BMS Institute of Technology and Management Engineering Physics (22PHYS12)

LASER
Introduction:

Laser is the acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation (LASER). It
is an optical device which amplifies the light. Laser requires an active medium for amplification by
achieving population inversion between a pair of energy levels.
Principle and Production of lasers

E2

ΔE = hν

E1

[Explain the principle of LASER]

A material medium consists of identical atoms or molecules each of which is characterized by a

set of discrete allowed energy states. An ideal atom can move from one energy state to another when it
receives an amount of energy equal to the energy difference between those states. It is called quantum
jump or transition.

The working principle of laser is based on the phenomenon of interaction of radiation with
matter. Whenever radiation interacts with matter there are two processes. i.e (1) absorption and (2)
emission

Let us consider two energy states E1 and E2 of an atom, E1 is lower energy state while E2 is
excited state. Let a monochromatic radiation (streams of photons) of frequency ν be incident on the
medium. The radiation energy,

E2 – E1= ΔE = h ν

E 2  E1 E1
or  (Hz)
h

The interaction of radiation with matter leads to three different processes in the
medium.
1. Induced Absorption:-

Induced absorption is the absorption of an incident photon by an atom as a result of which atom
makes a transition from a ground state (E1) to an excited state (E2) such that the difference in energy of
the two states is equal to energy of the photon. It is also known as stimulated absorption.

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E2
A*

hν = E2 - E1 A
Before absorption E1 after absorption

Consider a photon of energy, hν is incident on an atom in the ground state E 1 then atom absorbs
the energy and get excited to higher energy state E2. The process can be represented as,

Atom + Photon  Atom *

A + hv  A*, where A* is an excited atom.

2. Spontaneous Emission:

Spontaneous Emission is the emission of a photon, when an atom transits from excited state (E2)
to lower energy state (E1) without the aid of any external agency.

Excited atom with higher energy is inherently unstable because of natural tendency of atoms to seek out
the lower energy configuration. Therefore, excited atoms does not stay in the excited state for relatively
longer time, but tend to return to lower state by giving up excess of energy (ΔE) in the form of
spontaneous emission. i.e ΔE = h ν = E2 – E1

As shown in figure, consider an atom in the excited state E2. It makes transition to ground state
E1 by the emission of a photon of energy hv. The process may be represented as,

Atom*  Atom + Photon

A*  A + hv

3. Stimulated Emission:

The interaction of photon of relevant energy with an excited atom triggers the excited atom to
drop to the lower energy state giving up a photon. The phenomenon of forced emission of photon is
called stimulated emission.

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hν = E2 - E1

Consider a photon of energy equal to the energy difference between the states E2 and E1. When
this photon interacts with an atom which is in the upper energy state E2.Then, it may cause the atom to
make a transition from E2 to E1 with the emission of a second photon called stimulated photon. This
process is known as stimulated emission.

The stimulated photon will have same frequency and phase as that of incident photon. The two
photons travel in exactly same direction and have same energy. Hence they are coherent. This kind of
emission is responsible for laser action. The process may be represented as,

Atom * + Photon  Atom + 2 Photons (Photon + Photon)

A* + hv  A + 2hv.

Einstein’s Coefficients and Energy density

[Derive / obtain an expression for energy density of photons in terms of Einstein’s Coefficients under
thermal equilibrium conditions]

Einstein explored the basic mechanisms involved in the interaction of radiation with the matter by
assuming that the matter is in thermal equilibrium. Thermal equilibrium is a state in which the energy
exchanges due to absorption and emission processes occur such that the population of each state
remains unaltered. On the basis of the above assumption, Einstein provided a theory for the interaction
of radiation with matter, which involved important parameters, known by his name as Einstein’s
coefficients. This co-efficient give the probability associated with the absorption and emission
processes.

