Introduction to feminism

According to Magezis (1996) feminism is a broad social movement which

allows different points of view that work for women’s rights. Feminists focus
on why and how women are oppressed in different spheres of life and work for
their liberation. Feminism can be viewed in the following three ways:

i. As a social and political movement that fight for the rights of

women and their equality with men in all spheres of life.
ii. As an ideology or philosophy or way of thinking that questions
oppressive relations of men and women using women’s
perspective.
iii. A theory that questions relations of men and women and aims
at transforming them.

Rise of feminism

It rose as a challenge to functionalism which is conservative and views sexual

division of labour and the subordination of women as functional for the stability
of society. It was also a reaction to the biological theories that viewed the
position of women as natural. Feminism also questioned the dominant views or
philosophies that viewed women as less human than males.

Examples of these philosophies are:

 The female is female by virtue of certain lack of

qualities(Aristotle)
 A woman is an imperfect man (St Thomas Aquinas)
 The chief distinction in the intellectual powers of the two sexes
is shown by man attaining to a higher eminence in whatever he
takes up, than women can attain whether requiring deep
thought, reason, imagination or merely the use of senses and
hands (Charles Darwin)

Common aspects shared by the Feminists

 Gender is not natural but a social construct.

 They take the position that women are unfairly treated in all
spheres of life.
 Strategies can be developed to make the world a better place
for women.

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Feminist differences

 Expectations of women’s oppression

 Areas of focus e.g cultural stereotypes, biology, patriarchy,
capitalism, class etc.
 Direction of change or what constitute women’s liberation.
 Differences between feminist and gender theories

Feminist theories Gender theories

Are women centered Men and women centered
Focus on experiences of women Focus on experience of women and
men
View issues of women’s social world View issues from a gendered
perspective
Seek to produce a better world for Seek to produce a better world for both
women
Are about fighting back (revenge) Are about peaceful co-existence of
males and females not fighting back
View males as enemies and to blame Males are viewed as victims of socio-
for subordinate position of women cultural institutions created by society
Reject assistance by males in their Accept assistance by gender sensitive
struggles males
Ask questions like:What about The question is: What about men and
women. women

Both feminist and gender theories agree on the following:

i. Gender differences are socially rather than biologically

constructed.
ii. Gender differences can be deconstructed.
iii. Both questions and challenge oppressive gender relations.
iv. Gender differences are embedded in socio-economic
structures such as:
a) Capitalism
b) Sexism or patriarchy
c) Racism
d) Social and cultural institutions.

Feminist waves
1st wave feminism focused on;
 Family allowances
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 Women’s equal material rights
 Equalities (economic and professional equality with men )
 Women’s individual and collective social and political interests and self-
determination.
First wave feminism in Britain and America had a progressive social vision
which encompassed suffragism (right to express an opinion eg vote), old and
new feminisms and welfare feminism. These groups believed that women
would become full citizens and would gain equal entry into the professions and
into higher education. They believed in the gradual elimination of marriage
bars (a law that restricted married women from being employed) in the1950’s
and full access to public, material space as well as the dismantling of
international aggression and warfare would knock down the hurdles to
peaceful and equal existence created by male dominated institutions and
practices.
In the search for egalitarian social relations and ways to change unequal social
conditions, 1st wave feminism, together with labor, working women’s and anti
colonial organizations, catalogued women’s economic oppressions which
necessarily entailed claiming that all women should be equal citizens with
men.
Some 1st wave feminists believed that the problem of social inequality could be
solved institutionally if ‘institutions’ such as the family ceased to restrict the
potential capacities of women.
1st Wave Achievements
 1st wave feminism created a new political identity of women and won for
women legal advances and public emancipation (liberation).
 The struggle for the vote, and the latter battles for family allowances,
contraception, abortion and welfare rights.
 It also twists around several axes such as women’s domestic labor, the
endowment (to provide an income for) of motherhood protective legislation
and women’s legal status.
2nd Wave Feminism - used women’s difference to oppose the legalities of a
patriarchal world.
Women are challenging that ‘knowledge’ from the strength of their own
experience. Arguments are concerned about materiality – moral solidarities
created by feminist standpoints and identities based on differences which
include women’s material, psychic and affinitive strengths.
2nd wave feminism came to focus on the specifications of women’s differences
from men and from each other. Thus, 2nd wave feminism turned to
psychoanalytic as well as to social theories about gender difference in order to

3
explain such issues as the increase in sexual violence and in order to create a
fresh ‘feminist ethics’
In the view of most 2nd wave feminists, women’s inequalities are not simply
the result of social restrictions but stems from a controlled and organized
androcentric network of meanings not all of which are institutionally visible.
2nd Wave Achievements
2nd wave feminist politics and feminist theories have a fresh set of priorities
including those of the black women’s movement. Black feminists have
attacked the implicit racism in many texts written by Anglo American women.
The Combahee River Collective, one of the first contemporary black groups in
America, was formed in 1974 to create a more adequate feminist theory of
racial difference e.g lower wages and longer working hours than white women,
a more discriminatory education system as well domestic violence. These
changes represent a challenge to feminist theory to articulate (expressing one’s
thoughts clearly) how institutional, economic and cultural oppressions
differentially affect black women and white women, lesbian women and
heterosexual women and women with or without disabilities. A major focus of
feminist attention in environmental and peace activism has been on non-
hierarchical forms of organization and on feminist spirituality.
Conclusion
These two phases are not necessarily historically distant from one another and
they remain dialectically connected and what remains constant throughout
both waves of feminism are of the idea that women are unequal to men
because men create the meanings of equality. The aim of all feminist theory
and praxis is the creation of equal rights shared by non-alienated beings of
women and of men free to attend to personal and collective reproduction and
autonomy.

Third-wave feminism refers to several diverse strains of feminist activity and

study, whose exact boundaries in the history of feminism are a subject of
debate, but are generally marked as beginning in the early 1990s and
continuing to the present. The movement arose partially as a response to the
perceived failures of and backlash against initiatives and movements created
by second-wave feminism during the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s, and the
perception that women are of "many colors, ethnicities, nationalities, religions,
and cultural backgrounds". This wave of feminism expands the topic of
feminism to include a diverse group of women with a diverse set of identities.
[1][2]
Rebecca Walker coined the term "third-wave feminism" in a 1992 essay. [3]
It has been proposed that Walker has become somewhat of a symbol of the
third wave's focus on queer and non-white women.[4] Third-wave feminists
have broadened their goals, focusing on ideas like queer theory, and abolishing

4
 gender role expectations and stereotypes. [5] Unlike the determined position of
second-wave feminists about women in pornography, sex work, and
prostitution,[6] third-wave feminists were rather ambiguous and divided about
these themes (feminist sex wars).[7]

Feminism theories

Marxist feminism

Marxist feminists are a variety of scholars who were applying the Marxist
theory of economic determinism in explaining the oppression of women. These
were drawing from Karl Marx and Fredrick Engels’ writing.
Marxist feminism is a branch of feminist theory which argues that the main cause of
women’s oppression is capitalism.

This type of feminism is based on the understandings of Marxism, proposed by Karl

Marx and collaborator Friedrich Engels in the 19th century. Marx demonstrated
how capitalism was able to grow through the exploitation of labor.

Social classes were described to explain how one class controls the other as a means
to produce goods.

