Class 2

This E-book contains all the needed info to

understand perfectly every single topic used in
the previous exam.

Feel free to study all of them, you must

remember that the topics analyzed in this exam
are the basis of the language so it is a good
idea to keep them in mind.

Along with this E-book you will also have a

video that will explain all the questions so you
won´t have any further question about them.
The video will be available throughout the
course, so you will be able to return later on if
you think that you need to reinforce your
knowledge.

Don´t punish yourself if you didn´t remember

any of the topics, it is hard to remember all of
them every day. The most important is that you
understand the topic after the explanation.
So, let´s watch the video.
 Simple present tense

The simple present tense is one of several forms of present

tense in English. It is used to describe habits, unchanging
situations, general truths, and fixed arrangements. The
simple present tense is simple to form. Just use the base
form of the verb: (I take, you take, we take, they take) The 3rd
person singular takes an -s at the end. (he takes, she takes)

The simple present tense is used:

To express habits, general truths, repeated actions or

unchanging situations, emotions and wishes:
• I smoke (habit); I work in London (unchanging situation);
London is a large city (general truth)

To give instructions or directions:

• You walk for two hundred meters, then you turn left.

To express fixed arrangements, present or future:

• Your exam starts at 09.00

To express future time, after some conjunctions: after, when,

before, as soon as, until:
• He'll give it to you when you come next Saturday.
 Simple present tense

Notes on the simple present, third person singular

In the third person singular the verb always ends in -s:

• he wants, she needs, he gives, she thinks

Negative and question forms use DOES (= the third person

of the auxiliary 'DO') + the infinitive of the verb.
• He wants ice cream. Does he want strawberry? He does
not want vanilla.

Verbs ending in -y : the third person changes the -y to -ies:

• fly --> flies, cry --> cries

Exception: if there is a vowel before the -y:

• play --> plays, pray --> prays

Add -es to verbs ending in:-ss, -x, -sh, -ch:

• he passes, she catches, he fixes, it pushes

Examples
• He goes to school every morning.
• She understands English.
 Simple past tense

The simple past is a verb tense that is used to talk about

things that happened or existed before now. Imagine someone
asks what your brother Wolfgang did while he was in town last
weekend.

• Wolfgang entered a hula hoop contest.

• He won the silver medal.

The simple past tense shows that you are talking about
something that has already happened. Unlike the past
continuous tense, which is used to talk about past events that
happened over a period of time, the simple past tense
emphasizes that the action is finished.

• Wolfgang admired the way the light glinted off his silver
medal.

You can also use the simple past to talk about a past state of
being, such as the way someone felt about something. This is
often expressed with the simple past tense of the verb to be and
an adjective, noun, or prepositional phrase.

• Wolfgang was proud of his hula hoop victory.

• The contest was the highlight of his week.
 How to Formulate the Simple Past

For regular verbs, add -ed to the root form of the verb (or just -
d if the root form already ends in an e):

• Play→Played Type→Typed Listen→Listened Push→Pushed

Love→Loved

For irregular verbs, things get more complicated. The simple

past tense of some irregular verbs looks exactly like the root
form:

• Put→Put Cut→Cut Set→Set Cost→Cost Hit→Hit

For other irregular verbs, including the verb to be, the simple
past forms are more erratic:

• See→Saw Build→Built Go→Went Do→Did Rise→Rose

The good news is that verbs in the simple past tense (except
for the verb to be) don’t need to agree in number with their
subjects.

• Wolfgang polished his medal. The other winners polished

their medals too.
 How to Make the Simple Past Negative

Fortunately, there is a formula for making simple past verbs

negative, and it’s the same for both regular and irregular verbs
(except for the verb to be).

The formula is did not + [root form of verb]. You can also use the
contraction didn’t instead of did not.

• Wolfgang did not brag too much about his hula hoop skills
• Wolfgang’s girlfriend didn’t see the contest.

