Art & science research series: 6

Mixed methods research

Halcomb E, Hickman L (2015) Mixed methods research. Nursing Standard. 29, 32, 41-47.
Date of submission: February 11 2014; date of acceptance: June 26 2014.

on mixed methods research in social science,

Abstract
education and health (Glogowska 2011, Bowers
Mixed methods research involves the use of qualitative and et al 2013). Mixed methods research offers nurse
quantitative data in a single research project. It represents an researchers a methodology to address complex
alternative methodological approach, combining qualitative and issues, which is more comprehensive than could
quantitative research approaches, which enables nurse researchers be achieved by either qualitative or qualitative
to explore complex phenomena in detail. This article provides a research methods alone (Simons and Lathlean
practical overview of mixed methods research and its application in 2010, Andrew and Halcomb 2012).
nursing, to guide the novice researcher considering a mixed methods Paradigm differences have sometimes prevented
research project. the mixing of qualitative and quantitative research
in nursing inquiry, but such differences have
Authors generally been overcome, with most researchers
adopting a pragmatic approach and implementing
Elizabeth Halcomb Professor of primary health care nursing, School
whichever research methodologies are most
of Nursing, University of Wollongong, Australia.
appropriate to answer their research question
Louise Hickman Director of postgraduate nursing, Faculty of Health,
(McEvoy and Richards 2006, Simons and
University of Technology Sydney, Australia.
Lathlean 2010, Glogowska 2011, Maudsley 2011).
Correspondence to: [email protected]
In addition, there has been a steady rise in the
number of mixed methods manuscripts published
Keywords
in nursing journals in recent years (Lipscomb
Mixed methods research, multi-method research, nursing research, 2008, Simons and Lathlean 2010).
qualitative research, quantitative research, research design,
research methodology, rigour
Definition of mixed methods research
Review Essentially, quantitative research involves the
collection and analysis of numerical data,
All articles are subject to external double-blind peer review and
while qualitative research considers narrative
checked for plagiarism using automated software.
or experiential data (Hayes et al 2013). Mixed
methods research refers to research that
Online
integrates both qualitative and quantitative data
For related articles visit the archive and search using the keywords within a single study (Creswell and Plano Clark
above. Guidelines on writing for publication are available at: 2011, Wisdom et al 2012). The mixing of the
journals.rcni.com/r/author-guidelines qualitative and quantitative components within
a study is an important aspect of mixed methods
research (Simons and Lathlean 2010, Maudsley
HEALTHCARE SYSTEMS ARE becoming 2011). Qualitative and quantitative elements
more complex in response to people living are interlinked during mixing to provide an
longer, the rise in chronic and complex diseases integrated response to the research question that
and finite healthcare budgets. Social, political, is deeper than would be possible by either method
environmental, cultural and economic forces may alone (Glogowska 2011, Zhang and Creswell
also add complexity to healthcare issues (Lavelle 2013). Integration may occur at any stage or
et al 2013). As healthcare systems increase in stages of the research process, but is central
complexity, so do the research problems faced by to ensuring rigour in mixed methods research
health researchers (Glogowska 2011). Therefore, (Glogowska 2011).
researchers are challenged to find investigative There is some discrepancy in the definitions
methods that encompass multidimensional aspects of mixed methods research and multi-method
of health issues (Andrew and Halcomb 2006, research, and the differences between them.
Creswell and Plano Clark 2011). In response to However, there is general agreement that
this challenge, there has been an increased focus mixed methods research differs subtly from

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Art & science research series: 6