People who are of a high-class level of economic condition are the bourgeoise,
whereas people who are of a low-class level are claimed as the proletariat since they
become the labors of the bourgeoise (Marx & Engels, 1848).

Marxist feminists regard classism, rather than sexism, as the fundamental cause of
women’s oppression.

They explore how ideas of gender structure production in capitalism and argue that
women are exploited by a capitalist society.

While some Marxist themes may not be as relevant today, Marxist feminists can still
be used to explore how the political economy is gendered in late-stage capitalism and
how the social reproduction of people and communities renews capitalism
(Armstrong, 2020).

The Key Issues According To

Marxist Feminism

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The main view of Marxist feminists is that the traditional nuclear family only came
about with capitalism.

They believe that the traditional role of the housewife- who does not have paid
employment and resides in the home completing domestic tasks- supports capitalism.

Marxist feminists claim that while the proletariat are oppressed through the capitalist
system, women are double oppressed through capitalism as well as through the
nuclear family.

Women’s oppression is thought to support capitalism in multiple ways, which are

detailed below:

a) Women reproduce the labor force

In a capitalist society, women are expected to reproduce children. These children will
then grow up to be the next generation of workers and mothers.

Women are also socializing the next generation of workers and ‘servicing’ the current
workers (their husbands) with their unpaid domestic labor. Thus, women are
supporting capitalism through their own means of reproduction, according to Marxist
feminists.

b) Unpaid domestic labor of women

Marxist feminists claim that there is a division of labor between men and women: men
are assigned economic production, whereas women have been assigned reproduction
of the workforce.

In a capitalist society, more value is given to the production of material goods by men,
than the reproduction of people by women.

Domestic work which is usually carried out by women include household chores,
house management, and childcare. This labor is not respected in capitalist society
since there is no exchange value. It is, therefore, devalued, and unpaid but expected to
be done, nonetheless.

Marxist feminists explain that the unpaid labor of women is a way to exploit them. It
is done for free, and it benefits both men and the capitalist system.

Capitalism would not exist without this unpaid labor because workers would not be
able to work all day if they also had to take care of their children and the house
(Cottais, 2020).

6
 c) Women are a reserve of cheap labor
Since the primary role of women in a capitalist society is in unpaid domestic labor,
they were usually restricted from working a paid job. However, women are used as a
reserve, to be taken on temporarily when required by the bourgeois.

This was observable during the World Wars when most men were sent away to fight.
When the men were away, many women were enrolled in the work that they would
have otherwise not been allowed to do (Grayzel, 2013).

However, the women would have been paid less than the men and many would have
had to return to their unpaid domestic duties once the men returned from war.

d) Women take on emotional labor

While not directly creating any produce or service, Marxist feminists claim that
women must provide emotional labor under a capitalist society. This refers to the
labor that is involved in keeping family members emotionally stable, so they can work
efficiently.

The partners of the women may be understandably frustrated by the exploitation they
experience by the bourgeois and women are often expected to absorb this frustration
which may result in domestic violence.

How Was Marxist Feminism

Developed?
Although Marxist theory was not initially focused on women’s issues, it was realized
that under a capitalist system, women were exploited by not being paid for the
reproductive and emotional labor they were involved in.

Eleanor Marx, daughter of Karl Marx, is thought to be one of Marxist feminism’s

pioneers in England in the 19th century among others such as Rosa Luxembourg.

During the suffrage movement in the early 20th century, class systems were
considered when working-class women forged their own movement for the right to
vote alongside white middle-class women.

It was not until the 1960s and 70s when Marxist feminism became particularly
popular, resounding the most with women of the time. Marxist feminism is thought to
have arisen in reaction to liberal feminism, whose fight failed to go beyond equal
rights.

7
Marxist feminists argue that legal liberation is not enough to free women since it does
nothing to abolish the patriarchy in social relations (Cottais, 2020).
A few of the key women who contributed to the development of Marxist feminism as
a theory are Chizuko Ueno, Anuradha Ghandy, Claudia Jones, and Angela Davis.

What Are The Goals Of Marxist

Feminism?
Abolish capitalism
The main goal of Marxist feminists is to abolish capitalism. Through this, they believe
that patriarchy itself can be tackled. Overthrowing the existing economic system is
thought to liberate women.

Since capitalism is at the root of inequality and patriarchy is a product of capitalism,

removing this system should eliminate gender inequalities.

a) A classless society
Instead of capitalism, Marxist feminists advocate for a classless, communist society.
Through a classless society, both the upper-class and working-class people will be
treated equally.

Other solutions can be proposed such as reevaluating the reproductive work through
the collectivism of domestic work and childcare.

The vision of Marx and Engels was to ensure that there was a collective ownership
and the basic dignity of women in society, thus the domestic duties will be shared
equally between partners.

b) More women in the public sphere

Since women’s exclusion from paid work makes them more oppressed, a way to
combat this is to integrate women into paid work and the public sphere. This includes
ensuring that women are paid equal wages to men and are offered the same
opportunities if they have the necessary qualifications.

Marxist feminists do not generally seek to exclude men from feminist struggles, in
fact, they often want to avoid separation between the sexes for fear of fueling a class
division (Cottais, 2020).

8
 c) Valuing domestic labor
Marxist feminists do not necessarily disagree that domestic labor should be ignored.
Likewise, if a woman chooses to not work and instead take care of the household and
children, then they should be free to do so. However, Marxist feminists wish for
domestic labor to be as valued as reproductive labor.

For domestic labor to be fairly valued, Marxist feminists argue that women should be
paid for domestic work. Being paid for this work puts an economic value on what is
still largely considered women’s work.

d) Control over reproductive rights

If women have more reproductive rights and more of a choice as to whether to be a
parent, they have more choice as to their role in society. Capitalist societies see
women’s main job as to be a mother and nothing else.

So, if women realize they have a choice as to whether to go down this path, they can
feel more liberated to do what they want to do.

Strengths And Criticisms Of Marxist

Feminism
Strengths
Marxist feminism has shone a light on how women are oppressed by a capitalist
society. Attention has been drawn to the intersection of capitalism and patriarchy and
the importance of taking both class and gender into consideration in feminist
demands.

It considers how some previous feminist movements may have been more focused on
the rights of middle-class or upper-class women, with working-class women being
ignored or forgotten in history.

Marxist feminism can also highlight how working-class women are not only
subservient to men, but often to wealthy women.
More women and men recognize that there is often an imbalance in the share of
household and childcare responsibilities.

9
This awareness means that couples can discuss and come to agreements as to how to
split the duties. Many more men take on an active role in the household which can
allow their partners to relax or to work on their career.

Likewise, people in relationships can start to be more aware of whether they are
unwillingly doing more of the domestic duties. If someone’s partner is not willing to
take on more of the unpaid labor and this is making them unhappy, then they can
consider whether this is the person they want to spend their life with.

Ultimately, more people can find a partner who suits their lifestyle and do not have to
settle for someone who is not helpful or supportive.