For the verb to be, you don’t need the auxiliary did. When the
subject of the sentence is singular, use was not or wasn’t. When
the subject is plural, use were not or weren’t.

• The third-place winner was not as happy as Wolfgang.

• The fourth-place winner wasn’t happy at all.
• The onlookers weren´t ready to leave after the contest ended.
• The contestants weren’t ready to leave either.
 Present perfect

The present perfect is used to indicate a link between the

present and the past. The time of the action is before now but
not specified, and we are often more interested in the result
than in the action itself.

The present perfect is used to describe an action or situation

that started in the past and continues in the present.
• I have lived in Bristol since 1984 (= and I still do.)

An action performed during a period that has not yet finished.

• She has been to the cinema twice this week (= and the
week isn't over yet.)

A repeated action in an unspecified period between the past

and now.
• We have visited Portugal several times.

An action that was completed in the very recent past,

expressed by 'just'.
• I have just finished my work.

An action when the time is not important.

• He has read 'War and Peace'. (= the result of his reading is
important)

Note: When we want to give or ask details about when, where,

who, we use the simple past. Read more about choosing
between the present perfect and the simple past tenses.
 Present perfect
Actions started in the past and continuing in the present
• They haven't lived here for years.
• She has worked in the bank for five years.
• We have had the same car for ten years.
• Have you played the piano since you were a child?

When the time period referred to has not finished

• I have worked hard this week.
• It has rained a lot this year.
• We haven't seen her today.

Actions repeated in an unspecified period between the past

and now.
• They have seen that film six times
• It has happened several times already.
• She has visited them frequently.
• We have eaten at that restaurant many times.

Actions completed in the very recent past (+just)

• Have you just finished work?
• I have just eaten.
• We have just seen her.
• Has he just left?

When the precise time of the action is not important or not

known
• Someone has eaten my soup!
• Have you seen 'Gone with the Wind'?
• She's studied Japanese, Russian, and English.
 Adverbs of manner

Adverbs of manner tell us how something happens. They are

usually placed either after the main verb or after the object.

Examples
• He swims well.
• He ran quickly.
• She spoke softly.
• James coughed loudly to attract her attention.
• He plays the flute beautifully. (after the direct object)
• He ate the chocolate cake greedily. (after the direct object)

An adverb of manner cannot be put between a verb and its

direct object. The adverb must be placed either before the
verb or at the end of the clause.

Examples
• He ate greedily the chocolate cake. [incorrect]
• He ate the chocolate cake greedily. [correct]
• He greedily ate the chocolate cake. [correct]
• He gave us generously the money. [incorrect]
• He gave us the money generously. [correct]
• He generously gave us the money. [correct]
 Adverbs of manner

If there is a preposition before the verb's object, you can

place the adverb of manner either before the preposition or
after the object.

Examples
• The child ran happily towards his mother.
• The child ran towards his mother happily.

Adverbs of manner should always come immediately after

verbs which have no object (intransitive verbs).

Examples
• The town grew quickly after 1997.
• He waited patiently for his mother to arrive.

These common adverbs of manner are almost always placed

directly after the verb: well, badly, hard, & fast

Examples
• He swam well despite being tired.
• The rain fell hard during the storm.
 Past perfect

The past perfect refers to a time earlier than before now. It is

used to make it clear that one event happened before another
in the past. It does not matter which event is mentioned first -
the tense makes it clear which one happened first.

In these examples, Event A is the event that happened first

and Event B is the second or more recent event:

Event A Event B
John had gone out when I arrived in the office.
Event A Event B
I had saved my document before the computer crashed.
Event B Event A
When they arrived we had already started cooking.
Event B Event A
He was very tired because he hadn't slept well.

Forming the past perfect

The Past Perfect tense in English is composed of two parts:

the past tense of the verb to have (had) + the past participle of
the main verb.
 Comparative adjectives

When we talk about two things, we can "compare" them. We

can see if they are the same or different. Perhaps they are the
same in some ways and different in other ways. We can use
comparative adjectives to describe the differences.