multi-method research (Johnson et al 2007). appropriate to address his or her specific research
Mixed methods research combines qualitative questions. The decision to use a mixed methods
and quantitative research in a single study, while design should be based on the additional value
multi-method research involves data collection that using both qualitative and quantitative
using two methods from the same paradigm, methods of data collection would provide, above
for example interviews and focus groups, that using a single method of data collection,
or quantitative surveys and medical record audit in answering the research question (Creswell
(Andrew and Halcomb 2009). Mixed methods and Plano Clark 2011, Scammon et al 2013).
research capitalises on the strengths of both The feasibility of undertaking a mixed methods
qualitative and quantitative research in combining study should also be considered in terms of
qualitative and quantitative data collection, while balancing the benefits of a mixed methods
compensating for their limitations, to provide an research design against the increased skills and
integrated understanding of the research topic resources required (Halcomb and Andrew 2009).
(Andrew and Halcomb 2009, Wisdom et al 2012, The research problems that are best suited to
Scammon et al 2013). Multi-method research has mixed methods designs are those in which multiple
the advantage of collecting data using multiple perspectives on the research problem may be
methods. Mixed methods research, in contrast, able to provide a more detailed understanding
has the potential to combine qualitative than could be obtained from a single perspective
and quantitative characteristics throughout (Simons and Lathlean 2010, Andrew and
the research process, from its philosophical Halcomb 2012). For example, a study that
underpinnings through to data collection, analysis developed an overall impression of a health service
and interpretation. using quantitative data might overlook factors
that affect individuals accessing the service.
Adding a qualitative component, investigating the
Core considerations experiences of individuals accessing the service,
Mixed methods research involves more than would be likely to add significant insights to such a
the collection of qualitative and quantitative study. Reasons for using mixed methods research
data within a single study. The methodological designs are provided in Box 2.
approach to mixed methods research requires
various considerations to be addressed to ensure Philosophical approach
methodological rigour. This article presents eight A philosophical approach or world view is the lens
core considerations for the novice researcher through which one views the world. A range of
in planning and undertaking mixed methods philosophical approaches may be used in mixed
research (Box 1). methods research (Mesel 2013). The researcher
should explore a philosophical approach,
Rationale for using mixed methods to understand how it fits with their personal
Research questions should reflect the rationale perceptions and with the proposed project, before
for undertaking mixed methods research and using it. Creswell and Plano Clark (2011) advocate
demonstrate the qualitative and quantitative four stances on using world views in mixed
aspects of the project (Lavelle et al 2013). A mixed methods research.
methods study should not be undertaken simply First, a single world view may be selected to
because it is possible to collect both numerical underpin the entire study. Generally, this would
and narrative data in relation to a research be either pragmatism, a transformative
question. The researcher should consider which (emancipatory) approach or critical realism
methodological approach would be the most (Andrew and Halcomb 2006, Creswell and
Plano Clark 2011, Maudsley 2011, Andrew
BOX 1 and Halcomb 2012, Walsh and Evans 2014).
A pragmatic approach involves the researcher
Core considerations of mixed methods research
using ‘what works’ to seek answers to the
 Rationale for using mixed methods. research question (Creswell and Plano Clark
 Philosophical approach. 2011). Pragmatism views the research problem as
 Mixed methods designs. the most important issue, valuing both subjective
 Skills required. and objective observations to reveal the answers
 Project management.
(Andrew and Halcomb 2006, Feilzer 2010,
 Integrating qualitative and quantitative aspects.
Creswell and Plano Clark 2011). In contrast,
 Demonstrating rigour.
 Dissemination of mixed methods research findings.
a transformative approach involves recognising
cultural differences and injustices throughout