Key Takeaways according to Guy-Evans (2023)

1. Marxist feminists see the family as a tool of capitalism and that it is capitalism
not men who oppress women.

2. They see the family as oppressing women whilst support capitalism in three
ways:

3. Women reproduce the workforce and socialize them into a social hierarchy.

4. Women absorb the anger of men who are frustrated by their alienation and
exploitation (cushioning effect).

5. Women are a reserve army of cheap labor that can be activated when they are
needed and let go when no longer needed.

Marxist terms:

a. Economic base-it consists of the means of production including land,

capital, labour and time.
b. Forces of production-which include tools/implements or technology.
c. Relations of production-which define who owns, controls, dominates,
profits as well as who has power.
d. The ownership of the means of production and productive forces
determine the relations of production.
e. Superstructures-is made of the ideologies that monitor, reproduce and
legitimise the status quo. The ideologies are :
1. Patriarchy
2. Capitalism
3. Cultural beliefs
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4. Religion
f. State institutions e.g schools, legislation and repressive state apparatus
g. Economic determinism-states that ownership of the economy greatly
determines how two classes (owners and non owners of the means of
production) relate in capitalist system.
h. Surbordinate and dominant-Those who own the means of production are
the dominant class while those who do not own them constitute the
subordinate class.

Exploitation and Oppression-those who do not own the means of

production are the exploited of their labour by being given low wages.
The powerful owning oppresses the surbodinate class.

Marixist –Feminist Expositions

 Gender inequalities are rooted in capitalism and its ownership of

private property .
 The challenge attempt to isolate gender from social class.
 Men are powerful because they own the means of production
(dominant class)
 Women do not own the means of production hence are a surbodinate
class that is oppressed, exploited just like the prolerariates.
 The base determines relations between men and women
 Women’s position in a capitalistic society is economically determined
 Capitalism divides work into private (home) and public sphere
(workplace)
 Capitalism values men’s labour and devalue that of women by giving
low wages
 Women enter wage labour from a subordinate position
 Women are a reserve army of labour, that is, they can be recruited any
time to replace males at a low cost.
 Men are viewed as bread winners hence higher wages while women
are viewed as appendages of men
 Women suffer double exploitation, for example, they produce in
factories and produce future labourers at no cost
 Domestic work in the private sphere is not remunerated
 Women are eliminated (separated) from their production, reproduction
and sexuality. This means women do not own and control what they

11
 produce in the public sphere, at home and even that which relate to
their sexuality(children and bodies).
 Women serve the interest of capitalism through the management of
the family. They provide productive, psychological and social needs.

Solutions

 Marxist feminists stress the need to overthrow capitalist economic

system. They call for a socialist revolution that would change the
structure and ownership of the means of production.
 There must be an ideological change first in the consciousness of
both sexes.
 Females must free themselves from dependences and traditional
gender roles that confine them to the private sphere.
 Participation of women in the public sphere is key to their
liberation.
 Men and women should struggle against capitalist oppressors.
 Class and gender struggles should take place at the same time.
 Abolition of private property and setting up of a community owned
means of production in a communist society.
 Household work should be paid for.

Applicability

In SADC countries as patriarchal societies women employed in the

public sphere mostly do domestic work which has been transferred
from the private sphere to the public sphere e.g nursing (caring),
teaching (socialising), and catering (servicing) and being secretaries
for bosses who are mostly males.

Limitations

 Societies has changed some women now own the means of

production and private properties.
 Some SADC countries have come up with national gender
policies and legal instruments that enable women to access
property, capital, loans and land (Land reform in Zimbabwe)
 Entry into wage labour by women from the 18th century to today
does not prove to be important to their liberation. It has
increased women’s labour burdens.

12
 Experiences for Socialist countries e.g Soviet Union, Cuba,
China and the former Eastern block, did not show that women’s
positions in these societies were any better. These societies are
still male dominated with powerful posts in male hands.
 In countries like Zimbabwe, most women find themselves in the
informal sector with low unreliable income. They are not of the
proletariat working in the public places. The majority of women
are in rural areas. The theory did not look at majority of women
in the Third World Countries.
 Marxist feminists are gender blind. They failed to focus on
power relations of males and females as independent from
social class. They did not explain why men exploit and oppress
women even in socialist societies.
 They also fail to explain subordinate position of women before
the advent of Capitalism.
 They ignore patriarchy and male control of women’s sexuality,
culture, violence, race and ethnicity.
 The economic factors are not enough to explain gender
inequalities, other sources of inequalities are ignored.
 A main criticism of Marxist feminism is that women’s oppression is
thought to have been prevalent in the family system before
capitalism existed.
 Therefore, it is doubtful whether men would suddenly stop
exploiting women in a classless society.
In fact, sexism and oppression of women can still be found in
communist political parties, trade unions, and left-wing militant
structures.
 As such, viewing Marxism as a condition for women’s liberation
ignores sexism as a whole and may only deal with a small percentage
of the wider issue.
Marxist feminism has focused heavily on the intersection of class
and gender but initially did not always incorporate the intersection of
race, sexuality, or disability alongside these issues.
 A black woman in a mostly white capitalist society, for instance,
would be oppressed because of being a woman, but also for being
black. Angela Davis discusses the intersection of race on Marxist
feminism in her book ‘Women, Race, & Class’ (1981).
 Marxist feminism may also be criticized as not being relevant in
today’s society. Since more women have the opportunity to work
and have the choice as to whether to bear children, they are not
necessarily restricted to being a traditional housewife, unless this is
what they choose to do.
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Activities

Discuss men and women ownership of the means of production and the
productive forces in your country.

How does the above elements of the Superstructure maintain male dominance
and legitimise the ownership of the means of production in your country.
Explain giving examples .

Liberal Feminism:

This kind of feminism works within the structure of mainstream society to

integrate women into it and make it more responsive to individual women’s
rights, but does not directly challenge the system itself or the ideology behind
women’s oppression.

Liberal Feminism - gender identity is learnt through traditional patterns of

gender role socialisation. Liberal feminism is grounded in liberal philosophy
developed by Lock, Rousseau, Bentham and Mill for equal rights,
individualism, liberty and justice. French feminist Olympe de Gouge in
revolutionary France, her contemporary in Britain Mary Wollstonecraft and
later Harriet Taylor campaigned to have same rights extended to women. It
acknowledges the interlink of everything in nature and reforms have to be
made around the existing social structures. Central to liberal feminism was the
idea that women’s disadvantages stem from stereotyped customary
expectations held by men and internalised by women and promoted
through socialization process.
The disadvantages, in principle, could be broken by giving girls better
training and more role models , by introducing equal opportunity
programs, and anti discrimination legislation.
There was little focus on men or on power relations between men and men.

According Guy-Evans, (2023) Key Takeaways of Liberal

Feminism are:
1) Liberal feminism believes that equality should be brought about through
education and policy changes. They try to change the system from within.

2) Liberal feminism has been criticized for being too optimistic about the amount
of progress that has been made. It has been accused of dealing with the effects
of patriarchy and not the causes.

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 3) Marxist and Radical feminists also argue that liberal feminists fail to challenge
the underlying causes of women’s oppression and changing the law is not
enough to bring about equality, there needs to be a fundamental change in
social structures.

What Is Liberal Feminism?

Liberal feminism is a prominent branch of feminism that aims to advocate for
women’s legal and political rights.

It was born in western countries and emphasizes the value of freedom which can be
achieved through political and legal reform.

The ideas of liberal feminism are rooted in liberalism, a political philosophy that
encourages the development of freedom, particularly in the political and economic
spheres.

These key ideas of liberalism include individual freedom, democracy, equal

opportunities, and equal rights.

Liberal feminists apply liberalism to gender equality and claim that the oppression of
women lies in their lack of political and civil rights. Liberal feminism emphasizes the
rights of the individual woman and aims to grant access to equal rights and
representation through legislation.