Consider two energy states E1 and E2 of a system of atoms. The number of active atoms occupying an
energy state is called population. Let N1 and N2 be the populations or number density of lower energy
state (E1) and higher energy state (E2) respectively. Let Uν dν be the energy incident per unit volume of
the system in the frequency range ν and ν + dν. Then Uν represents the energy density of frequency ν.
Now consider the absorption and two emission processes one by one.

1. Case of Induced absorption:

In the case of induced absorption when an atoms in the ground state E1 will absorb radiation and make a
transition to upper level E2. The radiation absorbed by atom of suitable radiation of frequency, ν =
E 2  E1
. The number of such absorption per unit time per unit volume is called rate of absorption.
h

The rate of absorption, proportional to

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(i) the number density of lower energy state (N1) and

(ii) the energy density of the incident radiation (Uν)
 Rate of induced absorption  N1 Uν
or Rate of induced absorption = B12 N1 Uν ………….(1)
where, B12 is the constant of proportionality called Einstein’s coefficient of induced absorption.

2. Case of Spontaneous Emission:

An atom in the excited state E2 makes transition to ground state E1 by the emission of photon of
frequency ν. No. of such spontaneous emissions per unit time per unit volume is called rate of
spontaneous emission. The number of spontaneous transitions undergoes during the time Δt is
independent of the photons present in the incident radiation and depends only on the density of atoms in
the higher energy state N2.
Rate of spontaneous emission proportional to
(i) the number density of higher energy state (N2)
Rate of spontaneous emission proportional  N2
or Rate of spontaneous emission proportional = A21 N2 ……………(2)
where, A21 is a constant of proportionality called Einstein’s coefficient of spontaneous emission.
3. Case of Stimulated emission:
E 2  E1
The interaction of an external photon of radiation frequency, ν = , with an excited atom at E2,
h
which stimulates atom to make downward translation and causes the emission of stimulated photons.
The number of stimulated transitions per unit time per unit volume is called rate of stimulated emission.

The rate of stimulated emission, proportional to

(i) the number density of the higher energy state (N2) and
(ii) the energy density of the incident radiation (Uν)
 Rate of stimulated emission  N2 Uν
or Rate of stimulated emission = B21 N2 Uν ………….(3)
where, B21 is the constant of proportionality called the Einstein coefficient of stimulated emission.

At thermal equilibrium, the number of photons absorbed by the system per second is equal to the
number of photons emitted by the system per second.

i.e Rate of induced absorption = (Rate of spontaneous emission) + (Rate of stimulated emission)

from equation 1, 2 and 3, we get

B12N1 Uν = A21N2 + B21 N2 Uν

Uν (B12N1 – B21 N2) = A21N2

A21 N2
Uν = (B12 N1 −B21 )

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A21 N2
Uν = B21 B12 N1
[ −1]
N2 B21

A21 1
Uν = ………….(4)
B21 [B12 N1 −1]
B21 N2

By Boltzmann law, we have

E2 −E1 hν
N2
= e−( kT
)
= e− kT
N1

N1 hν
or = e KT …………….(5)
N2

Substitute equation (5) in (4) we get,

A 1
Uν = B21 [ hν ] ………….(6)
21 B12
e KT −1
B21

According to Planck’s law, the equation for energy density of radiation at given temperature

8πhν3 1
Uν = [ hν ] ………… (7)
C3 −1
eKT

Comparing equation (6) and (7) term by term on the basis of positional identity, we get,
A21 8πhν3
= and
B21 c3

B12
=1 or B12 = B21
B21

This means that the probability of induced absorption is equal to the probability of stimulated emission.
A21 and B21 can be represented as A and B respectively ie, A21 = A and B21 = B.

Then at thermal equilibrium the energy density is (from equation (6)),

𝐀 𝟏
𝐔𝛎 = [ 𝐡𝛎 ]
𝐁 𝐞 𝐊𝐓 − 𝟏

Conclusions of Einstein co-efficient:

Dependence of nature of emission on frequency:

A21 8πhν3
Consider =
B21 c3

If A21 has high value, the probability of spontaneous emission is high. If B21 has high value, the
probability of stimulated emission is high.

