AULA 5

APPLIED LINGUISTICS AND

SECOND LANGUAGE
ACQUISITION

Profª Maria Rute Leal

INITIAL TALK

The Online Collins English Dictionary (2018) defines teaching as “the work
a teacher does in helping students to learn”. Though this is a very simple
definition, it is in fact what teachers do on a daily basis: they work to help
students to learn. The definitions for the verb to teach and the noun teacher in
other dictionaries do not vary much. The idea that teachers instruct or train
students or that they give knowledge are also common when you look up words
related to teaching.
Though the definition may be simple, what teachers do and how they
become able to do their job are very complex tasks. In this lesson, we will study
different areas involving teacher education, training and development focusing on
how research can help us reflect upon our teaching to look for the best practices
to foster learning. Teachers and program administrators can all contribute to the
enhancement of language programs when teacher development is one of the
priorities in the educational context.

CONTEXTUALIZING

What are the fundamental knowledge and skills teachers must have? Is
good teaching a gift or the result of study, reflection, practice and experience?
Teaching is a universe full of possibilities. Learning how to be a teacher may
have started long before one chose this profession. An important part of what we
know about being a teacher is related to our individual experience as learners.
Whether we consciously observed our teachers or we were just there and were
taught in different ways, our knowledge about teaching partially comes from this
experience. According to Tardiff (1999, p.20), “part of what teachers know about
teaching, teacher’s roles and how to teach derive from their own life experience,
especially their educational experience”.
So, what is the role of teacher education in this scenario? Teacher
education can help people learn how to be teachers through theory and practice.
Teacher education instigates reflection and change. Another important aspect of
teacher education is that it is a life-long or career-long process. The need for
continuing development is true for teachers in different areas, but especially for
the ones who dedicate their careers to teaching a second language. Second
language acquisition is very complex and constant research in the area often

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offers new perspectives for professionals that teach languages. Not only that, as
learners, language, society and times change, teachers may need new resources
to face the different challenges the profession poses.

THEME 1 – PROFESSIONALISM AND SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

As mentioned in the opening section, teachers are professionals who

dedicate their careers to helping others learn. According to Ur (2002, p. 388), “a
professional is someone whose work involves performing a certain function with
some degree of expertise”. In the Second Language Acquisition (SLA) field, this
expertise involves not only the knowledge of the target language, but also other
skills: how to teach, how to deal with learners, how to ensure quality teaching and
learning, among others. Pettit (2002, p. 394) claims that “Principles, knowledge
and skills are fundamentally integrated in the professionally competent teacher. If
I am to be professionally effective, I am sure I must ensure a balance in my
expertise”.
Different researchers in the SLA field have studied aspects of teacher
education and presented theories related to essential teacher knowledge and
practices. These studies contribute to build competence in language teaching.
Competence can be defined as knowing how to do something well (Rios, 2001).
How can English teachers build competence to help learners in their language
studies? We will analyze some fundamental domains that make up teacher
knowledge.

1.1 Theories of teaching

What underpins teacher’s decisions when planning a lesson or teaching a

class? Teachers’ decisions may originate from what they believe is a good
teaching approach or the application of techniques from certain methods. As
seen in previous classes, different theories in the educational field have
influenced the methods and approaches for second language teaching. For
instance, traditional educational theories were present in the Grammar-
Translation method. Students were exposed to language rules, they worked on
translation and there was no focus on verbal language. There is a strong belief in
this educational model that “teaching is primarily concerned with transmitting
knowledge through providing clear explanations, demonstrations, or discussions”