Accordingly, women’s ‘liberation’ would be achieved by putting an end to

discriminatory practices and by pushing for equal rights.

Liberal feminists have fought for women’s right to vote, to work, to an education, and
to have equal pay.

What Are The Principles Of Liberal

Feminism?
a) Gender equality
While they may not deny there may be biological differences between men and
women, liberal feminists do not see these differences as justification for inequalities
between the sexes.

15
Thus, their main principle is for women to be treated as equals to men.

This can include having the same social and political rights, having equal pay for
doing the same job as men, and being equals in marriage and partnership.

b) Equality in women’s representation

Liberal feminists believe that women have the right to be as active in society as men,
and thus be equally represented in the workplace, politics, and in the media.

This may mean that they would want to be equally represented in higher career
positions such as CEOs and directors. They would also want to be equally represented
in political roles such as having more women world leaders.

Moreover, they would want to be better represented in film and television, by having
more female leading actors and more female directors and producers.

c) Reforming the system

Liberal feminists do not necessarily question the system of society as a whole, but
instead, believe in its capacity to reform.

They believe that gender justice is best achieved by modifying existing social
institutions and political systems.
They rely on the state to gain equality and support affirmative action and legislation
which grants equal rights and opportunities to both men and women.

For instance, liberal feminists would generally be supportive of employers and

educational institutions which make special attempts to include women as serious
applicants.

d) Individualistic
Liberal feminism is individualistic rather than group based. This means that the rights
are granted to individual women who are assumed to be equal and thus equally
deserving, rather than granting rights to a whole group.

e) The concept of sexism

Liberal feminists are thought to have popularized the concept of ‘sexism’ to refer to
ideas and social practices that keep women in a subordinate role.

16
They believe that sexism is rooted in the idea of biological determinism, which is the
idea that certain behaviors or abilities are inherent to women or men and are derived
from biological characteristics.

Sexism, liberal feminists believe, is the fundamental cause of discrimination against

women.

What Are The Goals Of Liberal

Feminism?
a) Equality in the public sphere
The primary goal of liberal feminism is gender equality in the public sphere. This
includes equal access to education, equal pay, ending job sex segregation, and better
working conditions for women. All of these are believed to be achieved through legal
change.

While early liberal feminists sought to gain the right to vote and access to education
for women, modern liberal feminists aim to secure equal social, political, and
economic opportunities, equal civil liberties, and sexual freedoms. If there is gender
inequality in existing institutions, then liberal feminists seek to eradicate this to create
a fair and just society.

b) Equality in the private sphere

Liberal feminists also suggest that gender equality should be present in the home as
well as in public life. The family can be seen as a social institution and thus should be
an equal structure according to liberal feminists.

They tend to support marriage as long as it is an equal partnership.

In an equal partnership, men and women share the household chores, cooking, house
management, and childcare as equally as possible.

Liberal feminists also generally support abortion and other reproductive rights that are
related to the control of one’s life and autonomy. They also believe that ending
domestic violence and sexual harassment removes obstacles to women achieving on
an equal level with men.

Examples of Liberal Feminism Today

17
Since liberal feminism was traditionally focused on legal equality, it could be
considered almost fully achieved in some western countries.

In practice, however, gender equality in law and legislation does not necessarily mean
that there is real and productive equality, which is why liberal feminism still exists.

a) In the family
Feminists are critical of the family as a social institutions. They believe that the family
is a tool of female oppression and in particular the nuclear family serves the needs of
men rather than women. This is through issues
such as unequal division of domestic labor and domestic violence.

Liberal feminists argue that families are slowly becoming more equal through changes
in law and social attitudes.
They do not believe that full equality has been achieved but the process is well
underway.

For example, they show how parents are now socializing their children in more
gender-neutral ways, with similar
aspirations for both sons and daughters and chores not being determined by gender.

b) In the workplace
While there may be more equality in the number of women in the workplace, liberal
feminists argue that there are inequalities within.

Typically, women are over-represented in positions which are traditionally ‘feminine’

roles such as nursing, teaching, and social care. These are positions which are often
underpaid compared to jobs which are typically male-dominated such as in science,
law, and medicine.

Likewise, there is often still a gender wage gap in many countries where women still
earn less on average than a man for the same job.

While there are more women represented in sectors that were once considered ‘male’,
they are often confined to lower positions in the hierarchy and there are
disproportionately less women CEOs, vice-presidents, and directors. Liberal feminists
would like to see more women in these higher positions.

c) In politics

18
While there may now be more women involved in politics, there is still an under-
representation in the number of women in political roles.

Particularly, men still dominate political leadership such as in the United States where
there has never been a female president, or in the United Kingdom where there have
only been two female prime ministers.

Men still make a lot of the decisions and laws in society meaning that less women’s
voices are heard. Liberal feminists would suggest that having more women in
positions of power would trigger positive changes to make their views understood.

d) In the media
In film and television, female characters are under-represented, with women less
likely to play the protagonist character. Women in film and television often play the
love interest to the main male character or play a smaller role with fewer speaking
parts.

There is a test known as the Bechdel test which aims to examine the presence of
women in film and highlights the sexism that persists.

To pass the Bechdel test, the film must contain two named, speaking female
characters who have a conversation with each other where the topic of conversation is
not related to a man. There are still many films released today that do not pass the
Bechdel test.

There are also fewer female directors in films. Liberal feminists suggest that having
more female directors would allow for more female actors and less female stereotyped
characters.

Strengths and Criticisms Of Liberal

Feminism
Strengths
A strength of liberal feminism is that it is a relatively popular branch of feminism, and
the goals are the ones that support a lot of public opinion.

For instance, it is easy for most people to support equal rights for both men and
women to vote and work – it would be difficult to justify otherwise. Likewise, the
major victories of liberal feminists are rarely questioned. For example, not many
would suggest that the vote should be taken away from women.

19
Liberal feminists have helped to bring forward legislature which helps to protect more
women. They cannot be discriminated against on the basis of their sex in the
workplace, they have more rights, and they can own property. Also, liberal feminism
extends its principles into the private sphere so as to protect more women from the
forms of oppression specific to this sphere

Criticisms
Since liberal feminism is the oldest version of the feminist movement, it faces a lot of
criticism, especially from other feminists.

It is argued that liberal feminists overlook how differences of race, class, and sexual
orientation, among others, can intersect to create different levels of women’s
oppression. Liberal feminists are accused of being ‘white feminists’ which means that
they assume that the issues facing white, mostly western women are issues that all
women face.

Much of the work of liberal feminism has been carried by white privileged women
whose fight has mainly been for other white women.

They may question the number of women in politics, for instance, but may not argue
for more women of color, or working-class women in this field.

The suffrage movement saw the vote granted to women in the early 20th century as a
win, despite many women of color not being granted the vote until decades later.

Many liberal feminists would celebrate a woman being promoted to a position of

power without considering the values of the person.

They may overlook the fact that the woman in power has goals that are oppressive and
immoral, because as long as she is in power, it is a win for the liberal feminists.

Liberal feminism does not really consider the root cause of gender inequality. Marxist
feminists would argue that liberal feminists ignore the systemic discrimination – that
women’s oppression coming from the patriarchy and capitalism. Instead, liberal
feminists do not see the need to overthrow the system, and in fact, may even promote
capitalism.