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A21
Further = 3
B21
Since = ΔE/h, in normal condition, the energy difference between the two levels E1 and E2 is large
A21
>> 1 or A21 >> B21
B21

Thus the probability of spontaneous emission is more than the stimulated emission.

System in thermal equilibrium:

From equation (6), we have

A 1
Uν = B21 [ hν ] [since B12 = B21 ]
21
e KT −1

A21 hν
= e KT − 1 …….(8)
B21 Uν

Case-1: h >> kT
hν
When the frequency of radiation is high h>> kT i.e. e KT >> 1

Hence in eqn (8)

A21
>> 1 i.e. A21 >> B21
B21

That is spontaneous emission is more than the stimulated emission.

Case-2: h ≈ kT
hν
For h ≈ kT, e KT will be low and comparable to 1

Therefore A21 and B21 become comparable, i.e. stimulated emission became significant.

Case-3: h << kT
hν
For h << kT, ( e KT − 1) << 1 and
A21
<< 1 or That is stimulated emission is more for lower frequency.
B21

Hence for lower frequency, stimulated emissions dominate the emission process. This is what we
observe at room temperature in the atomic transitions which generate microwave. Therefore first
MASER (Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) came to exist.

Non-equilibrium conditions leading to amplification (Laser action):

We have the rate equation

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According to Einstein’s theory we have B12 = B21

…………..(9)

From eqn (8) if

hν
E << KT i.e. h<< KT, which makes ( e KT − 1) very small

Then eqn (9) becomes

A21
<< 1
B21 Uν

Hence eqn (9) can be written as

Under normal conditions in all the system, N2 is always be lesser than N1.

N2>N1 under non-equilibrium conditions (population inversion). It means that there should be more
atoms present in the higher energy level than in the lower energy level for stimulated emissions to
dominate over the spontaneous emission.

Conditions for Laser action:

Essentially two are the most important conditions of occurrence of the laser.

1. Population Inversion

An artificial situation in which the number of atoms in the excited state are greater than the number of
atoms in the ground state is called population inversion.
According to Boltzmann’s law, the ratio of the populations between two energy levels of a physical
system at thermal equilibrium is given by
E2 −E1
N2
= e−( kT
)
for E2 > E1
N1

where, N1 and N2 are the populations corresponding to the energy levels E 1 and E2 respectively and k is
the Boltzmann constant.
E2 −E1
Since E2 > E1, e−( kT
)
<1
Therefore, N2 < N1. In a state of thermal equilibrium, there are more number of atoms in lower energy
level than at the upper energy level and effective stimulated emission cannot be achieved.
Therefore, a non-equilibrium state is created in which the population of upper energy level exceeds to a
large extent than lower energy level, ie N2 > N1 and population inverted. The population can be
achieved by creating a special kind of excited energy state called metastable state.

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N1 > N2 N2 > N1

2. Metastable state

Under normal conditions the number of atoms in the excited state N2 will be very much less than
the number of atoms in the ground state N1. An atom can be excited to a higher level by giving energy
to it. Normally, the atom de-excite to the ground state within a few seconds (10-9 s) by emission of
photons. It means that the atoms do not stay for a long enough time at the excited state for stimulation.
Though, the pumping is continuous, the excited atoms undergo the spontaneous transition to a lower
energy state. For stimulated emission, N2 should be greater than N1. In order to do so, the excited atoms
are required to delay at a higher energy level till a large number of atoms accumulate at that level.

