THE HUMAN BODY

Specific Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. Identify organs of the human reproductive system.
2. Explain the functions of the parts of the reproductive system.
3. Identify changes associated with puberty for both male and female
4. Explain the importance of observing personal hygiene of the reproductive organs
The human reproductive system
 Reproduction is the process by which living organisms produce their young ones
 The human reproductive system in males is different from that of the females
Male reproductive system

Functions of the male reproductive organs

Testes
 They are found in a sac of skin called the scrotum located outside the lower abdomen.
 They hang outside the body surface between the thighs since normal body temperature is
a little bit high than the temperature required for sperm reproduction.
 Sperm production requires low temperature
Functions of the testes
 They produce sperms
 They also produce male hormones called Testosterone. Testosterone are specific chemicals
in the human body that are responsible for the boy’s development of the secondary sexual
characteristics.
Epididymis
 This is long coiled tube that rests on the backside of each testicle
Function of the epididymis
 It stores sperm cells
Sperm duct
 This is the tube that connects the epididymis to the urethra.
Function of the sperm duct
 It transports sperm cells from the testes to the urethra
Urethra
 It is the tube inside the penis
Functions of the urethra
 It is the passage for sperms
 It is the passage for urine

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Scrotum
 It is a skin sac that holds the testes outside the body to keep them cooler than the body
temperature.
Functions of the scrotum
 It protects the testicles
 It holds the testes outside the body to keep them slightly below the normal body
temperature. This gives the testes a conducive environment to produce sperms.
Penis
 This is an erectile organ that is used to deposit sperms into the vagina during sexual
intercourse.
 The sperms are deposited into the vagina by a process called ejaculation.
Function of the penis
 It is used to deposit sperms into the vagina during sexual intercourse.
Example
1. The diagram below shows the side view of the male reproductive organs.

(a) Identify the parts marked G and I.

(b) State the function of part J.
(c) Explain what would happen if K was to be tied.
(d) State two signs of puberty in boys.
Solution
(a) G – Urethra
I – Scrotum
(b) Its function is to store sperm cells.
(c) The semen produced will no longer contain sperms hence cannot fertilize an egg.
(d) The voice deepens
The penis enlarges

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Female reproductive system

Functions of the female reproductive organs

Ovary
 The two ovaries are the main reproductive organs of a woman
 They are found on either sides of the lower abdomen
Functions of the ovaries
 They produce the eggs or ova
 They also produce female hormones called Oestrogen
Oviduct
 It is also called fallopian tube
Functions of the oviduct
 This is where fertilization of the ovum takes place
 It is the passage of the ovum from the ovary to the uterus
Uterus
 It is also known as the womb
 It is supplied with blood and its inner lining is prepared to receive a fertilized ovum
Functions of the uterus
 Where the embryo develops during pregnancy
 It is a site of implantation
 It houses and protects the developing embryo/foetus from injury
 Pushes the baby out at birth through contractions
Cervix
 It is a ring of muscles which closes the lower end of the uterus from the vagina
Functions of the cervix
 It lubricates the vagina by producing mucus
 It prevents miscarriage/premature birth during pregnancy
 It separates uterus and the vagina
 It relaxes and opens wide for the baby to come out when a woman is about to give birth
Vagina
 It is the muscular tube to the outside of the vulva
Functions of the vagina
 It receives sperms from the penis during sexual intercourse
 It is the passage for the baby during birth
Example
1. The diagram below shows parts of a female reproductive organ

