Circular Motion.—Circular
motion in Liquids.—The Applications of
Circular Motion.—The Permanent Axes
267

LECTURE XVIII.
THE SIMPLE PENDULUM.
Introduction.—The Circular Pendulum.—Law
connecting the Time of Vibration with the
Length.—The Force of Gravity determined
by the Pendulum.—The Cycloid 284

LECTURE XIX.
THE COMPOUND PENDULUM AND THE
COMPOSITION OF VIBRATIONS.
The Compound Pendulum.—The Centre of
Oscillation.—The Centre of Percussion.—
The Conical Pendulum.—The Composition
of Vibrations 299

LECTURE XX.
THE MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES OF A CLOCK.
Introduction.—The Compensating Pendulum.
—The Escapement.—The Train of Wheels.
—The Hands.—The Striking Parts 318

APPENDIX I.
The Method of Graphical Construction 339
The Method of Least Squares 342

APPENDIX II.
Details of the Willis Apparatus used in illustrating
345
the foregoing lectures
 Index 355

EXPERIMENTAL MECHANICS.
 LECTURE I.
THE COMPOSITION OF FORCES.

Introduction.—The Definition of Force.—The

Measurement of Force.—Equilibrium of
Two Forces.—Equilibrium of Three Forces.
—A Small Force can sometimes balance
Two Larger Forces.

INTRODUCTION.
1. I shall endeavour in this course of lectures to illustrate the
elementary laws of mechanics by means of experiments. In order to
understand the subject treated in this manner, you need not possess
any mathematical knowledge beyond an acquaintance with the
rudiments of algebra and with a few geometrical terms and
principles. But even to those who, having an acquaintance with
mathematics, have by its means acquired a knowledge of
mechanics, experimental illustrations may still be useful. By actually
seeing the truth of results with which you are theoretically familiar,
clearer conceptions may be produced, and perhaps new lines of
thought opened up. Besides, many of the mechanical principles
which lie rather beyond the scope of elementary works on the
subject are very susceptible of being treated experimentally; and to
the consideration of these some of the lectures of this course will be
devoted.
Many of our illustrations will be designedly drawn from very
commonplace sources: by this means I would try to impress upon
you that mechanics is not a science that exists in books merely, but
that it is a study of those principles which are constantly in action
about us. Our own bodies, our houses, our vehicles, all the
implements and tools which are in daily use—in fact all objects,
natural and artificial, contain illustrations of mechanical principles.
You should acquire the habit of carefully studying the various
mechanical contrivances which may chance to come before your
notice. Examine the action of a crane raising weights, of a canal boat
descending through a lock. Notice the way a roof is made, or how it
is that a bridge can sustain its load. Even a well-constructed farm-
gate, with its posts and hinges, will give you admirable illustrations
of the mechanical principles of framework. Take some opportunity of
examining the parts of a clock, of a sewing-machine, and of a lock
and key; visit a saw-mill, and ascertain the action of all the machines
you see there; try to familiarize yourself with the principles of the
tools which are to be found in any workshop. A vast deal of
interesting and useful knowledge is to be acquired in this way.

THE DEFINITION OF FORCE.

2. It is necessary to know the answer to this question, What is a
force? People who have not studied mechanics occasionally reply, A
push is a force, a steam-engine is a force, a horse pulling a cart is a
force, gravitation is a force, a movement is a force, &c., &c. The true
definition of force is that which tends to produce or to destroy
motion. You may probably not fully understand this until some
further explanations and illustrations shall have been given; but, at
all events, put any other notion of force out of your mind. Whenever
I use the word Force, do you think of the words “something which
tends to produce or to destroy motion,” and I trust before the close
of the lecture you will understand how admirably the definition
conveys what force really is.
3. When a string is attached to this small weight, I can, by
pulling the string, move the weight along the table. In this case,
there is something transmitted from my hand along the string to the
weight in consequence of which the weight moves: that something
is a force. I can also move the weight by pushing it with a stick,
because force is transmitted along the stick, and makes itself known
by producing motion. The archer who has bent his bow and holds
the arrow between his finger and thumb feels the string pulling until
the impatient arrow darts off. Here motion has been produced by the
force of elasticity in the bent bow. Before he released the arrow
there was no motion, yet still the bow was exerting force and
tending to produce motion. Hence in defining force we must say
“that which tends to produce motion,” whether motion shall actually
result or not.
4. But forces may also be recognized by their capability or
tendency to prevent or to destroy motion. Before I release the arrow
I am conscious of exerting a force upon it in order to counteract the
pull of the string. Here my force is merely manifested by destroying
the motion that, if it were absent, the bow would produce. So when
I hold a weight in my hand, the force exerted by my hand destroys
the motion that the weight would acquire were I to let it fall; and if a
weight greater than I could support were placed in my hand, my
efforts to sustain it would still be properly called force, because they
tended to destroy motion, though unsuccessfully. We see by these
simple cases that a force may be recognized either by producing
motion or by trying to produce it, by destroying motion or by tending
to destroy it; and hence the propriety of the definition of force must
be admitted.