We use comparative adjectives when talking about two things

(not three or more things).

In the example below, "bigger" is the comparative form of the

adjective "big":

“A tiger is bigger than a cat”

Formation of Comparative Adjectives

There are two ways to make or to "form" a comparative
adjective:

short adjectives: add "-er"

long adjectives: use "more"
 Comparative adjectives

Short adjectives: add -er examples

1-syllable adjectives old, fast
2-syllable adjectives ending in -y happy, easy
RULE: add "-er" old → older
Variation: if the adjective ends in -e, just late → later
add -r
Variation: if the adjective ends in big → bigger
consonant, vowel, consonant, double
the last consonant
Variation: if the adjective ends in -y, happy → happier
change the y to i

Long adjectives: use more examples

2-syllable adjectives not ending in -y modern, pleasant
all adjectives of 3 or more syllables expensive, intellectual
RULE: use "more" modern → more modern
expensive → more expensive

Exception: The following adjectives have irregular forms:

good → better
well (healthy) → better
bad → worse
far → farther/further
 Future progressive tense

The future progressive tense, also known as the future

continuous tense, is used to indicate a future event that will be
ongoing (or “progressive”). This construct requires the use of “to
be,” as well as the verb with an -ing ending. It follows a general
formula of will + to be + verb (ending in -ing).

For example, “The children will be walking to school.” You can

see how “will be” tells us that this is a future event, and
“walking” here indicates a continuous event. Let’s take a look at
a few more future progressive tense examples.

Let’s think about simple future tense. It follows a straightforward,

generally singular prediction into the future. For example, “I will
meditate tomorrow morning.” Future progressive tense serves to
extend a futuristic activity. So, “I will meditate” (single instance)
becomes, “I will be meditating every morning” (continuous
activity).

Example Sentences
In a way, the future progressive tense is used to make
predictions. Perhaps they’re surefire predictions. Perhaps they’re
hopes and dreams. Here are a few samples.

• In two months, I will be eating a plant-based diet.

• By 3019, we will be driving spaceships.
• In a year, he will be asking for forgiveness.
• In an hour, we will be flying over the Atlantic.
• By then, we will be practicing yoga every morning.
• Joanne will be coming home for the holidays.
 Articles

In English there are three articles: a, an, and the. Articles are
used before nouns or noun equivalents and are a type of
adjective. The definite article (the) is used before a noun to
indicate that the identity of the noun is known to the reader.
The indefinite article (a, an) is used before a noun that is
general or when its identity is not known. There are certain
situations in which a noun takes no article.

As a guide, the following definitions and table summarize the

basic use of articles. Continue reading for a more detailed
explanation of the rules and for examples of how and when to
apply them.

Definite article

• the (before a singular or plural noun)

Indefinite article

• a (before a singular noun beginning with a consonant

sound)
• an (before a singular noun beginning with a vowel sound)
 Articles

Count nouns - refers to items that can be counted and are

either singular or plural

Non-count nouns - refers to items that are not counted and

are always singular

COUNT NOUNS NON-COUNT NOUNS

Rule #1 a, an (no article)
Specific identity not
known
Rule #2 the the
Specific identity
known
Rule #3 (no article) (no article)
All things or things in
general

For the purposes of understanding how articles are used, it is

important to know that nouns can be either count (can be
counted) or noncount (indefinite in quantity and cannot be
counted). In addition, count nouns are either singular (one) or
plural (more than one). Noncount nouns are always in
singular form.

For example, if we are speaking of water that has been spilled

on the table, there can be one drop (singular) or two or more
drops (plural) of water on the table. The word drop in this
example is a count noun because we can count the number of
drops. Therefore, according to the rules applying to count
nouns, the word drop would use the articles a or the.
 Correlative conjunctions

Correlative Conjunctions are pairs of words that work

together to connect two parts of a sentence that hold an
equal value, or correlate with one another. You’re probably
familiar with a number of correlative conjunctions. Here are a
few examples to get us started:

Either/Or

• I will either go to Costa Rica or Panama for vacation

Neither/Nor

• Neither the dogs nor the wild raccoons would eat the stew
he made.