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the research process (Mertens 2003, Creswell The first design characteristic is the extent to which
and Plano Clark 2011). Critical realism holds qualitative and quantitative data interact or are
that reality is best understood by investigating independent. For example, does one set of data
multiple outlooks (McEvoy and Richards 2006, inform the other? Or may the two data sets be
Creswell and Plano Clark 2011, Maudsley 2011). collected independently of each other?
A critical realist world view is well suited to The second design characteristic is the
mixed methods research, since critical realists implementation sequence for data collection. In a
undertake research to explore multiple outlooks simultaneous or concurrent design, both qualitative
and develop deeper understanding (McEvoy and and quantitative data are collected at the same
Richards 2006). time. This has the advantage of reducing the
Second, multiple world views may be used to duration of the data collection period, but has the
underpin different aspects within mixed methods disadvantage of being resource intensive and not
research, depending on how the researcher seeks to allowing collection of either data set to inform
understand the social world (Creswell and Plano the collection of the other (Halcomb and Andrew
Clark 2011). Using this approach emphasises 2009). A sequential design involves qualitative
tensions and oppositions that reflect various ways and quantitative data being collected separately,
of understanding the world. Researchers using with the findings from one type of data collection,
this approach need to clearly articulate the ways in for example interviews, providing the basis for the
which the various world views are being used. collection of the second set of data, for example
Third, multiple world views may be combined a survey. The disadvantage of sequential designs
relating to the design of the mixed methods study is that it takes longer for the data collection to be
(Creswell and Plano Clark 2011). For example, completed (Halcomb and Andrew 2009).
a sequential mixed methods study that commences Third, designs may vary in the relative priority
with interviews followed by an online survey given to qualitative and quantitative data.
would begin the study with a naturalistic Exploratory studies usually prioritise qualitative
(qualitative) perspective and then move towards data because little information is already known.
a positivist (quantitative) world view. In this However, explanatory studies where researchers
approach, mixed methods is purely a method of seek complementarity often prioritise quantitative
collecting data, and the respective world view data (Andrew and Halcomb 2006). It is particularly
guides each methodological approach (Creswell important that the relative priority of each type of
and Plano Clark 2011). data is established before commencing the study.
Finally, world views may be dependent on Finally, mixed methods designs may vary
the shared beliefs within a scholarly community in the timing of integrating qualitative and
(Creswell and Plano Clark 2011). In this quantitative data. Such integration may occur at
perspective, researchers within a given field have
shared beliefs about meaningful research questions BOX 2
and appropriate procedures for answering
Reasons for using mixed methods research designs
these questions.
Regardless of which philosophical stance is  Corroboration – using the results of one method to substantiate the
chosen for a mixed methods study, the study findings of another, about a single phenomenon.
 Complementarity – using the results of one method to elaborate,
methods should be consistent with the chosen
enhance or clarify the results from another method.
philosophy, and the tenets of the chosen
– Process: quantitative results provide outcomes, qualitative results
philosophy should inform all aspects of the provide the processes.
research process. – Unexpected results: surprising results obtained from one method,
the other method provides explanation.
Mixed methods designs – Confirmation: quantitative results test hypotheses generated by
There are various typologies (classifications qualitative findings.
according to general type) of mixed methods designs  Development – using the results of one method to inform another
in the research literature. The researcher should method.
understand the implications of the various designs, – Instrument development: qualitative results used to design a
and the principles that underlie them, before quantitative instrument, then the quantitative instrument is tested.
embarking on their research. Table 1 provides a – Sampling: one approach enables sampling for the other approach.
 Initiation – using one method to uncover the paradoxes and
summary of mixed methods designs commonly
contradictions in findings from another method.
used in nursing research, with an example of how
 Expansion – expanding the depth and breadth of the study using
each design was used in a recent published study. different methods for various components of the research.
Four main characteristics define mixed methods
(Greene et al 1989, Bryman 2006, Wisdom et al 2012)
research designs (Creswell and Plano Clark 2011).

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Art & science research series: 6

any point in the research process. For example, when establishing a research team (Halcomb
various philosophical approaches may be used and Andrew 2009). Limited attention has been
to support the study; research questions may paid to optimal models of teamwork or the
include both qualitative (why?) and quantitative optimal composition of mixed methods research
(how often?) questions; data collection may teams, and they should include individuals with
combine open-ended questions that collect both quantitative and qualitative skills and
narrative data and rating scales; or the data knowledge, as well as those with experience
analysis may cross-tabulate themes and participant in conducting mixed methods research
demographics (Andrew et al 2008). (Bowers et al 2013).
Skills should be a particular consideration
Skills required when mixed methods designs are used by
Mixed methods research is seldom a solo postgraduate students (Halcomb and Andrew
endeavour (Bowers et al 2013, Lavelle et al 2009). Undertaking a mixed methods research
2013). Establishing a team to undertake a mixed project as a postgraduate project requires the
methods project should be carefully thought student to gain a broader range of research
out (Creswell and Plano Clark 2011). A broad skills than would be required for a project using
range of skills is required to undertake mixed either qualitative or quantitative methods alone.
methods research and this should be considered Care should be given to the composition of

TABLE 1
Mixed methods designs
Research Process Purpose Level of Priority Example
design interaction
Convergent Qualitative and To obtain Data collected Equal Peters and Cotton (2013) collected postal
parallel quantitative different but and analysed surveys and undertook unstructured
(concurrent) complementary independently. interviews with women with a physical
data to answer a disability to gain a broad understanding
single research of the barriers and enabling factors
question. associated with accessing and
experiencing screening services for
breast cancer and cervical cancer.