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(Richards, 1998, p. 2). Another theory of teaching regards class activities that are
based on repetition, rote memorization, reward and habit formation. Behaviorism
is the theory of teaching that is the basis of this teaching practice. On the other
hand, teachers who favor interaction understand that the learners’ background is
part of who they are and that they must be active in the learning process.
Learning may take place when learners interact with teachers and among
themselves.
Theories of teaching are present in classroom settings whether teachers
are aware of them or not. They may be the result of the previous teaching
experience, analyzed by Tardiff (1999), which we tend to reproduce when
teaching or an explicit belief that certain teaching practices will foster learning.
Theories of teaching are also present in the classroom as a result of a
school or other educational policies. For instance, many English schools claim
that classes follow the principles of the Communicative Approach or that they
have a post-method approach. As the materials also follow the method, teachers
are often trained to use materials and teach according to the schools preferred
methodology.
As teachers have their own beliefs or have a broader understanding of
theories of learning and methodology due to study or practice, they may face
conflict when they find themselves teaching according to principles they do not
believe in. Teacher education and professional maturity are possible ways to help
a teacher understand the context and make choices. According to Richards
(1998), teachers must move from a technical rationality level, which is
characterized by the skills, awareness and knowledge, to the critical reflection
level. The critical reflection level is “guided by the teacher’s personal theory and
philosophy of teaching and is constantly renewed by critical reflection and self-
assessment” (Richards, 1998, p. 3).
Teachers are often engaged in this complex process of allying personal
educational and language learning beliefs, research, educational policies and the
constant need to reflect upon the best practices. Paulo Freire (2007) summarizes
this professional challenge:

Teaching demands research. There is no teaching without research and

there is no research without teaching. While teaching, I keep searching.
I teach because I searched and raised questions and questioned
myself. I research to confirm and intervene. When I intervene, I educate
others and educate myself. I research to know what I still do not know
and to communicate what is new. (2007, p.29)

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1.2 Teaching skills

Skills are related to the competency necessary for a professional to work

effectively. Teaching skills are essential for the educational process. According to
Shulman (1987, quoted by Richards, 1998, p. 4), skills include “organizing and
managing classroom; presenting clear explanations and vivid descriptions;
assigning and checking work; and interacting effectively with students”. Teacher’s
skills are often related to both classroom management and lesson planning.

1.2.1 Classroom management

Classroom management is related to practical aspects of a class and the

classroom. Some areas of classroom management are concerned with
organizing the physical environment: seating arrangements, the equipment or
tools to teach a class, comfort in terms of sound and temperature. Some of these
aspects may not be under the teacher’s control as they cannot be altered, but
many times teachers must take action to have the most appropriate environment.
For instance, determining where students must sit due to a disciplinary issue or
for activity purposes. The teacher can avoid a great deal of difficulties if the
equipment is checked in advance and if all the materials for a class are available.
Voice and body language are also areas related to classroom
management. Teachers who teach large classes need to speak louder or use
devices to be heard by all students. Body language is also fundamental to gather
attention, present the meaning of words, indicate satisfaction with students’
behavior or otherwise. Teachers must move around to avoid boredom and
predictability. Moving also allows teachers to get close to students who may feel
more confident asking questions with teacher’s proximity. In some environments,
moving around helps teachers to monitor learners’ work. However, there are
moments in which a teacher’s movements may distract learners. During a
listening activity, for example, teachers must avoid movement in the classroom.
As teaching environments vary enormously, teachers must observe which
classroom techniques are more effective for specific situations. Large classes
demand routines that may be different from smaller groups: checking classroom
attendance, materials, blackboard use and so on.
Target language use is also another area of classroom management.
Should the teacher use English from beginning to end in the class? The use of