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 (a) Name the parts labelled P, Q and R
(b) In which labelled part does fertilization take place?
(c) State one function of the part labelled R
(d) State one importance of observing personal hygiene
Solution
(a) P – Oviduct or fallopian tube
Q – Uterus
R – Cervix
(b) Part P
(c) It forms part of the birth canal during birth.
Lubricates vagina by producing mucus
Prevents premature birth.
(d) To prevent infections/diseases
To avoid bad odours
Puberty
 Puberty or adolescence is the stage in the development of the body when one reaches sexual
maturity and becomes capable of reproduction.
 It is the period between childhood and adulthood. It is the sexual development in boys and
girls.
 The time when puberty begins varies greatly among individuals. Puberty occurs in girls
between the ages of 10 and 14 and between the ages of 12 and 16 in boys
Changes related to puberty
 When a person is about to reach puberty, sexual signs of development begin to show out
before maturity is reached
 Several changes are also observed in the body. These changes are stimulated by chemicals
produced in the body called hormones
Changes associated with puberty for males
 Wet dreams
 The penis enlarges
 The chest enlarges
 The testicles grow
 The voice deepens
 The muscles become strong
 Growth of hair around the genital parts and the armpits
 Pimples may appear on the face
Changes associated with puberty for females
 Ovulation
 Menstruation begins
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  Hips become wider
 Enlargement of breasts
 Growth of hair around the genital parts and armpits
 Pimples may appear on the face
Note
 Menstruation is the shedding of the lining of the uterus along with some blood in females
when fertilization does not occur.
Good health habits
 Washing the reproductive organs regularly with soap and clean water
 Changing sanitary towels regularly during menstruation
 Changing underwear regularly and ironing them before wearing
 Keeping the reproductive organs dry
 Taking a shower every day
 Having regular exercises such as walking, biking and swimming.
 Male circumcision
Importance of observing personal hygiene of the reproductive organs
 To avoid inflections/diseases
 To avoid bad odours
Exercise
1. Study the diagrams below showing the female and male reproductive systems.

(a) Name the parts labelled P, Q, R, S, T, U, V and W

(b) State the functions of the parts labelled P, R, U and W.
(c) What is meant by the term puberty?
(d) Approximately, when does puberty begin in females?
(e) Mention three secondary sexual characteristics that happen to both females and males
when they reach puberty.
(f) Mention two secondary sexual characteristics that happen only to females when they reach
puberty.
(g) Mention two secondary sexual characteristics that happen only to males when they reach
puberty.
(h) Name the sexual hormones produced by the parts labelled Q and V when both males and
females reach puberty?

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Fertilization and Embryo Development
Specific Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. Describe the process of fertilization in human beings.
2. Explain the functions of the parts important for development of the embryo.
3. Describe gestation period and birth.
Fertilization
 Fertilization is the fusion of sperm and an ovum in the oviduct to form a zygote.
 The nucleus of the sperm fuses with the nucleus of the ovum to form a zygote.

Fertilization
 During sexual intercourse, thousands of sperms are released into the vagina by the penis
and swim through the cervix into the uterus up to the oviduct but only one sperm penetrates
the ovum.
 When a sperm penetrates an ovum, the surface of the ovum changes to prevent any other
sperm from entering it.
Summary of activities that take place in the process of fertilization
 Sexual intercourse
 Fusion of sperm and ovum
 Formation of zygote
 Attachment of zygote to uterus
Embryo Development
Stages of development
1. Zygote
 The sperm fuses with an ovum in the oviduct to form a zygote. The zygote does not remain
in the oviduct.
2. Embryo
 The zygote leaves the oviduct and enters the uterus where implantation occurs.
 Once implantation has taken place, the zygote is now referred to as embryo. Implantation
is the process through which the fertilized egg attaches itself to the walls of the uterus.
3. Foetus
 The embryo continues to grow and form tissues and organs such as the heart, ears and eyes.
By the eighth week, all the organs are formed and the embryo is referred to as foetus.
 The foetus requires food, protection and oxygen in order to grow and develop. These things
are supplied by the placenta, amniotic fluid and umbilical cord.
4. Baby
 The foetus develops into a baby.
Summary of the stages of embryo development
 Zygote ⇾ embryo ⇾ foetus ⇾ baby

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Functions of the parts important for development of the embryo
1. Placenta
 It is the point at which the embryo first attaches itself to the wall of the uterus
Functions of the placenta
 It supplies food nutrients to the developing embryo for health growth and development
 It supplies oxygen to the embryo for breathing
 It removes waste products from the foetus
 It acts as a filter by preventing the entry of harmful micro-organism from the mother to the
foetus
2. Amnion
 It is a sac filled with a fluid called amniotic fluid. This amnion ensures that the amniotic
fluid that surrounds the developing embryo/foetus does not drain away.
Functions of the amnion
 It is a sac where the embryo develops
 It protects the foetus from injury
3. Amniotic fluid
 The amniotic fluid contained in amnion surrounds the embryo.
Functions of the amniotic fluid
 It provides physical support to the foetus in the womb and allows the foetus to float
 It prevents dehydration of the foetus. Dehydration is the process by which water is lost
from the body.
 It acts as lubricant as the foetus moves or turns about inside the uterus
 It protects the foetus against external shock. It acts as a shock absorber when the mother
experiences shock, for example if she falls down, the shock does not reach the foetus.
 It provides a suitable environment for the development of the embryo
Note
 Although the embryo is floating in the ammoniac fluid, it does not drown. This is because
it does not breathe through its nose or mouth.
4. Umbilical Cord
 It is a long tube-like connection that joins the foetus to the placenta.
 It contains an artery and a vein.
 The artery carries carbon dioxide and other wastes from the embryo to the placenta.
 The vein carries oxygen and foods back to the embryo.
Functions of the umbilical cord
 It holds and connects the foetus to the placenta
 It transport food nutrients and oxygen from the placenta to the foetus
 It gets rid of waste products and carbon dioxide from the foetus to the placenta
Example
1. The diagram below shows a foetus in the uterus of a pregnant woman.