A metastable state is a state in which excited atoms stay for an appreciable time. Therefore, the
metastable state allows the accumulation of a large number of excited atoms and creates population
inversion and leads to lasers.
10-9 s

10-3 s

Consider three energy levels E1, E2 and E3. Let E2 be in a metastable state. After supplying
energy, atoms get excited from E1 to E3 level, where the lifetime of atoms is very less (10-9 s), then
atoms make a transition to metastable state E2 which is the intermediate level between the ground state
and the excited state. The atom in the metastable state can remain for a long time about 10 -3 s.
Therefore the population of E2 state increases steadily. The population inversion occurs between E2 and
E1 state, which leads to the stimulated emission of photons of the same wavelength, phase and direction.
This increases to a very large number and builds up the laser light.

Components of laser construction or Requisites of a laser system

There are three requisites of laser systems.

1. Active medium.

2. Excitation source to achieve population inversion.

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3. Optical resonant cavity or laser cavity to increase the intensity of laser beam.

1. Active Medium

The medium which contain active atoms or molecules or ions with a special system of energy
levels. Depending upon the active medium used, the lasers can be classified into the following
categories.

a) Solid state laser: Crystals and glasses doped by special ions as an active medium. Ex. Rubby
laser, Nd:YAG laser.
b) Gas laser: Gases and mixture of gases as an active medium. Ex. He-Ne laser, CO2 laser.
c) Semiconductor laser: p-n junction of a semiconductor as an active region. Ex. GaAs, InGaAs
semiconductor diode laser.
d) Liquid laser (Dye laser): Liquid as an active medium. Liquid materials called dye. Ex.
Rhodamine B, sodium fluoresein.

2. Excitation source

Pumping is a process of exciting the atoms from lower energy state to a higher energy state by
supplying energy from external sources in order to achieve population inversion. The energy source
used for this purpose is called excitation source of pumping source. Based on the type of source used for
pumping, the pumping technique are classified as

a) Optical Pumping: In optical pumping light source such as a flash discharge tube is used.

b) Electrical Pumping,

c) Chemical Pumping,

d) Heat Pumping

3. Optical resonator cavity (laser cavity)

Generally, laser cavity consists of two opposing parallel plane mirrors placed between active
materials. One of the mirrors is semi-transparent while the other one is made of 100% reflecting. The
mirrors set normal to the optic axis of the material. This forms a cavity in which two types of waves
exist, one type comprise of waves moving to the right and the other one to left.

The two waves interfere constructively, if there is no phase difference between the two. Their
interference becomes destructive, if the phase difference is π/2. Constructive interference takes place
within the active medium and the optical path L between two mirrors should be an integral multiple of
the wave length.

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Semi transparent
mirror

100%
Active LASER
Reflecting
Medium
Mirror

λ
Thus, L = m 2, where, m = 1, 2, 3, 4… mode number, and λ is the wavelength of light within
the material. Therefore, the active medium is optical resonator at the wavelength,
2L mc
λ= , c = f. λ  f =
m 2L

Semiconductor Laser:
[Explain the principle, construction and working of Semiconductor Laser with the help of energy
level diagram]

A semiconductor diode laser is a specially fabricated pn junction device that emits coherent light
when it is forward biased. It is widely used in fiber optics communication.

Construction

The Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) laser diode is a single crystal consists of a heavily doped p and n
sections. The n-region is obtained by doping GaAs with tellurium and p-type is by zinc. The doping
concentration is very high of the order of 1017 to 1019 doping atoms per cm3. A schematic diagram of a
homo-junction semiconductor laser is as shown in the Fig. 1. The diode is extremely small in size with
size of the order of 1 mm. The top and bottom surfaces are provided with ohmic contacts to pass current
through diode. The front and real parallel faces of a crystal polished at right angles to the pn layer. The
polished faces constitute as resonator. The other two opposite faces are roughened to prevent reflection
of the photons so that they will not develop lasing. The active region consists of a layer of about 1 μ m
thickness.

Forward
bias

Ba

Fig. 1. Semiconductor laser.