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the target language may vary according to school policies, students’ level of
proficiency or teacher’s choice. It is important to make informed decisions
regarding the use of the target language especially in contexts where oral
proficiency is the goal of the language program.
Instruction-giving plays a great role in effective teacher-student
communication and it is one of the skills teachers must be concerned with. Good
language teaching must ensure a high degree of effective communication.
Communication implies language choice, language proficiency and clarity when
conducting class functions. Whether the language for communication in the
classroom is L1 or L2, teachers must perform some functions that request
effective communication skills: presenting new language, requesting something
from students, giving instructions etc. Lack of clarity may lead to difficulties in
accomplishing class goals.
Discipline is certainly an area of classroom management that poses a high
level of difficulty for many teachers. A teacher may have a very well-planned
lesson and the best conditions to teach, but discipline issues may ruin a class.
Though it is not always possible to predict which disciplinary situations will take
place in the classroom and the best solution for each, a few points could be
considered. Teachers have a position of authority in the classroom (Brown,
2001). Teachers have the responsibility to make the environment as appropriate
as possible for all learners to have equal learning opportunities. Therefore,
disruptive behaviors must be dealt with. A teacher can consult the school
principal or coordinators to learn about the school disciplinary policies and act
according to what the school determines as good or bad behavior. Another
important area of discipline is to make rules clear for students, regarding, for
example, L1 use and technological devices in the classroom. Focusing on the
behavior or attitude, not on the student may help avoid misunderstandings
regarding respect.

1.2.2 Lesson planning

Careful lesson planning includes a selection of activities to be worked with

in class, materials, the sequence in which they will be presented, how they will be
presented, what kind of techniques will be used, grouping students in relation to
whole class activities, pair or group work. In addition to that, assignments to
reinforce content and how the teacher will start and end the lesson are also

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important. Careful planning may foster the accomplishment of language program
objectives whereas the absence of planning may lead to inappropriate use of
class time, resources and disastrous results. Richards (1998) points out the
importance of planning lessons:

Lesson plans are thought to help the teacher think through the lesson in
advance and resolve problems and difficulties, and to provide a
structure for a lesson, to provide a ‘map’ for the teacher to follow, and to
provide a record of what has been taught. (1998, p. 103)

There are different lesson plan models available in the SLA literature.
Important areas to be considered are the goals of the lesson, objectives,
materials and equipment, sequence and procedures, evaluation, and extra-class
work (Brown, 2001).

1.3 Subject matter knowledge

Subject matter knowledge (Richards, 1998) or declarative knowledge

(Bailey; Curtis; Nunan, 2001) relate to what a language teacher knows and can
articulate about language. English teachers, for instance, need to know the
language as well as be able to explain how language works. For instance,
teachers must be able to use a verb tense and explain its meaning, use and
form. Language teachers need to know the concepts related to phonology,
phonetics, syntax, SLA, methodology, assessment among other areas that
impact language teaching.
Though the desired level of proficiency for a nonnative English teacher
should be C2 in relation to the Common European Framework of Reference
(CEFR), the reality in many educational contexts is really challenging. Poor
teacher education and the way language programs are developed contribute to
the acceptance of this lack of declarative knowledge. In many communities,
second language teaching and learning do not receive the attention they
deserve. It is a critical situation in many countries that can only be solved with
consistent educational policies as well as teachers’ opportunities to invest in
professional development.

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1.4 Contextual knowledge

Contexts may favor teaching or impose many challenges. Teachers must

be aware of where, who and when they teach. The social and physical contexts
may work as resources or constraints, and directly affect teaching and learning.
Some factors related to context that may affect teaching are educational
policies, community factors, sociocultural factors, how English is perceived in the
educational community, type of institution, school program, age and level of
students, curriculum, available resources, and administrative practices (Richards,
1998). By learning more about the context and expectations, teachers may avoid
conflicts and work on responses to the challenges faced.

THEME 2 – TEACHER EDUCATION

Educational policies and the different types of educational institutions will

dictate what kind of education teachers must have to be able to work. For
instance, in Brazil, language teachers must have a college degree to teach
elementary and high school students. College education for language teachers
usually focuses on the development of language skills, linguistics, literature,
methodology, psychology, didactics, professional practice (internship), and other
subjects that may vary according to each higher education institution, though all
accredited institutions must follow a core national curriculum.
Language programs in independent courses vary a lot, in relation to what
is expected of teacher education. Some language schools will require a college
degree in any area, not necessarily languages. Others may not request a college
degree, but experience in English-speaking countries. Some schools will not
request a college degree or experience abroad. Most language institutes focus
primarily on the teacher’s language and pedagogical skills.
As contexts and needs vary significantly, opportunities for teacher
education must be available to foster quality teaching. Is higher education
enough? Is proficiency level enough? Do what undergraduate students expect to
learn correspond to the real needs in the language classroom?