Liberal feminism often faces additional criticism for the notion of trying to make
women ‘superheroes’, capable of successfully combining marriage, motherhood, and
career.

While many women may desire this, it can be considered as more oppressive towards
women as they are now expected to succeed in a male-dominated workplace while
simultaneously managing their roles as housewife and mother.

20
 Women who do not have the desire or time for a successful career may feel judged
by liberal feminists.

Radical theory
Radical feminism is a movement that rose in the 1960s to 80sas a breakaway of
Marxists who were frustrated by the inability to apply social class in analysing
gender oppression. It was also a reaction to the liberal theory. The first radical
group was influenced by the Maoist ideas and the need to develop political
strategies for women’s liberation. Their slogan was ‘personal is political’
(Bryson,1992) meaning that no aspect of life lacked political dimension (power
relations).The theory is radical is radical in nature, that is it is violent, fast,
uncompromising and strongly oppose patriarchal systems. Radical feminists
like Kate Millet demand radical transformation of the oppressive gender
relations. They consider men as their enemy.

Radical Feminism
Key Takeaways according to Guy-Evans 2023
a) Radical feminists believe that men are the enemy and that marriage and family
are the key institutions that allow patriarchy to exist.

b) For radical feminists in order for equality to be achieved patriarchy needs to be

overturned. They argue that the family needs to be abolished and a system of
gender separatism needs to be instituted for this to happen.

c) Sommerville argues that radical feminists fail to see the improvements that
have been made to women’s experiences of the family.

With better access to divorce and control over their fertility women are no
longer trapped by family. She also argues that separatism is unobtainable due
to heterosexual attraction.

What Is Radical Feminism?

Radical feminism is a branch of feminism that seeks to dismantle the traditional
patriarchal power and gender roles that keep women oppressed.

21
Radical feminists believe that the cause of gender inequality is based on men’s need or
desire to control women.
The definition of the word ‘radical’ means ‘of or relating to the root’.

Radical feminists thus see patriarchy as the root cause of inequality between men and
women and they seek to up-root this. They aim to address the root causes of
oppression through systemic change and activism, rather than through legislative or
economic change.

Radical feminism requires global change of the system. Radical feminists theorize
new ways to think and apprehend the relationships between men and women so that
women can be liberated.

Radical feminism sees women as a collective group that has been and is still being
oppressed by men. Its intent is focused on being women-centered, with women’s
experiences and interests being at the forefront of the theory and practice. It is argued
by some to be the only theory by and for women (Rowland & Klein, 1996).

What Are The Principles Of Radical

Feminism?
a) Patriarchal institutions
Radical feminists believe that there are existing political, social, and other institutions
that are inherently tied to the patriarchy.

This can include government laws and legislature which restricts what women can do
with their bodies, and the church, which has long restricted women to the maternal
role, and rejects the idea of non-reproductive sexuality.

Traditional marriage is also defined as a patriarchal institution according to radical

feminists since it makes women part of men’s private property.

Even today, marriage can be seen as an institution perpetuating inequalities through

unpaid domestic work, most of which is still done by women.

b) Control over women’s bodies

According to radical feminists, patriarchal systems attempt to gain control over
women’s bodies. Patriarchal institutions control the laws of reproduction where they
determine whether women have the right to an abortion and contraception.

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Thus, women have less autonomy over their own bodies.
Kathleen Barry stated in her book Female Sexual Slavery (1979) that women in
marriage are seen to be ‘owned’ by their husband.

She also suggested that women’s bodies are used in advertising and pornography alike
for the male use.

c) Women are objectified

From a radical feminist standpoint, the patriarchy, societal sexism, sexual violence,
and sex work all contribute to the objectification of women.

They accuse pornography of objectifying and degrading women, displaying unequal

male-female power relations. With prostitution, radical feminists argue that it
trivializes rape in return for payment and that prostitutes are sexually exploited.

The struggle against pornography has come to occupy such a central position in the
radical feminist critique of male supremacist relations of power.

Campaigns against this are intended to tell women how men are willingly being
trained to view and objectify them (Thompson, 2001).

d) Violence against women

Radical feminists believe that women experience violence by men physically and
sexually, but also through prostitution and pornography.

They believe that violence is a way for men to gain control, dominate, and perpetuate
women’s subordination.
According to radical feminists, violence against women is not down to a few
perpetrators, but it is a wider, societal problem.

They claim there is a rape culture that is enabled and encouraged by a patriarchal
society.

e) Transgender disagreement
There is disagreement about transgender identity in the radical feminist community.
While some radical feminists support the rights of transgender people, some are
against the existence of transgender individuals, especially transgender women.

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Trans Exclusionary Radical Feminists (TERF) are members of the radical feminist
community who do not acknowledge that transgender women are real women and
often want to exclude them from ‘women-only’ groups.

For this reason, TERFs often reduce gender down to biological sex differences and do
not support the rights of all those who identify as being a woman.

What Are The Goals Of Radical

Feminism?
a) Structural change
Radical feminists aim to dismantle the entire system of patriarchy, rather than adjust
the existing system through legal or social efforts, which they claim does not go far
enough.

They desire this structural change since they argue that women’s oppression is
systemic, meaning it is produced by how society functions and is found in all
institutions.

They believe that institutions including the government and religion are centered
historically in patriarchal power and thus need to be dismantled.

They also criticize motherhood, marriage, the nuclear family, and sexuality,
questioning how much culture is based on patriarchal assumptions. They would like to
see changes in how these other institutions function.

b) Bodily autonomy
Radical feminists emphasize the theme of the body, specifically on the reappropriation
of the body by women, as well as on the freedom of choice. They want to reclaim
their bodies and choose to be able to do what they want with their bodies.

They have argued for reproductive rights for women which would give them the
freedom to make choices about whether they want to give birth.

This also includes having access to safe abortions, birth control, and getting sterilized
if this is what a woman wants to do.

c) End violence against women

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Radical feminists aim to shed light on the disproportionate amount of violence that
women face at the hands of men. They argue that rape and sexual abuse are an
expression of patriarchal power and must be stopped.

Through dismantling the patriarchy and having justice for victims of violence on the
basis of sex, radical feminists believe there will be less instances of this violence.

Many also argue that pornography and other types of sex work are harmful and
encourage violence and domination of men over women and should be stopped. They
believe that sex work falls under the patriarchal oppression of women and is
exploitative, although some radical feminists disagree with this position.

d) Women-centered strategies
A main part of radical feminism is that they want strategies to be put in place to help
women. This can include the creation of shelters for abused women and better sex
education to raise awareness of consent.

Many radical feminists strive for establishing women-centered social institutions and
women-only organizations so that women are separated from men who may cause
them harm.

For instance, they may be against having gender neutral public bathrooms as this
increases women’s risk of being abused by a man.

This is also where TERFs can be critical of transgender people as they do not want
them in women-only spaces since they do not see a transwoman as a woman.

The History of Radical Feminism

Radical feminism mainly developed during the second wave of feminism from the
1960s onwards in primarily western countries. It is influenced by left-wing social
movements such as the civil rights movement.

It is thought to have been constructed in opposition to other feminist movements at the

time: Liberal and Marxist feminism.

Liberal feminism only demanded equal rights within the system of society and is
criticized for not going far enough to make actual change.

Marxist feminism, on the other hand, confined itself to an economic analysis of

women’s oppression and believes that women’s liberation comes from abolishing
capitalism.