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 (a) Identify the structures labelled G and H
(b) State the function of the structure labelled I
(c) Complete the stages of embryo development by filling in the blank spaces 1 and 4
1………….. 2 embryo 3 foetus 4………………
Solution
(a) G – Umbilical cord
H – Amnion
(b) It provides physical support to the foetus in the womb and allows the foetus to float
It prevents dehydration of the foetus
It acts as lubricant as the foetus moves or turns about inside the uterus
It protects the foetus against external shock
(c) 1 – Zygote
4 – Baby
Gestation period and Birth
Gestation period
 It is also referred to as pregnancy
 Gestation period is the period in months or days from fertilization to birth.
 In humans, gestation period takes about 9 months or 40 weeks which is 278 days for the
embryo to grow into a mature baby in the mother’s womb.
Birth
 Birth is the expulsion of the foetus from the uterus at the end of a pregnancy.
 A few weeks before the end of the gestation period, the foetus moves its head downwards
just above the cervix with its head facing down.

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Stages of normal labour/child birth
1. Dilation and shortening of the cervix
The cervix dilates to about 10cm to allow the passage of the baby’s head.
2. Birth of the baby
Due to the strong muscle contractions, the baby is delivered head first.
3. Expulsion of the placenta
After delivery, the placenta ‘after birth’ is expelled to the outside.
Example
1. If the mother had conceived on 20th February, predict the birth date of her baby.
Solution
25th November (Or any other date from 19th November to 1st December)
Exercise
1. The figure below shows a developing foetus and part of the reproductive system of the
mother.

(a) Identify the parts labelled Q and R.

(b) What is the function of liquid marked N?
(c) Explain why the foetus does not drown despite being in liquid N.
(d) State one substance other than gas which moves in the direction of the arrow.
(e) In which labelled part does gases exchange occur between mother and foetus?
(f) If the woman conceived on 4 April and the baby was born 5 December, was the birth date
earlier or later than predicted? Explain the answer.
(g) A pregnant woman has 12 more weeks before the estimated day of normal delivery. How
many weeks has she been pregnant?
(h) A woman gave birth on 28th October 2011. If this was a normal full term delivery, when
was she likely to have fallen pregnant?
(i) Mention the three stages of labour in their correct order.
(j) Which labelled part is expelled after the child is born as the ‘after birth’?

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 HEALTH
Specific Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. Describe the different types of food nutrients.
2. Describe the dietary needs for different persons.
3. Identify common nutritional deficiency diseases and their symptoms
4. Describe the importance of children’s clinics
Nutrition
 Nutrition is the process of obtaining the food necessary for health or growth.
 In simple terms, nutrition refers to the food that we eat
 Food contains different types of nutrients that help our bodies to function normally.
 A nutrient is a substance found in the food which provides the body with nourishment
necessary for growth.
 It is advisable that we eat balance diet meals
 A diet is the type, quality and quantity of food eaten by a person
 A balanced diet is a meal that contains all the food nutrients in their proportion.
Types of food nutrients
There are seven types of nutrients required by the body for it to grow and remain health.
1. Carbohydrates
2. Proteins
3. Lipids
4. Vitamins
5. Mineral salts
6. Water
7. Dietary fibre
Nutrient Source Function / importance Deficiency / effect
Carbohydrates Maize, Cassava, Rice, They provides our bodies Marasmus
Millet, Potatoes, Green with energy. Energy helps
bananas, Bread, Sweet us to undertake different
potatoes physical activities
Proteins Meat, Eggs, Chicken, They are needed for the Kwashiorkor
Fish, Beans, Peas, Milk, growth and repair of worn
Cheese, Groundnuts out body tissues
They also used to supply
energy
Fats / lipids Butter, Cheese, Milk, They are source of energy May cause kidney failure
Cream, Fatty meat, and heat to the body and retarded growth
Vegetable oils They insulate the body
Water Drinking water, fresh To keep body fluids in Dehydration
fruits and vegetables balance and to dissolve
other nutrients
Dietary fibre Vegetables, maize, bran, Provides bulk for muscles of Constipation
popcorn the intestine to work on stay
active