2.1 Education and expectations

Undergraduate students have expectations that often differ from what

teachers who already have some experience in the field understand as
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fundamental knowledge to achieve educational goals. In research for a master’s
degree program, Leal (2003) pointed out that while undergraduate students in
language degrees believed that learning the target language, English, was the
most important part of the process, students who already had a higher level of
proficiency claimed they did not develop significantly in language terms whereas
students who needed more language practice informed they had not achieved
the level of English they believed was necessary to become language teachers.
The elementary and high school teachers interviewed for the research
reported they wish they had learned more than English. A teacher said that she
wished she had learned “how to deal with large classes, how to keep students
interested in English, how to help them realize studying English is worth the
effort” (Leal, 2003, p. 109). Another teacher reported that her main challenge was
“to find balance in the relationship with students. They need limits and it is
complicated if you tend to be too authoritative because you will get into a conflict
with them” (Leal, 2003, p.108).
Balance between subject matter knowledge and pedagogical skills defines
what teacher education should provide. Considering that the initial teacher
education is not sufficient for the challenges and changes that are part of the
career, many teachers dedicate time and resources to invest in their continued
education.

THEME 3 – TEACHER TRAINING & TEACHER DEVELOPMENT

Teacher training and teacher development are essential areas of teacher

education. Training takes different forms and it is often associated with the idea
that new teachers need to develop certain skills through training. Teacher
development suggests a more complex process and it regards both novice and
experienced teachers. According to Ur (2002), teachers must prepare
themselves to do a competent job through learning. Pre-service and in-service
learning opportunities help build professionalism. Pre-service training regards the
previous studies teachers do before starting a job. This may refer to college
preparation or teacher training courses schools offer to new teachers. In-service
learning opportunities are those that take place while the teacher is at work. They
may be offered by the educational institution where the teacher works, or they
may be courses, conferences, readings and other forms of learning that teachers
choose to invest in their careers.

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3.1 Teacher training

Richards (1998) says that teacher training is related to the opportunity to

receive instruction on practical skills and the knowledge that is necessary for their
initial teaching experience. This certainly defines teacher training in relation to
new teachers, but even more experienced teachers also have training needs and
opportunities. For instance, the implementation of new technological equipment
in a school may require training or new procedures related to school systems or
new teaching materials. Training for novice teachers may include the following
areas:

 Classroom techniques, skills and strategies;

 Instruction on how to use a course book and technology;
 Training and micro-teaching opportunities;
 Feedback from trainer and peers;
 Studying and understanding concepts, principles, school policies to
prepare for a new teaching job.

Training involves the development of fundamental teaching skills to start a

career as a teacher or at a specific school. Initial training may be provided by
educational institutions, but future teachers can also find learning opportunities
on their own. As the requirements to be a teacher vary according to educational
institutions, future professionals can count on teacher training courses offered by
prestigious institutions as well international certifications for English teachers
such as CELTA (Certificate in English Language Teaching to Adults), DELTA
(Diploma in English Language Teaching to Adults) or a TESOL (Teaching
English to Speakers of other Languages) certificate.

3.2 Teacher development

Teacher development takes place when teachers use available resources

and forward their own professional learning. Investing in teacher development is
often a teacher’s decision, but educational institutions can also provide
development opportunities and encourage teachers to actively participate.
Teacher’s growth is key for the success of language programs.
Bailey, Curtis and Nunan (2001) present some reasons for pursuing professional
development. The authors inform that professional growth impacts knowledge,

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change, promotes increase in income and/or prestige, empowerment, and it is
also a way to combat negativity as teachers become more motivated.