THE MEASUREMENT OF FORCE.

5. As forces differ in magnitude, it becomes necessary to
establish some convenient means of expressing their measurements.
The pressure exerted by one pound weight at London is the
standard with which we shall compare other forces. The piece of iron
or other substance which is attracted to the earth with this force in
London, is attracted to the earth with a greater force at the pole and
a less force at the equator; hence, in order to define the standard
force, we have to mention the locality in which the pressure of the
weight is exerted.
 It is easy to conceive how the magnitude of a pushing or a
pulling force may be described as equivalent to so many pounds.
The force which the muscles of a man’s arm can exert is measured
by the weight which he can lift. If a weight be suspended from an
india-rubber spring, it is evident the spring will stretch so that the
weight pulls the spring and the spring pulls the weight; hence the
number of pounds in the weight is the measure of the force the
spring is exerting. In every case the magnitude of a force can be
described by the number of pounds expressing the weight to which
it is equivalent. There is another but much more difficult mode of
measuring force occasionally used in the higher branches of
mechanics (Art. 497), but the simpler method is preferable for our
present purpose.
6. The straight line in which a force tends
to move the body to which it is applied is
called the direction of the force. Let us
suppose, for example, that a force of 3 lbs. is
applied at the point a, Fig. 1, tending to Fig. 1.
make a move in the direction ab. A standard
line c of certain length is to be taken. It is supposed that a line of
this length represents a force of 1 lb. The line ab is to be measured,
equal to three times c in length, and an arrow-head is to be placed
upon it to show the direction in which the force acts. Hence, by
means of a line of certain length and direction, and having an arrow-
head attached, we are able completely to represent a force.

EQUILIBRIUM OF TWO FORCES.

 Fig. 2.
7. In Fig. 2 we have represented two equal weights to which
strings are attached; these strings, after passing over pulleys, are
fastened by a knot c. The knot is pulled by equal and opposite
forces. I mark off parts cd, ce, to indicate the forces; and since there
is no reason why c should move to one side more than the other, it
remains at rest. Hence, we learn that two equal and directly
opposed forces counteract each other, and each may be regarded as
destroying the motion which the other is striving to produce. If I
make the weights unequal by adding to one of them, the knot is no
longer at rest; it instantly begins to move in the direction of the
larger force.
8. When two equal and opposite forces act at a point, they are
said to be in equilibrium. More generally this word is used with
reference to any set of forces which counteract each other. When a
force acts upon a body, at least one more force must be present in
order that the body should remain at rest. If two forces acting on a
point be not opposite, they will not be in equilibrium; this is easily
shown by pulling the knot c in Fig. 2 downwards. When released, it
flies back again. This proves that if two forces be in equilibrium their
directions must be opposite, for otherwise they will produce motion.
We have already seen that the two forces must be equal.
A book lying on the table is at rest. This book is acted upon by
two forces which, being equal and opposite, destroy each other. One
of these forces is the gravitation of the earth, which tends to draw
the book downwards, and which would, in fact, make the book fall if
it were not sustained by an opposite force. The pressure of the book
on the table is often called the action, while the resistance offered
by the table is the force of reaction. We here see an illustration of an
important principle in nature, which says that action and reaction are
equal and opposite.

EQUILIBRIUM OF THREE FORCES.