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 Minerals salts
Nutrient Source Function / importance Deficiency / effect
Calcium Milk, Fish, Whole grain It is needed in bones and teeth Rickets
formation Badly formed teeth
Iron Liver, Leafy vegetables, Formation of haemoglobin Anaemia
Eggs, Meat, Kidney, Cereals
Iodine Table salt Needed for the synthesis of the Goiter
hormone thyroxin which
regulates the rate of metabolism
in the body
Phosphorous Milk, fish, whole grain Needed for the formation of Rickets due to poor
calcium phosphate, bones and formation of bones
teeth
Phosphate is required for the
supply of energy for metabolic
reactions
It forms part of the nucleic acids
Sodium Sea foods, table salt Plays an important role in Paralysis
regulating the body fluids Poor nervous
Plays an important role in nerve transmission
impulse transmission
Vitamins
Nutrient Source Function / importance Deficiency / effect
Vitamin A Green vegetables, Milk Helps our eye sight Night blindness
(Retinol)
Vitamin B Cereals, Liver, Beef, Milk Helps in the production of red Anaemia
blood cells Beriberi
Controls metabolism and mental Pellagra
clarity
Vitamin C Green vegetables, Citrus Maintenance of bones Scurvy
(Ascorbic acid) fruits Maintenance of muscles Poor healing of
Improves the immune system wounds
Vitamin D Sunlight, Fish, Fats, Liver, Helps in the formation of bones Rickets
Eggs, Oils, Milk and teeth
Vitamin E Found in a wide variety of Helps in maintaining the cell Destruction of red
foods structure by protecting cell blood cells in
The richest foods in vitamin membranes infants
E are soya beans, corns,
olive oil nuts
Vitamin K Green leafy vegetables, Helps in blood clotting Blood delays to clot
Vegetable oils, Cereals
Dietary needs for different persons
 The quantity of different nutrients in a meal varies from one group of people to another.
 Babies require more proteins than adults since proteins are essential for growth.
 The following are dietary needs for different groups of people:

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 1. Babies
A baby requires:
 proteins for the growth of the body.
 calcium for the development of strong bones.
2. Sick people
A sick person requires:
 more proteins to repair parts of the body tissue affected by the disease.
 more vitamins to promote the immune system so that they can recover.
 more carbohydrates to provide energy.
3. Pregnant mothers
A pregnant mother requires:
 more proteins for the development of the baby’s brain and growth of their muscles.
 more calcium for the development of strong bones of the foetus.
 iron for the formation of haemoglobin and the production of extra red blood cells to
cater for growth of the foetus and placenta.
 vitamin D to help the mother and the unborn baby to have strong bones.
 carbohydrates which will provide energy to help carry the embryo in her womb.
4. Lactating women
A lactating woman:
 is the mother who is breastfeeding.
 requires food which contains all the nutrients to enable her to produce enough milk
for her baby to prevent her from becoming weak.
5. Manual worker
A manual worker:
 is a person whose work involves a lot of muscle activity.
 requires more carbohydrates to provide energy to carry out the activities. The
activities may involve pulling, lifting, digging, or carrying heavy loads.
6. Sedentary worker
A sedentary worker:
 is a person who works in an office. Much of his or her job is done sitting down.
 requires proteins and vitamins to work well.
 does not use as much energy as a manual worker. Secretaries belong to sedentary
workers.
7. Elderly people
Elderly people require:
 proteins, vitamins and minerals.
 less carbohydrates since they are not physically active.
Nutritional deficiency diseases
 Nutritional deficiency diseases are caused by lack of one or more nutrients in the diet
Examples of nutritional deficiency diseases
 Kwashiorkor
 Marasmus
 Rickets
 Scurvy
 Anaemia
1. Kwashiorkor
 Kwashiorkor is caused by lack of proteins in the diet.
 It is a form of malnutrition that affects children in most developing countries