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Although becoming popularized in the 1960’s there are believed to be radical
feminists decades before this time.

For example, some of the actions of the women in the women’s suffrage movement in
the early 20th century can be considered radical.

Likewise, a 1911 radical feminist review in England titled The Free Woman published
weekly writings about revolutionary ideas about women, marriage, politics,
prostitution, sexual relations, and issues concerning women’s oppression and
strategies for ending it.

It was eventually banned by booksellers and many suffragists at the time objected to it
because of its critical position on the right to vote as the single issue which would
ensure women’s equality (Rowland & Klein, 1996).

Radical feminism as a movement is thought to have emerged in 1968 as a response to

deeper understandings of women’s oppression (Atkinson, 2014). The early years of
second wave feminism were marked by the efforts of young radical feminists to
establish an identity for their growing movement.

They argued that women needed to engage in a revolutionary movement which goes
beyond liberal and Marxist movements.

A significant radical feminist group which emerged around this time is the New York
Radical Women group, founded by Shulamith Firestone and Pam Allen.

They attempted to spread the message that ‘sisterhood is powerful’. A well-known

protest of this group occurred during the Miss America Pageant in 1968.

Hundreds of women marched with signs proclaiming that the pageant was a ‘cattle
auction’. During the live broadcast of this event, the women displayed a banner that
read ‘Women’s Liberation’, which brought a great deal of public awareness of the
radical feminist movement.

A noteworthy writing prior to this time which may have been influential to the
movement is Simone de Beauvoir’s 1949 book titled The Second Sex.

In this book, she understands women’s oppression by analyzing the particular

institutions which define women’s lives, such as marriage, family, and motherhood.

Another influential writing is Betty Friedan’s 1963 book titled The Feminine
Mystique which addresses women’s dissatisfaction with societal standards and
expectations.

Her book gave a voice to women’s frustrations with their limited gender roles and
helped to spark widespread activism for gender equality.

26
Strengths and Criticisms Of Radical
Feminism
Strengths
Radical feminism is thought to expand on earlier branches of feminism since it seeks
to understand and dismantle the roots of women’s oppression. It is considered stronger
than liberal feminism which only seeks to make changes within the already
established system, which is considered not enough to make actual change.

Radical feminism has also been responsible for many of the advances made during
the second wave of feminism. This is particularly true when it comes to women’s
choice over their bodies and violence against women.

Due to the activism of radical feminists, sexual violence such as rape and domestic
violence are now considered crimes in most western countries.

It has also been recognized that violence against women is not a series of isolated
cases, but rather a societal phenomenon. Radical feminists have thus increased
awareness of this issue.

Criticisms
A prominent criticism of radical feminism is the transphobia associated with TERFs.
Many people who relate to a lot of the original ideas of radical feminism may have
stopped identifying as a radical feminist due to its association with TERFs.

It is not only transphobic but is part of a wider movement which encompasses its
feminist stance to partner with conservatives, with a goal to endanger and get rid of
transgender people.

While radical feminism may have been progressive during its peak, the movement can
be criticized for lacking an intersectional lens. It views gender as the most important
axis of oppression and sees women as a homogenous group collectively oppressed by
men.

It does not always take into consideration the different experiences of oppression
suffered by women with disabilities, women of color, or migrant women for instance.

As with a lot of branches of feminism, radical feminism is often dominated by white

women.
Radical feminists are often criticized for their paradoxical views of bodily autonomy.

27
They promote freedom of choice when it comes to women and what they do with their
bodies, but they do not support women who choose to engage in sex work. They argue
that all sex workers are oppressed, without recognizing that a good number of them
use this work to reappropriate their own bodies or even to play on male domination.

The critical view that radical feminists have about sex work has contributed to the
further stigmatization of this industry and it contradicts their message of ‘my body,
my choice’ and their opposition to conservative views of sexuality.

If they supported bodily autonomy, then they should be happy to see a woman
choosing to engage in sex work, as long as this is what she is choosing to do.

Key Issues and Tactics

Central issues engaged by radical feminists include:

 Reproductive rights for women, including the freedom to make choices to give
birth, have an abortion, use birth control, or get sterilized
 Evaluating and then breaking down traditional gender roles in private
relationships as well as in public policies
 Understanding pornography as an industry and practice leading to harm to
women, although some radical feminists disagreed with this position
 Understanding rape as an expression of patriarchal power, not a seeking of sex
 Understanding prostitution under patriarchy as the oppression of women,
sexually and economically
 A critique of motherhood, marriage, the nuclear family, and sexuality,
questioning how much of our culture is based on patriarchal assumptions
 A critique of other institutions, including government and religion, as centered
historically in patriarchal power

Activities

What reproductive changes have taken place in your country as a result of

radical theorists influence?

How does patriarchy interfere with women’s participation in:

i. Politics,
ii. Decision making in the home, and
iii. Community.

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Radical feminists have come up with the following factors as explanations of
gender inequalities:

 Patriarchy,
 Gender socialisation, and
 Biology.

Radical prescribe that women are to struggle on their own liberation against
oppressor (males).Radical blame men all their problems in their lives for
example conflict, war, destruction of the environment and abuse. The want the
following to be done:

 Reject gender roles and call for child care facilities

 Radicals are of the view that gender differences can be reduced by taking
desirable characteristics of males and females because these are socially
constructed.
 Call for total restructuring of society because to them doing away with
domination is a means of eliminating women’s oppression.
 Demand women’s empowerment in education, politics and sexuality.
 Focus on violence against women, for example, rape, sexual harassment,
incest, pornography and domestic violence.
 Challenge also men’s control and monopoly over the production and use
of knowledge e.g in mass media.

Applicability of the Radical Feminist theory

Their ideas have significantly influenced changes in curriculum which has

resulted in the eliminating gender stereotyping that impact negatively on
women’s academic achievement. This gender stereotyping is evident in
subjects like maths and science that were male dominated. They are now
available to women.

Women are also empowered health wise e.g use of birth control measures of
their choices, use of protection (female condom).

There are also pressure groups which fight for women and girls’ rights eg:

 Women’s Action Group

 Affirmative Action Group (AAG)
 Women of Zimbabwe
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Other facilities include the Girl Child Network, scholarships for girl children
and victim friendly courts for abused children.

The passing on of the following act is also a result of radical feminism:

 Sexual and Offences act

 HIV and AIDS act
 Domestic Violence Act
 Stiffer penalties for rape perpetrators are also all efforts of radical
feminists.

Organisations like Musasa Project have protected women experiencing

gender domestic violence of any kind in Zimbabwe. A shelter for such
women was set up in Harare. Single sex schools, Women’s University and
Women’s Institute of Governance are all products of radical feminists.

Women have made to access legal instruments that allow them to abort
under special circumstances like rape, incest, mental health or anything that
endangers the woman’s health. Radical feminists have also influenced the
setting up of childcare institutions, and introduction of new reproductive
technologies like donation of sperm, artificial insemination, surrogate
motherhood and making choices of family planning methods. All these
enable women to control their bodies.