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Working

The GaAs laser diode is subjected to a forward bias as shown in the Fig. 1. Due to the bias, the
electrons from the n-section and holes from p-section flow across the junction. During the flow,
whenever a hole meets an electron recombination takes place resulting in the emission of a photon.
Simple way of achieving population inversion in a semiconductor is in the form of the use of the
heavily doped pn-junction with forward bias. The band diagram of such a pn-junction diode is as shown
in Fig. 2(a). In the absence of electric potential, n-side donor levels of the conduction band are occupied
by electrons and the Fermi level lies within the conduction band. Similarly, on the heavily doped p-side,
the acceptor levels are unoccupied and holes exist in the valance band and the Fermi level lies within
the valence band. When a forward bias is applied to the junction, the energy levels shift and the new
distribution is shown in Fig. 2(b). The electrons and holes are injected into the depletion region which
results in a decrease in its width. The injected electrons and holes appear in high concentrations in this
transition region. At a low forward bias current level, the electron-hole recombination causes
spontaneous emission of photons, and the junction act as an LED. The bandwidth of the emitted light
will be larger. As the current is increased, the intensity of light increases linearly. When the current
reaches a threshold value the carrier concentration in the depletion region will reach very high values.

Fig. 2. Energy level of n-p junction

The upper levels in the depletion region are having high population density of electrons while
the lower levels in the same region are vacant. This is state of population inversion. The narrow region
where the state of population inversion is achieved is called inversion region or active region. The
stimulated electron-hole recombination causes emission of coherent radiation of very narrow band
width. The energy gap of GaAs is 1.4 eV and hence wavelength is 8400 Å in IR region.
hc hc
Eg = or λ = E = 8400 A
λ g

Properties (or characteristics) of laser beam:

Laser beam has the following characteristics which differ from ordinary light.

1. Monochromatic: A light emitted by a laser is highly monochromatic than that of ordinary

monochromatic light.

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2. Coherence: The waves emitted by a laser will be in phase and are of the same frequency and
moves with the same velocity and direction. In other words, the laser has a high degree of
coherence.
3. Directionality: Ordinary light emits in all directions whereas Lasers emits only in one direction
and laser light travels as a narrow beam.
4. Intensity: Laser light is highly intense since it gives out light into a narrow beam and its energy
is concentrated in a small region. The laser light is more intense than the light starting from an
equal area on the surface of the sun.
5. Focus ability: Since ordinary light is highly divergent, it cannot come exactly to a focus point.
Laser light is highly monochromatic and it can be brought to a sharp focus by a lens.
Engineering applications of Laser:

1. Barcode scanner
A barcode reader is an optical scanner that can read printed barcodes, decode the data contained in the
barcode to a computer. It consists of a light source, a lens and a light sensor for translating optical
impulses into electrical signals.
In the early days of 1D codes, codes could only be read by lasers. Laser scanners use a laser beam as a
light source and typically employ oscillating mirrors or rotating prisms to scan the laser beam back and
forth across the barcode. A photodiode then measures the reflected light from the barcode. An analog
signal is created from the photodiode, and is then converted into a digital signal. A barcode scanner
works by directing a beam of light across the barcode and measuring the amount of light that is
reflected. The dark bars on the barcode reflect less light than the white spaces between them. The
scanner then converts the light energy into electrical energy, which the decoder then converts into data
and forwards to a computer. It uses a red diode laser (e.g., GaInP or AlGaInP; typical wavelengths are
635, 650 and 670 nm) to read the reflectance of the black and white spaces in a barcode.

A laser scanner uses a system of mirrors and lenses that allow it to read barcodes regardless of their
position. It performs up to 500 scans per second to reduce the possibility of errors. A standard range
barcode scanner easily reads up to 15 fee. On the other hand, specialized long-range scanners can take
readings up to 50 feet away. Laser scanners often come as handhelds or as stationary units
A 3D barcode would have data encrypted on a X, Y, and Z axis. 2D barcodes are encrypted on a X and
Y axis. 1D barcodes are only encrypted on a X or Y axis. So then, 3D barcodes are encrypted with
patterns, shapes, and dots for characters (X and Y axis) and have a raised pattern that can be physically
felt (Z axis).