Sequential Quantitative Qualitative data Quantitative Quantitative Pfaff et al (2014) used a postal survey
explanatory then are collected data frame dominant to measure perceived confidence in
qualitative to explain the qualitative data interprofessional collaboration among
quantitative collection. new graduate nurses. Following analysis
findings. of the survey data, they conducted
interviews with 16 new graduate nurses
to explain the quantitative findings and
expand on them.

Sequential Qualitative Quantitative Qualitative Qualitative Hamshire et al (2013) conducted

exploratory then data builds data frames dominant a series of interviews with nursing
quantitative on qualitative quantitative students to explore their experiences
findings data collection. and expectations of their nursing course.
to provide The interview findings informed the
generalisability. development of an online survey that was
completed by 1,080 students in nine
UK universities.

Embedded or Quantitative To obtain Embedded data May be either Kinser et al (2013) conducted a
nested within different data set provides qualitative or randomised controlled trial of an
qualitative or to answer a answers to a quantitative eight-week yoga intervention for women
qualitative complementary complementary dominant. with major depression. Outcomes
within research research measured included depression severity,
quantitative question. question. stress, anxiety and rumination. Qualitative
interviews were embedded in the trial to
explore the feasibility and acceptability of
the intervention.

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supervision panels for postgraduate students set if insufficient time is allowed for analysis
undertaking mixed methods research, to ensure of the first data set. Similarly, resources for a
the panel has the range of skills needed to concurrent project must enable collection of
support a mixed methods project (Halcomb two sets of data at the same time (Halcomb
and Andrew 2009). and Andrew 2009).
Collecting both qualitative and quantitative
Project management data leads to a larger, more complex data set
The practical implications of the chosen mixed than would be gathered in a purely qualitative
methods design should be considered carefully. or quantitative project (Andrew and Halcomb
The main issues in project management 2009). The complexity is further increased when
are: resources and financial costs, time and qualitative and quantitative data are integrated
management of data (Halcomb and Andrew within the analysis phase. Such complexity
2009). Collecting two sets of data, rather than affects the time required for data analysis,
one, requires additional resources. Qualitative the range of skills required to manage the data
and quantitative data are also collected differently, and the resources required for data storage.
so the range of resources needed for a mixed
methods project will be greater than for one that Integrating qualitative and quantitative aspects
is either qualitative or quantitative alone. The mixing of data within a mixed methods
Therefore, a clear justification should be study is an important stage in the research
provided for the use of a mixed methods design, process, but has received scant attention in the
to substantiate the case for additional resources literature (Bryman 2006, Andrew et al 2008,
from funding bodies. Zhang and Creswell 2013). Zhang and Creswell
Time may be an issue in mixed methods (2013) identified three distinct procedures for
research, particularly when the study is mixing – integration, connection and embedding
conducted in fulfilment of a postgraduate degree – in their review of how mixing occurs in
(Halcomb and Andrew 2009). It is essential health services research. Table 2 provides a
to allocate sufficient time for the project to be definition of the three procedures for mixing,
conducted successfully. A sequential project with examples of each.
requires adequate time to collect and analyse These approaches are not mutually exclusive
the first data set, before commencing collection and some projects may combine different methods
of the second data set (Halcomb and Andrew of mixing within their design (Zhang and Creswell
2009). The second data set may not address 2013). Evaluating which of these procedures is
important matters arising from the first data appropriate for an investigation and incorporating

TABLE 2
Procedures for mixing qualitative and quantitative data
Procedure Definition Example

Integration Qualitative and quantitative data are Rickard et al (2011) conducted a study to explore the roles
collected concurrently and analysed of research nurses and possible career pathways. Data were
separately. Integration occurs during the collected via a 104-item survey tool that combined three
interpretation phase. previously validated instruments and a series of semi-structured
interviews. The qualitative and quantitative data were collected
separately and only integrated during the reporting phase.

Connection One approach is based on the findings of Meixner et al (2013) surveyed providers of brain injury services
the other approach. within a region, asking about the barriers to accessing crisis
intervention services. A second phase of the study involved a
series of focus groups who investigated the survey findings to
develop greater levels of understanding.