Limitations

The following can be cited as limitations of the Radical feminist theory:

 It is critisised as Western e.g in Africa, abortion is male dominated

(male decide) and it touches religious and moral issues. As a result the
theory is heavily criticised and opposed.
 It emphasises differences between men and women making peaceful
co-existence and cooperation and opposed.
 It is hostile towards man who are also victims of socialisation.
 Separatists and their rejection of marriage and relationships with
males can lead to the end of the human race.
 Views women as passive victims and assumes that all women are
good and all males are bad.
 That all males are able to oppress all women, ignoring the fact that
some men who are oppressed by women or by both.
 The theory fails to explain the origins of patriarchy and its power.
30
  It leaves out other factors like race, class and ethnicity.

Black Feminism

It is a theory of third world women by third world women dissatisfied with

other types of feminisms. Black feminism looks at women affected by race
especially the black women in the western world are excluded by macro
theories. These are black women who are in industrialised nations are a result of
slavery, employment, studies and refugee status.

Black feminists argue that versions of other feminists do not apply to white and
non-white women. Black women have problems of segregation or exclusion in
civil rights movements in industrialised nations. Race is viewed as the
most/only relevant label for identification. As a result black women have not
been central in women’s liberation movement. Where characteristics of women
are measured, those of white women are used as a yardstick ( Hooks in Giddes,
2001).

Black Feminism - Sara Ahmed argues that Black and Postcolonial feminisms
pose a challenge "to some of the organizing premises of Western feminist
thought.” During much of its history, feminist movements and theoretical
developments were led predominantly by middle-class white women from
Western Europe and North America. However women of other races have
proposed alternative feminisms. This trend accelerated in the 1960s with the
civil rights movement in the United States and the collapse of European
colonialism in Africa, the Caribbean, parts of Latin America, and
Southeast Asia. Since that time, women in developing nations and former
colonies and who are of colour or various ethnicities or living in poverty have
proposed additional feminisms.
Postcolonial feminists argue that colonial oppression and Western feminism
marginalized postcolonial women but did not turn them passive or voiceless.

Solutions

Theories of feminism should take into account issues of racism. Concentration

should not be on experiences and ideas of white women.

Applicability

31
Black women, the world over, are subordinated by the race issue. However,
their situations are worse in the western world. Their voices are unheard
because of race, class and gender.

Post-colonial feminism
- Traditional feminist theories (liberal, Marxist, Radical ) focused on the
concerns of middle class women.
- They also viewed women as a homogeneous group
- Women’s concerns did not transcend class and race
- Women of the other creeds, religion, age, class and ethnicity were
excluded.
- Proponents of post colonial feminism critique traditional feminist theories
- Post colonial theorists argue that
1. It is not possible to study society and develop unified conclusions.
2. Human behavior is characterized by heterogeneity rather than
homogeneity
3. Positivism and generalizations are not accurate in human behavior

- Post-colonial theorists looks at the following factors as explanations for the

subordinate position of women especially in Developing Countries:
 Location on the Globe ( developing or developed world)
 International/ Global economy
 History of colonization
 Race
 Class
 Patriarchy
 Ethnicity
 Religion
 Age
 Gender among others.

Major Tenants

 The theory focuses on women in developing counties who are minorities and
previously ignored.
 These are unrepresented black, rural, disabled, and younger and lower class
women among others.
 Women are viewed as fragmented or heterogeneous because of ethnicity,
race, religion, age, disability, class, nationality, marital status, history and
multiple identities.

32
 As a result women do not have shared experiences as suggested by traditional
feminist theories.
 A feminist theory is not possible especially in developing countries like
Africa where women are divided by a lot of factors listed above.
 Subordination of women in developing countries should be situated in their
histories and their location within neo-colonial nations.
 It looks at multicultural or global feminism where all other differences are
recognized not just gender.
 It also looks at intersection of gender with race, class and issues of
colonization and exploitation of women in the developing world
 According to post- colonial women in developing countries women are
subordinated in many ways: they are subordinated and oppressed as:


Women from developing countries

The relationship that exists between the developed industrial nations and the
developing nations is in such a way that the developed world exploits the
developing world resources and labour. The periphery (satellites that is
developing countries supply the metropolis (core), the developed world with
resources and labour (Gunder Frank and Dos Santos in Anderson (1995).
Zimbabwe is a developing country and women are subordinated.

Globalization of Economy

Developing economies, Zimbabwe included are incorporated into capitalist

economies of the developed world. Transnational capitalists who are mostly the
patriarchs control world economy through trade. A system of dependency
developing countries on the economies of the first world has been created.
Developed nations extracted raw materials from developing countries, exported
them to be manufactured in Europe and brought back as finished goods
expensive to the Africans. Developing countries people become depended on
the west for manufactured goods, technology and technological knowhow. New
dependency arose after the Second World War that is financial dependency with
multinational corporations that invested in developing countries. Only a third is
reinvested. The profits are repatriated. Peripheral market conditions of the
developed nations dictate the terms of trade (Dos Santos in Sanderson 1995).
Zimbabwean women are part of this dependency and exploitation by the first
world’s multinational companies and trade.

Class

33
Women in a capitalist global economy like men are part of the proletariats.
Their labour is exploited for low wages. In this global oppression, peasants’
farmers and urban workers are the most exploited. Women are the producers of
raw materials in the periphery but are alienated from what they produce. They
are exploited by both global capitalists and capitalist elites in their nations. In
Zimbabwe women belong to a lower class that has no power or control of the
means of production.

4. Race

Women especially in developing countries, Zimbabwe included are further

subordinated as a black race. White women in the developed world are the
capitalists and consumers of what the black race produces. The voices of the
black women are not heard. The concerns of the traditional (modernist) feminist
theories did not take into account issues of race. White women and black
women do not have same experiences hence cannot speak with one voice. Black
women are subordinated by both white males and females of the developed and
developing world. The situation of women during the colonial and post colonial
has not changed much in relation to racial issues in most African countries.

5. Gender

Women in third world countries are also subordinated and exploited as women
by males. In patriarchal societies where males dominate, ownership of property,
movable and immovable is largely in the hands of males. Such resources are
land, livestock, cars, tractors, capital, and homesteads among others. Studies
conducted by Women and Law in Zimbabwe (2000) reveal that women have
access to the resources but do not have control over them. Women are exploited
as labourers and child bearers. Most African cultures legitimize this male
dominance.

6. By other women

Women are further subordinated by other women depending on age, position of

power and relationships (Ndlovu-Gatsheni, 2003)

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Generally, elderly women subordinate younger women. They dictate to them
and subject them to initiation ceremonies and cultural norms and values that
trap younger women in their subordination. Other women assume cultural and
patriarchal power that enables them to oppress other women. Examples of such
women are mothers in law and sisters in law. Senior women in polygamous and
non polygamous families enjoy a higher status as grandmothers, sisters and
sisters in law (gogo, sisi, maiguru and tete).They make sure their commands are
carried by junior women. They impart to them traditions and norms that support
male dominance and female subordination.

7. Ethnicity

Ethnicity like race is a serious factor in issues of subordination, the world over.
Different ethnic groups have different statuses in their countries. A woman who
belongs to the lowest ethnic group is the most subordinated. She is subordinated
by males and females of other superior ethnic groups and her husband. She is
looked down upon for ethnicity and gender. For example a Nguni woman would
always be the first wife during the reign of Mzilikazi and Lobengula(Ndlovu-
Gatsheni,2003).Her firstborn son would always be an heir even if the husband
had many wives and sons before her .Wives from royal families did not work in
the fields but had other women working for them while they participated in
public affairs

8. As rural women

The majority of women in third world countries are in rural areas. These make
the majority of illiterate women who lack access to information, technology,
technological know-how, training, health etc. Most such women do not own the
means of production e.g. land , machinery and capital despite changes in legal
instruments. Historically, these women were affected by colonial peasantisation.
They made up 90% of agricultural workers . However, they had no access to
and control of land, seeds, credit facilities etc. These were registered in male
names. Males took produce of single crops like maize, cotton, palms and
tobacco to marketing boards (Marcus and Dunklin 1998) Money became a
medium of exchange in the colonial era, but women were not part of that money

35
economy. Women produced for commercial purposes but only controlled crops
that had to do with subsistence (consumption).