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1-D Barcode 2-D Barcode 3-D Barcode

Benefits: Laser scanners do not require an image processor. They are also fast, and capable of
conducting up to 1,300 scans per second. Finally, because they use lasers—collimated beams of light
that essentially do not diverge no matter how far the light travels from the source—they can read 1D
barcodes from relatively long distances with the use of special optics.
Limitations: Laser scanners have trouble that is poorly printed, low-contrast, distorted, or damaged.
2. Laser Printer
In 1969, Starkweather invented the laser printer at the Xerox Webster Research Center. He collaborated
on the first fully functional laser-printing system at Xerox PARC in 1971. In 1975, IBM introduced the
first laser printer, the model 3800. Later, Siemens came out with the ND 2 and Xerox with the 9700. In
1984, HP introduced the LaserJet, the first desktop laser printer.
Laser printers provide quality printing with sharp images. They have become widely used for the
printing of reports and letters and for desktop publishing. The laser printer makes use of a focused laser
beam of light to transfer text and images onto paper. This light of the laser changes the electrical charge
on the drum, wherever it hits because as the paper passes through the printer, the laser beam strikes at
the surface of the drum and this is known as a photoreceptor. By changing the charge on the drum, the
laser beam can print patterns onto the photoreceptor. Once the design is created on the drum, it is coated
with toner from a toner cartridge. In most of the cartridges, the toner is black, but the laser printers are
also colored.
Laser printers work by laying down an array of tiny, evenly spaced dots of “ink” on the paper. The dots
are so small, and they blend so seamlessly that the text looks very nearly. The quality of the laser printer
depends on the resolution, and the fineness of the dots it uses to print the images. Resolution is
measured in dots per inch (dpi), which is how many dots it can write along with a line, either vertically
or horizontally. Laser printer resolution is typically from 300 to 1200 dpi, but specialty printers can
reach an imagesetter resolution of 2400 dpi.
The steps of printing on a laser printer are as follows:
1. Laser, mirror, lenses etc.: The laser diode generates the laser beam. The mirror is used to reflect the
laser beam toward the drum. The focusing lens stretches the laser beam according to the size of the
drum and writes the data on the drum.
2. Toner: The toner in the ink cartridge contains a positive charge so that it will be attracted to the drum
which is given a negative charge by the laser. The toner of the drum is transferred to the paper by either
a positively charged field or by a transfer roller.

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3. Drum: When the paper passes through the printer, the drum is given a strong negative charge, which
allows the toner to transfer and stick to the paper.
4. Fusing section: Heat and pressure are applied to the paper. The toner melts onto the paper, and the
image is printed.

Advantages of laser printer:

Laser printers are faster than inkjet printers as their printing speed is fast. The replacement of toner is
cheaper in the laser printers. Laser printers are noiseless, efficient, highly optimized, user friendly.
Disadvantages of laser printer:
Since laser printers are non-impact printers, so they cannot perform double printing simultaneously.
Laser printers are not economical, and complicated technology is used thus, a large hardware gadget
is required, which requires a lot of space.

Problems on Lasers
1. The ratio of population of two energy levels, out of which upper one corresponds to a metastable
state, is 1.059x10-30. Find the wavelength of light emitted at 330 K.
Solution:

 1.059 x10 30

N2
Given N1 ; T=330K; K=1.38X10-23JK-1; C=3x108 ms-1
=?
 h   hC 
   
N2
e  KT 
e   KT 
N1
 hC 
  N1 1
e KT     30
 0.944 x1030
N2 1.059 x10

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hC
log e e  ln( 0.944 x1030 )  69.02
KT
hC 6.63x10 34 X 3 X 108
   6327 A0
69.02 Xkt 69.02 X 1.38 X 10  23 X 330
2. A laser beam at thermal equilibrium temperature 300K has two energy levels with a wavelength
separation of 1 𝜇𝑚.Find the ratio of population densities of the upper and lower levels.
N
Solution: N1    T=300 K;   1m =10-6 m;
2