3.2.1 Teacher knowledge and change

Often, teacher development is associated with change. Change that

results from learning. When teachers study, reflect upon their practice and apply
new concepts and practices to their teaching they bring about change and
innovation. In the opening section of this lesson, we analyzed the fact that
teachers have an implicit knowledge of teaching since they were learners for at
least 16 years considering elementary school, high school and higher education.
All the different teachers during a learner’s school time can help produce theories
about what good and bad teaching is. Besides that, teachers have their own
beliefs about how languages are best learned. Experience and beliefs must be
confronted with theory and new practices. Continuing teacher education can help
teachers rethink practices, beliefs and implement new practices.
Teacher development involves an understanding of the knowledge base of
language teaching (Richards, 1998). This regards the studies related to Applied
Linguistics. Teachers need both theoretical and practical knowledge to
understand and act in their contexts. In other words, as English teachers
develop, they tend to master different areas of second language teaching.
Development in Applied Linguistics studies help teachers enhance their
knowledge of language-based subjects such as grammar, phonology, discourse
analysis. Teachers also improve their knowledge of learning-based subjects
regarding areas such as second language acquisition and learning strategies. In
addition to that, teachers who invest in professional development have a better
understanding of methodology.

3.2.2 Professional recognition and pay

Increase in earnings or recognition as a professional many times

accompany teacher development. Some educational institutions and systems
already have well-defined career plans which inform teachers what kind of
additional payment they may get for investing in professional development. A
promotion may also happen as employers recognize a teachers’ effort to keep
themselves updated and interested in the career.

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3.2.3 Empowerment and motivation

A famous quote by Francis Bacon says that “knowledge is power.”

Knowledge helps us increase power over our lives and increases our potential to
become more independent in different areas. Teacher development leads to
empowerment, which in professional terms can be understood as the ability to
have more control over our careers, autonomy and authority that comes from
knowledge.
The excitement and confidence that come with knowledge also contribute
to avoid the negativity that is present in professional contexts. New concepts,
techniques, a different approach may impact teaching positively.

THEME 4 – CLASS OBSERVATION

Class observation contributes to analyzing teachers’ work. It may be the

source of fear for many teachers as it inevitably involves appraisal, but it is an
efficient tool to observe program goals, teacher’s strengths and areas for
development, students’ attitude and the use of resources among other aspects or
components of a language teaching context. Class observation can help teachers
investigate different events that take place in their teaching. It can inform
teachers about what is producing positive results and the areas that demand
change or more attention. This characterizes action research. According to
Bailey, Curtis and Nunan, “Action research involves systematically changing
some aspect of our own professional practice (in response to some issue,
problem, or puzzle), collecting relevant data about the changed practice, and
interpreting and analyzing the data” (2001, p.134).
In the English language classroom, action research aims at conducting
investigations and planning interventions. The process may be repeated until the
desired results are obtained. Action research stimulates reflection. The different
models of class observation are efficient and helpful sources to conduct action
research.

4.1 Teacher trainer, supervisor or coordinator class observation

Program administrators frequently have the responsibility to observe

teachers. Classroom observations conducted by these professionals take place
on different occasions, such as:
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  During pre-service training. Future teachers present micro-teachings and
receive feedback from trainers in relation methodology, language use,
aspects that may foster or hinder instruction;
 When a new teacher is hired, class observation is used to assess classes
and verify if they occur according to the language program, lesson plans,
methodology and other school expectations;
 More experienced teachers’ classes are observed to identify strengths and
areas that may need improvement;
 When there is the need to confirm behaviors that are interfering with the
teaching and learning process: lack of preparation, conflicts, students’
behavior;
 As part of the school formative or summative evaluation.