9. Religion

Almost all religions in the world subordinate women. In an Islamic religion, a

devout Muslim would stop praying when a strange women or a donkey appears
(Acker, 1997). A prayer by devout Jewish reads; I thank God that I am a Jew
and not a gentile, am a man and not a woman.

In Christianity, it is believed that a woman was not created from the dust of the
earth but from Adam’s independent person. Adam was given dominion over
creation and a man is the head of the family as Christ is head of the church. In
traditional religion women do not speak to the ancestral spirit (midzimu) but can
talk to stray spirits (mashavi). Ancestral spirits from the mother’s side are not
important as those of the father’s side. Women do not make important religious
decisions in the families. They can not appease angry ancestral spirits. This is
done by fathers, brothers or brother’s children

Applicability of the Theory

 Indeed women in developing countries, like men are trapped in the global
capitalist system of dependency and exploitation.
 Women like man are producers but do not benefit from what they produce.
They are exploited as a class of workers and women.
 The condition of women especially the black race is worse than that of other
races. During the colonial period, most whites had black women as their
maids and nannies’. This has not changed much in the post colonial period.
 In patriarchal societies, majority of women do not own immovable property
like houses and land for homesteads especially in rural areas. They also do
not own movable properties like cars, scotch carts, cattle especially the
married ones.
 Women are further subordinated by other women for example, in Shona and
Ndebele cultures of Zimbabwe a muroora/ Umalukazana/wife has to take
without questioning instructions from the husband’s mother
(vamwene/umamazala) and from the husband’s sister (vatete/ubabakazi).

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 These decide on muroora/umalukazana’s fate in marriage and the custody of
children.
 Elderly women in these cultures dictate and subject younger women to
initiation ceremonies and cultural norms that trap younger women in their
subordination. For example:
1. Women should be quite whatever happens in her marriage she should allow
the husband to access what he paid bride price (lobola) for (sexuality) at
whatever cost and circumstances.
2. A women should endure (persevere) in marriage to avoid breaking up of the
marriage (kuputsaimbayake/ ukudilizaumuzi). In Zimbabwe, for example,
most rural women are engaged in agriculture. They produce for both
subsistence and commercial agriculture. However, few women have access to
credit facilities, technology, technological know how and marketing facilities.
Culture and patriarchy continue to maintain the status quo despite
introduction of legal instruments and policies on access to resources and
opportunities

Limitations

1. Theory does not focus on patriarchal and cultural constraints before

capitalism.
2. It ignores biological or reproductive constraints.
3. It divides women weakening their struggles because of emphasis of women
diversity.
4. Argue that homogenizing women is colonizing women denying them their
histories, cultures, identities and nationalities.
Ecofeminism
Ecofeminism is an ideology and movement that sees climate
change, gender equality, and social injustice more broadly as
intrinsically related issues, all tied to masculine dominance in
society.
Specifically, ecofeminism holds that most environmental issues
can be traced back to the global prioritization of qualities
deemed masculine (particularly the ones some would regard as
toxic, like aggression and domination) and those in power who
embody those attributes.

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Ecofeminism also calls attention to the fact that women are
disproportionately affected by environmental issues.
According to one report from the United Nations, because
women worldwide typically hold less monetary wealth and rely
on the natural environment more, they are more likely to be
displaced by climate change and have to travel farther for
resources, like water, as dry seasons extend.
Research shows women are also more greatly affected by
radiation than men. One study has even suggested some men
may have internalized aversions toward environmentalism, as
it could be perceived as feminine.
It is a meeting between feminism and ecology.
Ecofeminism identified women with nature and that were a kind of
biologism.
Eco warriors women like Beta Caceres was murdered in 2016 and
others risk their lives to defend the environment.
Women are majority of environmentalists and in defense of animal
although we have men who support the environment.
21ST century environmental and social conditions require that
feminism and environmentalism play key role.
Ecofeminism is a branch of feminism that sees environmentalism and
the relationship between women and the earth as foundational to its
analysis and practice.
Ecofeminism theory assets that feminist perspective of ecology do not
place women in the dominant position of power, but rather call for
egalitarian, collaborative society in which there is no dominant group.

Ecofeminism examples
Ecofeminist action is taking place around the world, improving
conditions across continents.

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One example is the Green Belt Movement. This was established in
1977 in Kenya. The organization plants trees to fight against
deforestation, with a view to also support women around the world.
As part of their work, they organize groups of women to plant trees.
Then, there’s Women’s Voices for the Earth, a North American
organization led by women to control toxic exposure in their local
environment.
The work of these two groups alone demonstrates that ecofeminist
groups are continuously changing things for the better. They do this
by promoting both the environment and the power of women to make
a difference in society.
Campaigns by ecofeminists in America:
a) National Toxic Campaign,
b) Mothers of East Los Angeles, and
c) Native Americans for a Clean Environment
All the above campaigns were led by women devoted to issues of
human health and environmental justice.

Why is ecofeminism important?

Ecofeminism and its offshoots are shaping how we think about both the
environment and women’s rights.

Promoting women’s rights may be key to solving the climate crisis. There’s
plenty of evidence indicating that equal opportunities between genders naturally
lead to better outcomes for the environment.

Tackling these two issues together is highly effective. We can target both in one
go, and improve efficiency by saving time and resources.

Ecofeminism is a great force for positive social change and climate

change resolutions.
There are several branches of ecofeminism:

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Spiritual/cultural ecofeminism-centered around value of caring,
compassion and non-violence i.e worship of Gaia – the goddess of
nature and spirituality (also known as mother earth).
Social/ Socialist/materialistic ecofeminism-seek to eliminate social
hierarchical which favour production of commodities (dominated by
men) over biological and social production.
Vegetarian ecofeminism-originates from animal rights (not eating
meat).Eating meat is a form patriarchal domination.
Ecofeminism relates to the oppression and domination of all
marginalized groups (women, children and the poor)) to the
oppression and domination of nature (land, animal and water).
Oppression, domination, exploitation and colonization from Western
patriarchal society has directly caused irreversible environmental
change.
Ecofeminism is an activist and academic movement that sees critical
connections movement that sees critical connections between the
exploitation of nature and the domination over women both caused by
men.
One interpretation of ecofeminism theory is that capitalism reflects
only paternalistic and patriarchal values.
Capitalism led to harmful split between nature and culture.
Women are nurturers and caregivers.
Women have special connection to the environment through their
daily interaction and this connection has been ignored.

Critique of ecofeminism
It gives the impression that men do not care for the environment.

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However, it has a long way to go. There are currently issues within
and between ecofeminist communities. They slow down progress in
the field by creating division.
There are concerns that ecofeminists living in developed countries are
themselves contributing to environmental damage. On the other hand,
those with fewer resources will find it more difficult to achieve their
goals.

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