K=1.38X10-23JK-1; C=3x108 ms-1

 h   hC   6.63 X 10 34 X 3 X 108 

      e 48.007 
 6 23 
 e  KT   e
N2
 e  KT  10 X 1.38 X 10 X 300 
N1

 1.415 X 10 21
N2
N1

3. Find the ratio of population of two energy levels, out of which one corresponds to a metastable
state, if the wavelength of light emitted at 330 K is 632.8 nm.
N2
Solution:  ? T=330 K;   632.8nm =10-6m; K=1.38x10-23JK-1;C=3x108 ms-1
N1

 h 
 
N2
 e  KT 
N1

 hC   6.63 X 10 34 X 3 X 108 

    e 68.96 
 9 23 
 e  KT   e 
633,8 X 10 X 1.38 X 10 X 330

N2
 1.1x10  30
N1
4. A pulse from laser with power 1mW lasts for 10nS.If the number of photons per second is
3.491x107, calculate the wavelength of laser.
Solution: =?
Total energy of the laser Et=Pt=1x10-3x10x10-9=10-11J----- (1)
Number of photons emitted =n=3.491x107
hC 6.63 X 1034 X 3 X 108
Energy of one photon = E= h      ( 2)
 
Total energy=number of photons X Energy of one photon

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hC
Etotal  n

Substituting (1) and (2) gives

1011  3.491X 107 X 6.63 X 1034 X 3X 108 X

1

 = 694 nm
5. A He-Ne laser is emitting a beam with an average power of 4.5 mw. Find the number of photons
emitted per second by the laser. The wavelength of the emitted radiation is 6328 A0.
Solution: n = ?; = 6328A0; t = 1 s

Total energy of the laser Et=Pt=4.5x10-3X1=4.5X10-3J----------- (1)

hC 6.63 X 10 34 X 3 X 108
h      ( 2)
 6328 X 10 10
Energy of one photon=E=
Total energy=number of photons X Energy of one photon
hC
Etotal  n

Substituting (1) and (2) gives

4.5 X 103  nX 6.63 X 1034 X 3 X 108 X

1
6328 x109

n= 1.4316x1016
6. A pulsed laser emits photons of wavelength 780nm with 20 mw average/pulse. Calculate the
number of photons contained in each pulse, if the pulse duration is 10 ns.
hC
Hint: Et  n  Answer n=7.86X1017

7. Find the number of modes of the standing waves in the resonant cavity of length 1m of He-Ne
laser operating at wavelength 632.8 nm.
Solution: L=1m; = 632.8nm; n = ?
2L=m
n =2L/=2X1/632.8X10-9
n=3.16x106
8. A Ruby laser emits pulse of 20 ns, with average power pulse being100 kW.If the number of photons
in each pulse is 6.981x1015 calculate the wavelength of laser.
Solution:
t = 20 ns
Number of photons emitted=n=3.491X107
Energy emitted in in 1S= 100KW=105J
Total energy emitted 20n---E=t105x20x10-9=2x10-3J----(1)
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BMS Institute of Technology and Management Engineering Physics (22PHYS12)

hC 6.63 X 1034 X 3 X 108

Energy of one photon=E= h      ( 2)
 
Total energy=number of photons X Energy of one photon
hC
Etot  n

Substituting (1) and (2) gives
nhC 6.981X 1015 X 6.63X 1034 X 3 X 108
  3
 6942 A0
Etot 2 X 10
9. Calculate on the basis of Einstein’s theory, the number of photons emitted per second by a He-Ne
laser emitting light of wavelength 6328A0 with an output power of 10 mw.
hC
Hint: Et  n  Answer n=3.18x1016

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