Not only/But also

• My new supervisor not only has exciting new ideas but

also helps to bring them to life.

When working with correlative conjunctions, there are three

important rules to remember: ensure verb agreement, ensure
pronoun agreement, and ensure parallel structure.
 Correlative conjunctions

Join two singular subjects with a singular verb.

Correct Verb Agreement:

• Neither the boy nor his brother want to do their chores.

Incorrect Verb Agreement:

• Neither the boy nor his brother wants to do their chores

In this example, both boy and brother are singular, so the

singular verb want must be used.

Join a singular subject and a plural subject with the verb form
used for the subject closest to the verb.

Correct Verb Agreement:

• Both the captain and the soldiers run two miles every day.

Incorrect Verb Agreement:

• Both the captain and the soldiers runs two miles every day.

In this example, the plural word soldiers is closest to the verb, so

the plural verb run must be used.
 Passive voice

"Voice" is a grammatical category that applies to verbs. Voice

in English expresses the relationship of the subject to the
action. Voice has two values:

• active: the subject does the action

• passive: the subject receives the action

The active voice is the "normal" voice - the one that we use
most of the time. In the active voice, the object receives the
action of the verb:

active subject verb object

→
Cats eat mice.

The passive voice is less common. In the passive voice, the

subject receives the action of the verb:

passive subject verb object

←
Mice are eaten by cats.
 Passive voice

Although the passive voice is less common than the active

voice, there are several good reasons to sometimes use the
passive. On this page we look at how to construct the passive
voice and when and why to use it.

How do we make the passive?

The basic structure of a passive clause is very simple:

subject + auxiliar + main + by + agent

y verb verb
be past
particip
le
optional

The auxiliary be is conjugated in all tenses. The main verb is

always the past participle. The agent is the original "doer" of
the action.

Let´s see some examples:

• A bike was bought by Mike

• Some people were rescued by the firefighters
• Those candies were eaten by the children
 2nd conditional

The second conditional is used to express the consequence

of an unrealistic action or situation in the present or future.
The situation can be:

Very improbable (1-5% probability)

Completely unrealistic (with a 0% probability)
For example,

If I won the lottery, I would travel around the world.

There is a very low probability (1% chance) that the first part
of this sentence (winning the lottery’) will happen. But if it
happens, the second part is 100% certain.

If I had more free time, I would play more sport.

I don’t have a lot of free time (0%), but in that case, the
second part is 100% certain.
 2nd conditional

How do we create the Second Conditional?

To make a sentence in the second conditional, we use,

If + past simple, would/wouldn’t + verb.

• If I lived in a big city, I would go out more often.

• If I lived in a big city, I wouldn’t need a car.

As with all conditionals, you can also invert this structure:

Would + verb if + past simple.

• I’d go out more often if I lived in a big city.

• I wouldn’t need a car if I lived in a big city.

As an alternative to would, we can complete the second part

of a second conditional sentence with could. For example,

• If we lived in the city we could use the public transport.

 2nd conditional

An exception about the verb ‘to be’

When we use the verb ‘to be’ in the second conditional, the
past form is always were and not was for the subjects I, he,
she and it. For example,

• If I were rich, I’d spend all my time travelling.

• If he were my boss, I’d look for another job.

Nowadays you can often hear young native speakers use

was instead of were, especially in an informal context. But
the correct form is were.

Understanding the second conditional

It can be tricky to understand when it’s right to use the

second conditional instead of the first. I think it helps to
remember that we normally use the second conditional when
we talk about imaginary situations, dreaming about possible
situations and how we would act consequently. For example,

• If we were rich, we could buy a big house near the sea.

• He wouldn’t come to the party even if we invited him.