Embedding The analysis of one type of data is Zwar et al (2010) conducted a cluster randomised controlled
embedded within the other. Generally, trial to test the uptake and effectiveness of a package of smoking
this involves a small qualitative component cessation support provided primarily by the practice nurse.
nested within a quantitative study. Qualitative interviews were conducted with patients, nurses and
general practitioners who participated in the trial to evaluate the
implementation, feasibility and acceptability of the intervention.

(Adapted from Zhang and Creswell 2013)

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Art & science research series: 6

this into the research design before commencing for mixed methods publications and theses
the study is important when planning mixed (Halcomb and Andrew 2009, O’Cathain
methods research. The strategies used for mixing 2009). In the segregated model, qualitative and
should be clearly articulated in publications and quantitative components of a study are kept
research reports (Maudsley 2011). separate, devoting separate chapters or articles
to each. Any integration between qualitative
Demonstrating rigour and quantitative components of the study
Methods of demonstrating rigour in studies that occurs only in the discussion of the report or in
use mixed methods are still poorly defined, despite a separate article. In contrast, in the integrated
the increasing popularity of mixed methods model, findings from qualitative and quantitative
research. While the use of mixed methods may methods are interwoven within a series of
enhance validity, the researcher should still articles or chapters, each of which is focused
demonstrate rigour in the research (Lavelle et al on a single aspect of the research question or
2013). Creswell and Plano Clark (2011) advocate theme. The choice of presentation method should
that mixed methods investigations should reflect the nature of the research study to be
demonstrate rigour using the criteria that would be disseminated (Halcomb and Andrew 2009).
seen in a quantitative or qualitative investigation, Many publications reporting mixed methods
in addition to specific mixed methods criteria. research lack sufficient detail of the methods
Rigour in mixed methods research involves used (Wisdom et al (2012). Several frameworks
providing the reader with a clear audit trail and have been developed to improve dissemination of
with well-considered, justified rationales for the mixed methods research and to guide authors in
decisions made throughout the research process, writing mixed methods articles for publication.
regardless of the specific tool or method used One such framework is the Good Reporting of
(Lavelle et al 2013). A Mixed Methods Study framework (O’Cathain
et al 2008) (Box 3). Use of such frameworks
Dissemination of mixed methods research may improve the quality of reporting research
findings significantly; however, authors should also be
Disseminating mixed methods research is a aware of the manuscript submission guidelines
significant challenge for researchers (Glogowska for the relevant journal.
2011). An increase in mixed methods publications
has led to improved acceptance of mixed
methods research articles. However, reviewers’ Conclusion
lack of familiarity with mixed methods, as well Mixed methods research provides significant
as audience expectations, word limits for journal opportunities for researchers to gain a deeper
articles and the decision to publish in a mixed understanding of complex health issues
methods or clinical journal are potential than would be possible with the use of either
barriers to publication that should be considered quantitative or qualitative data alone. Researchers
(Wisdom et al 2012). who use mixed methods should plan their study
Two models of dissemination, the segregated from a qualitative, quantitative and mixed
and integrated models, have been proposed methods perspective. The main considerations
outlined in this article should be deliberated on
BOX 3 before the mixed methods study commences.
All phases of the research process should flow
Good Reporting of A Mixed Methods Study
framework logically and be clearly compatible. Reports and
publications stemming from mixed methods
1. Describe the justification for using a mixed methods
research should explicitly detail the essential
approach to the research question.
2. Describe the design in terms of the purpose, priority methodological components of the project. Mixed
and sequence of methods. methods articles have the potential to extend
3. Describe each method in terms of sampling, data nursing knowledge and to inform professional
collection and analysis. nursing practice in a wide range of complex
4. Describe where integration has occurred, how it has healthcare issues NS
occurred and who has participated in it.
5. Describe any limitation of one method associated Acknowledgement
with the presence of the other method. Nursing Standard wishes to thank Leslie
6. Describe any insights gained from mixing or
Gelling, reader in nursing at Anglia Ruskin
integrating methods.
University, for co-ordinating and developing
(O’Cathain et al 2008)
the Research series.

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