Formative evaluation is related to the processes that are used to offer

teachers feedback to confirm good practices and guide development. Summative
evaluation regards processes that appraise teachers according to school criteria.
Results may be used to encourage development, to give teachers a promotion,
and even to confirm the need for a dismissal.
Whether it is a novice teacher or an experienced teacher’s class,
observation may focus on aspects such as how the teacher starts and ends a
lesson (Richards, 1998), time allotted to different activities, instructions, types of
activities and appropriateness in relation to students and levels, grouping,
monitoring, how questions are asked, feedback on learners’ performance,
materials and language use.

4.1.2 Forms and feedback

Class observations do not demand extensive preparation to take place.

They are relatively easy to be organized and the outcome may benefit the
language teacher, students and programs significantly. There are different
models of class observation program administrators can use to collect data and
provide feedback, such as:

 Class observations may be announced or unannounced. Program

administrators may inform teachers when a class observation will take
place, what will be observed and negotiate which class and areas will be
observed. Supervisors or teacher coordinators may also decide for

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 unannounced observations as part of school policy or when it is
fundamental to verify behaviors or other events in class.
 Forms may help organize and limit what will be observed. For instance,
what areas of lesson planning are more important to be observed?
Evidence of preparation, choice of materials, sequence, pre-teaching and
grammar presentation are areas that could be observed. The focus could
be on classroom management: instruction-giving, use of target language,
seating arrangements etc. The observer may take a form with the items
discriminated. It is an analytical way to observe a class.
 Scripts are very effective to gather information about a class. The observer
must write down everything that is possible that happens in class: teacher
talk, student talk, movements and all different events. Scripts offer
subsides that can help evaluate teacher talking time, student talking time,
teacher’s preferences, use of target language and reactions in class. A 50-
minute class may produce a 5-page long script or longer. It is effective, but
it demands a lot of work and training.
 Notes can also be taken by the observer according to what the purpose of
the observation is. It is a more holistic approach.
 Class observation feedback is an essential part of the process. Teachers
must have access to what was observed and discuss the reason for their
choices. Feedback is also valuable regarding goal-setting.

4.2 Observing other teachers

Teachers may profit greatly from observing each other. In many programs,
novice teachers observe more experienced teachers assigned by program
administrators, but they may have the opportunity to choose who to observe. As
this kind of observation is done by someone who does not have the training to be
an observer or somebody who is not supposed to evaluate a peer’s work, it is
important to establish some criteria in relation to behavior, focus and ethics. The
main purpose of peer observation is to share experiences, many times for the
less experienced teacher to learn from a more experienced one, or for
professionals at the same level to learn from each other. “Rather than viewing
peer observation as an evaluative procedure, teachers should see themselves as
coresearchers collaborating for each other’s benefit” (Richards, 1998, p. 147).

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4.3 Self-observation and journal writing

Teachers can also observe themselves by audio and video-recording their

classes. Class recording may help teachers observe aspects of their classes they
are not aware of. It could be the tendency to repeat words such as good, well or
ok. Teachers can observe if they give more attention to one student or another
depending on the frequency they call a learner’s name. They can self-observe
their tone of voice and use of target language. Recordings must be authorized by
school administrators. In some schools, students’ or parents’ authorization may
also be requested.
Many Applied Linguistics specialists recommend journal writing as a tool
for reflective teaching. Brown (2001), Richards (1998), Bailey, Curtis and Nunan
(2001) among other practitioners advocate that journal writing stimulates
reflection, which can help teachers view teaching more clearly. It is an activity
that involves both data collection and analysis. It is a way for teachers to observe
their own teaching practices, achievements and areas that demand change.
Bailey, Curtis and Nunan (2001) compare journal writing to assembling a jigsaw
puzzle: you put piece by piece together to form a whole. In other words, little by
little you can make sense of your teaching practice and work on your strengths
and needs.

THEME 5 – APPLIED LINGUISTICS RESEARCH, RESEARCHERS AND TEACHER

DEVELOPMENT

The last part of our class is dedicated to a practical view on how research
on Second Language Acquisition can help English teachers. The past decades
have been remarkably prosperous for SLA research. There has been not only
research towards explaining how people learn, but also contributions to the
enrichment of teacher development. Government agencies, publishers,
specialists and professional associations all contribute to the growth of the
English teaching profession.