 Gerunds or infinitives

Learning to use gerunds and infinitives can feel a bit

overwhelming at first. The good news is that our three-part
tutorial gives you twenty gerund and infinitive tips to take you
from beginner to pro. Here in part 1, we introduce gerunds and
infinitives and explain the basics of everyday usage.

What is a gerund?

A gerund is a noun made from a verb by adding "-ing." The

gerund form of the verb "read" is "reading." You can use a
gerund as the subject, the complement, or the object of a
sentence.

Examples:
• Reading helps you learn English. subject of sentence
• Her favorite hobby is reading. complement of sentence
• I enjoy reading. object of sentence

What is an infinitive?

An infinitive is the "to" form of the verb. The infinitive form of

"learn" is "to learn." You can also use an infinitive as the
subject, the complement, or the object of a sentence.
Examples:
• To learn is important. subject of sentence
• He wants to learn. object of sentence
 Gerunds or infinitives

Learning to use gerunds and infinitives can feel a bit

overwhelming at first. The good news is that our three-part
tutorial gives you twenty gerund and infinitive tips to take you
from beginner to pro. Here in part 1, we introduce gerunds and
infinitives and explain the basics of everyday usage.

What is a gerund?

A gerund is a noun made from a verb by adding "-ing." The

gerund form of the verb "read" is "reading." You can use a
gerund as the subject, the complement, or the object of a
sentence.

Examples:
• Reading helps you learn English. subject of sentence
• Her favorite hobby is reading. complement of sentence
• I enjoy reading. object of sentence

What is an infinitive?

An infinitive is the "to" form of the verb. The infinitive form of

"learn" is "to learn." You can also use an infinitive as the
subject, the complement, or the object of a sentence.
Examples:
• To learn is important. subject of sentence
• He wants to learn. object of sentence
 Gerunds or infinitives

Use a gerund or an infinitive?

Both gerunds and infinitives can be used as the subject or

the complement of a sentence. However, as subjects or
complements, gerunds usually sound more like normal,
spoken English, whereas infinitives sound more abstract. In
the following sentences, gerunds sound more natural and
would be more common in everyday English. Infinitives
emphasize the possibility or potential for something and
sound more philosophical. If this sounds confusing, just
remember that 90% of the time, you will use a gerund as the
subject or complement of a sentence.

Examples:

• Learning is important. normal subject

• To learn is important. abstract subject - less common
• The most important thing is learning. normal complement
• The most important thing is to learn. abstract
complement - less common
 Third conditional

The first conditional and second conditionals talk about the

future. With the third conditional we talk about the past. We
talk about a condition in the past that did not happen. That is
why there is no possibility for this condition. The third
conditional is also like a dream, but with no possibility of the
dream coming true.

Last week you bought a lottery ticket. But you did not win.

if condition result
Past Perfect would have + past
participle
If I had won the lottery, I would have bought a car.

Notice that we are thinking about an impossible past

condition. You did not win the lottery. So the condition was
not true, and that particular condition can never be true
because it is finished. We use the Past Perfect tense to talk
about the impossible past condition. We use would have +
past participle to talk about the impossible past result. The
important thing about the third conditional is that both the
condition and result are impossible now.
 Third conditional

Examples:

• If I had seen Mary,I would have told her.

• If Tara had been free yesterday,I would have invited her.
• If they had not passed their exam, their teacher
would have been sad.
• If it had rained yesterday, would you have stayed at
home?
• If it had rained yesterday, what would you have
done?

Ideas must be switched and it won´t affect the meaning of

the idea.

• I would have told Mary if I had seen her.

• I would have invited Tara if she had been free yesterday.
• Would you have stayed at home if it had rained
yesterday?
• What would you have done if it had rained yesterday?
 Prepositions

When English speakers talk about time and place, there are
three little words that often come up: in, on, and at. These
common words are prepositions that show a relationship
between two words in a sentence.