5.1 Government agencies

The British and the American governments foment opportunities for both
English teaching and learning by offering online resources as well as support to

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events and language professionals. The British Council, for example, defines
itself as the “United Kingdom’s organization for cultural relations and educational
opportunities”. The British Council is present in several countries and its websites
offer a wide range of materials for teachers and students.
The American Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs is a section of
the US Department of State that promotes academic and cultural exchanges.
The Bureau is responsible for the Office of English Language Programs, in
Washington D.C. Overseas, there are the Regional English Language Officers
(RELOs). These professionals study local needs and offer professional courses,
materials and support for teachers and learners. A reliable source for English
materials for both teachers and students is American English. On the American
English website, it is possible to find resources such as games, cultural
information, The English Teaching Forum (periodical), webinars, among other
useful materials.

5.2 Publishers

Publishers are responsible for most of the materials available for language
teaching. They invest in research, materials, training, educational technology for
both teachers and learners and they have been responsible for a significant part
of the development of SLA research in the past years. Competition among
publishers is high and the professionals and learners in the field can profit from
that. The major publishing companies for language teaching are the Oxford
University Press, the Cambridge University Press, Richmond, Macmillan
Education, Pearson English, Cengage Learning, and Helbling Languages. Most
of them offer support for teachers through websites, YouTube channels, and
events.

5.3 Researchers

English language teaching and learning would not have reached the
present status if it had not been for the contribution of highly dedicated
researchers. It is not possible to list all the researchers that have significantly
made a difference in the SLA field, but we can point out some of them and
recommend further research. Many of these specialists have their own websites
where they share articles, videos and other information.

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 Jack C. Richards is often recognized as the author of the Interchange
course book series. However, Professor Richards’ contribution does not end
there. He is one of the most prominent ELT researchers of the past decades. He
focuses not only on second language acquisition, but also teacher development.
Scott Thornbury is an author from New Zealand, teacher and teacher
trainer. He has written books about grammar teaching, but he also focuses on
other areas of ELT. H. Douglas Brown has written one of the most referenced
books in ELT, Teaching by Principles. He is a highly respected American author.
Besides writing about the basis of language teaching, Professor Brown has also
written about assessment.
David Nunan, Diane Larsen-Freeman and Penny Ur are authors that have
also dedicated their work to explaining the basic concepts for language teachers
moving to more complex studies. Professor Diane Larsen-Freeman has
developed significant research in the areas of methodology and grammar-
teaching. The Grammar Book is an excellent source for all types of grammar
explanations.
To teachers interested in learning more about the importance and status of
the English language in current times, David Crystal and David Graddol’s work
can offer interesting contributions.
Vera Lúcia Menezes is a Brazilian researcher who has published books
and several articles. She also shares her work on her website.
Adrian Underhill has dedicated most of his work to pronunciation studies.
He has a series of short videos about pronunciation on YouTube: Pronunciation
Skills with Adrian Underhill.
Finally, Susan Holden and Paul Seligson are authors that are very familiar
with the Brazilian cultural and educational system. Both authors have visited
Brazil several times, and shared their expertise through conferences, videos and
published materials. Ms. Holden has published O ensino da língua inglesa nos
dias atuais, a methodology book for Brazilian English teachers. Mr. Seligson has
written course books and been a frequent speaker at conferences in Brazil. His
work as a teacher trainer focuses on practical aspects of language teaching such
as lesson planning and classroom management.

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5.4 Professional associations and free online courses

Teachers can benefit from professional associations by attending

conferences and other events as well as studying and using materials available
on websites. Some associations may have a more academic focus while others
may offer more practical solutions for language teaching challenges. To have full
access to certain content, a membership may be required. Memberships also
provide discounts to participate in events. Some major associations for ELT
professionals are:

 EDX;
 TESOL;
 IATEFL;
 Braz-TESOL.