Some prepositions are rather easy for English learners to

understand: behind, over, under, next to, etc…

But these little two-letter prepositions seem to create

confusion. Here are a few rules to help you understand when
to use in, on, and at in a sentence.

For describing time and place, the prepositions in, on, and at
go from general to specific.

Prepositions and Time

In

Let’s start by looking at how we talk about time. English

speakers use in to refer to a general, longer period of time,
such as months, years, decades, or centuries. For example,
we say “in April,” “in 2015” or “in the 21st century.”
 Prepositions

On

For more specific places, like certain streets, we use the

preposition on. You may know that President Obama lives on
Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, D.C.

At

Finally, we get to the most specific places. For exact

addresses or intersections, we use the preposition at. If I
invited you to visit us here at VOA, I would say, “Come to my
office at 330 Independence Avenue.” To be exact, it’s at the
corner of Independence and 3rd Street.”

Examples:

• My birthday is in January.
• My grandmother was born in 1927.
• The river near my house is dry in Summer.
• I will return it to you on Wednesday.
• They got married on Friday the 13th.
• We get paid on the 20th of every month.
• I get up at 7 o'clock.
• My English class starts at 10am.
• She finishes work at 6.15
 Relative pronouns

Before getting into how to use relative pronouns, it's

important to have a solid definition of what they are. A
relative pronoun is used to connect a clause or phrase to a
noun or pronoun. The clause modifies or describes the
noun. The most common relative pronouns are who, whom,
whose, which, and that. Sometimes, when and where can be
used as relative pronouns as well.

Relative Pronoun Usage Example

used for people: replaces It was my

who subject pronouns like I, husband who broke the
she, he, we, they car door.

This is the
shows possession or
whose girl whose notes I
relationship
borrowed.

replaces object pronouns The man whom they

whom
like me, her, him found was sent home.

used for objects and The robots, which were

which animals (typically non- waiting outside, were
defining clauses) ready for shipment.

used for people and

The piggy bank that was
that things (typically defining
on my desk got broken.
clauses)
 Relative pronouns

Relative pronouns are placed directly after the noun or

pronoun they modify (which are underlined in the examples
below). The subject of the sentence is described by a relative
clause (italicized). Since these clauses describe a noun or a
pronoun, they are also known as adjective clauses because
they act like adjectives in the sentence.

Each clause is introduced by a relative pronoun (in bold).

Relative pronouns connect the description to the rest of the
sentence in an orderly way. See how this works through a
few examples.

• The driver who ran the stop sign was careless.

• The children, whom we love dearly, need better
educational systems.
• Never go to a doctor whose office plants have died.
• I have a friend whose cat is annoying.
• The book, which is now out of print, has all the
information you need.
• This is the book that everyone is talking about.
 Conjunctions

Conjunctions are parts of speech that connect words, phrases,

clauses, or sentences. There are three kinds of conjunctions:
coordinating, paired, and subordinating.

Coordinating conjunctions connect words or phrases that serve

the same grammatical purpose in a sentence. There are seven
main coordinating conjunctions in English, which form the
acronym FANBOYS:

F: for: The teachers were frustrated, for the school had cut
funding for all enrichment programs.*
A: and: In this course, I will write a literature review, a case
study, and a final paper.**
N: nor: The students did not complete their homework, nor did
they pass the test.
B: but: The study is several years old but still valuable to this
study.
O: or: At the end of the class, the students can choose to write
an essay or take a test.
Y: yet: The patient complained of chronic pain, yet she refused
treatment.
S: so: I have only been a nurse for one year, so I have little
experience with paper charting.

** When the conjunctions "and" and "or" connect three or more

words or phrases, use a serial comma to separate items in the
series.

Transitional words such as "however" and "therefore" can also

function as conjunctions.
 Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions join a subordinate clause to

a main clause and establishes a relationship between the
two. There are many subordinating clauses, but here are
some of the most common:

• after
• although
• as much as/as soon as/as long as
• as though
• because
• before
• how
• though
• unless
• until
• whether
• While

There are two ways to structure a sentence using a

subordinating conjunction:

Main clause + subordinate clause

• The teacher administered the test after giving
instructions.