CONCLUDING

The present class analyzed different areas regarding professional

development for English teachers. Professional development is a vital part of a
teacher’s career. Though it is fair that employers encourage and fund teacher
learning opportunities, most of the time teachers will have to take responsibility
for their growth. Investing in teacher development means allocating time, effort
and very often financial resources to make it happen. However, with the
widespread availability of online resources, the access to educational tools has
grown in the past years. Whether the challenge is language proficiency
development, pedagogical skills or a new reason to continue teaching, studying
can bring different perspectives and opportunities.

MANDATORY READING

Theoretical approach texts

RICHARDS, J. C. Second Language Teacher Education Today. Professor Jack

Richards. Disponível em: <https://www.professorjackrichards.com/wp-
content/uploads/second-language-teacher-education-today-2009.pdf>. Acesso
em: 8 jun. 2018.

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THORNBURY, S. What good is second language acquisition theory? English
Teaching Professional, n. 55, mar. 2008. Disponível em:
<http://nebula.wsimg.com/2788d6c3f43b2174c3cc9e029ac41ae8?AccessKeyId=
186A535D1BA4FC995A73&disposition=0&alloworigin=1>. Acesso em: 8 jun.
2018.

Going further

In this session, we suggest not only one, but a series of short videos that focus
on teacher development areas and language teaching.

PROFESSOR JACK RICHARDS. Disponível em

<https://www.professorjackrichards.com/videos/>. Acesso em: 8 jun. 2018.

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REFERENCES

AMERICAN ENGLISH. Disponível em: <https://americanenglish.state.gov/>.

Acesso em: 8 jun. 2018.

BAILEY, K.; CURTIS, A.; NUNAN, D. Pursuing professional development:

the self as source. Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle, 2001.

BRAZ-TESOL. Disponível em: <http://www.braztesol.org.br/>. Acesso em: 8 jun.

2018.

BRITISH COUNCIL. Disponível em: <https://www.britishcouncil.org>. Acesso

em: 8 jun. 2018.

BROWN, H. D. Teaching by principles: an interactive approach to language

pedagogy. Englefields Cliffs: Prentice Hall Regents, 2001.

EDX. Disponível em: <https://www.edx.org/>. Acesso em: 8 jun. 2018.

IATEFL. Disponível em: <https://www.iatefl.org/>. Acesso em: 8 jun. 2018.

FREIRE, P. Pedagogia da autonomia. Rio de Janeiro: Paz e Terra, 1997.

_____. Pedagogia do oprimido. 17. ed. Rio de Janeiro: Paz e Terra, 1987.

PETTIS, J. Developing our professional competence: some reflections. In:

RICHARDS, J. C. Methodology in language teaching: an anthology of current
practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.

PROFESSOR JACK RICHARDS. Disponível em:

<https://www.professorjackrichards.com/>. Acesso em: 8 jun. 2018.

RICHARDS, J. C. Beyond training: perspectives on language teacher

education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.

RIOS, T. Ética e competência. 11. ed. São Paulo: Cortez, 2001.

_____. Compreender e ensinar: por uma docência de melhor qualidade. São

Paulo: Cortez, 2001.

SCOTT THORNBURY. Disponível em: <http://www.scottthornbury.com/>.

Acesso em: 8 jun. 2018.

TARDIFF, M. Saberes profissionais dos professores e conhecimentos

universitários. Pelotas: PUC-Rio, 1999.

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TEACHING. Collins Dictionary. Disponível em:
<https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/teaching>. Acesso em: 8
jun. 2018.

TESOL. Disponível em: <http://www.tesol.org/>. Acesso em: 8 jun. 2018.

UR, P. The English teacher as a professional. In: RICHARDS, J. C.

Methodology in language teaching: an anthology of current practice.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.

VERA MENEZES. Disponível em: <http://www.veramenezes.com/>. Acesso em:

8 jun. 2018.

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