Subordinate clause + , + main clause

• After giving instructions, the teacher administered the
test.
 “Some”, “Any” and “No”

‘some’, ‘any’ and ‘no’ are used with both ‘count’ and ‘non-
count’ nouns. It is useful to remember which nouns are
‘count’ (countable) and ‘non-count’ (uncountable) first:

Some

Some and its compounds – somebody, someone, something,

somewhere etc. are normally used in affirmative sentences:

• There is some wine in the cellar.

• We have some chocolate cake left from last night.
• There is someone at the door.

Some and its compounds are also used in interrogatives

(questions) which are used to make an offer or a request:

• Would you like some tea?

• Do you want something to eat?
• Can you ask someone to come and repair the TV?
 “Some”, “Any” and “No”

‘some’, ‘any’ and ‘no’ are used with both ‘count’ and ‘non-
count’ nouns. It is useful to remember which nouns are
‘count’ (countable) and ‘non-count’ (uncountable) first:

Some

Some and its compounds – somebody, someone, something,

somewhere etc. are normally used in affirmative sentences:

There is some wine in the cellar.

We have some chocolate cake left from last night.
There is someone at the door.

Some and its compounds are also used in interrogatives

(questions) which are used to make an offer or a request:

Would you like some tea?

Do you want something to eat?
Can you ask someone to come and repair the TV?
 “Some”, “Any” and “No”

Any

Any and its compounds – anybody, anyone, anything,

anywhere etc. are used in interrogative sentences:

• Has anyone seen my mobile?

Not any is used in negative sentences and any and its

compounds can be used with words like without, never,
rarely.

• I have never met anyone as rude as you.

When any and its compounds are used in affirmative

sentences there is a different meaning.

• We can go anywhere you like. = It doesn’t matter where

we go.
• Anyone could have told you that. = I’m surprised you
don’t know this.

No

No and its compounds can be used instead of not any in

negative sentences:

• He didn’t do anything. He did nothing.

 Irregular plural nouns

Learning to use most plural nouns in English is fairly

easy. But unfortunately, some common plural nouns in
English are irregular. What are these irregular plural
nouns, and how can you remember them? Read on to
find out!

Regular Plural Nouns

The majority of nouns in English follow the same rule to create

plural nouns, and that is to add -s. For example,

• A pen / Some pens

• A student / Some students

This is true for all words except words that end in -ch, -sh, -s, -
ss, -x, -z, and -o. With these words, we add -es. For example,

• A watch / Some watches

• A tomato / Some tomatoes

And when a word ends in -y, you change the -y to -i and add -es.
For example,

• A city / Some cities

• A lady / Some ladies

 Irregular plural nouns

There are some plural nouns that don’t follow the rule
above of using -s. Here are the irregular plural nouns you
need to know.

People

• Children (plural of child). Women (plural of woman),

• Men (plural of man
• People (plural of person).

Body

• Teeth (plural of tooth).

• Feet (plural of foot).

Animals
The following animals have the same plural form as the
singular form:

• Fish (one fish, two fish)

• Sheep
• Deer
• Shrimp
• Tuna
• Swine
 Irregular plural nouns

While some plural nouns for animals change significantly:

• A mouse / Some mice

• A goose / Some geese
• An ox / Some oxen

Words ending in -f
Words that end in -f or -fe change the -f to -v before adding -es.
For example,

• A life – Some lives

• A knife – Some knives
• A leaf – Some leaves
• A wife – Some wives
• A calf – Some calves

Words that end in -is usually change to -es. For example,

• A hypothesis / Some hypotheses

• A crisis / Some crises
• An analysis / Some analyses

The following are all common irregular plural words that end in -
a:

• Data
• Criteria
• Phenomena
• Media
• Bacteria