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Signs and symptoms of kwashiorkor
 Extended stomach
 The skin pigment becomes lighter
 Decreased muscle mass
 Diarrhea
 Retarded growth
 The hair changes its colour and texture
 Fatigue
 Skin rashes
2. Marasmus
 Marasmus is a deficiency disease caused by lack of all nutrients in the diet especially
energy giving foods.
Signs and symptoms of marasmus
 Retarded growth
 Severe weight loss that makes a child to look skinny
 Chronic diarrhea
 Fatigue
 Paralysis of legs
3. Rickets
 Rickets is a deficiency disease that causes softening and weakening of bones in
children.
 It is caused by prolonged vitamin D deficiency
Signs and symptoms of rickets
 Bowed legs or knocked knees
 Bone pain
 Soft and weak bones that are prone to fractures since they are fragile
 Dental problems such as delayed teeth formation and teeth deformities
 Impaired growth and short stature
4. Scurvy
 Scurvy is disease caused by lack of vitamin C in the body.
 Though scurvy is a very rare disease, it still occurs in some patients, usually elderly
people or people who live on a diet that lacks fresh fruits and vegetables
 Infants or children who are on special diet are also prone to scurvy
Signs and symptoms of scurvy
 Bleeding gums
 Fatigue
 Loss of appetite
 Diarrhea
 Rapid breathing
5. Anaemia
 Anaemia is a disease that is caused by lack of enough iron in the body. This affect the
number of red blood cells hence interfering with the transportation of oxygen in the
body, causing tiredness
Signs and symptoms of anaemia
 Fatigue and loss of energy
 Unusual rapid heartbeats

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  Difficulty in concentrating
 Dizziness
 Pale skin
 Leg crumps
 Insomnia, that is lacking sleep
Example
1. The drawing below shows a secretary at her desk.

Dietary requirements differ for different groups of people.

(a) State the group of people to which the secretary belongs in terms of dietary needs.
(b) Looking at the type of work she is doing, suggest two dietary needs for her to work
well.
(c) Which deficiency disease is caused by:
(I) Lack of proteins?
(II) Lack of Vitamin D?
(d) Suggest an element which promotes formation of thyroxin hormone.
Solution
(a) Sedentary workers
(b) Proteins and Vitamins
(c) (I) Kwashiorkor
(II) Rickets
(d) Iodine
Exercise
1. The list below shows different types of foods
Banana
Orange
Chicken
Cassava
(a) Identify a food from the list which;
(I) Provides proteins
(II) Provides vitamins
(b) Select a food, from the list which has both vitamins and carbohydrates
(c) From the list, identify one food which can be used to prevent
(I) Kwashiorkor
(II) Scurvy
Children’s Clinics
 In Zambia, as well as many other countries throughout the world, children's clinics provide
each child with a Children's Clinic Card.

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Information that can be obtained from Under-Five Clinic card
 Child’s family information
 Immunization programme
 Age of the child
 Mass of the child
 Nutritional information
How to read information on the card
 On the clinic card, the mass is on the vertical axis and on the age on the horizontal axis.
 After weighing the child every month, the mass of the child is found by using a balance.
The mass is then marked on the graph. The marks are joined together to give a mass-age
graph.
Note
1. If the line continues to rise above the upper reference line, it probably means that the child
is overfeeding.
2. If the line continues to rise and is under the lower reference line, it means the child is
underfed.
3. If the line is horizontal, or falls, then the child may also be suffering from an illness. The
mass of a six month old healthy child should be between six and eight kilograms
 In the first year of life, the child should be weighed every month.

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  In the second year, the child should be weighed every two months
 From the third year, a child should be weighed at least every three months. Weighing a
child every three months should continue up to the time the child is five years of age

Importance of children’s clinics

 Immunization of the child against diseases such as tuberculosis, whooping cough,
diphtheria, tetanus, polio and measles.
 Providing supplements. If the doctor notices some signs of nutritional deficiency diseases
in some children, they are given supplements for various nutrients that they may be lacking.
 Provides nutritional advice to mothers when there are signs of malnutrition in the baby and
what nutrients to include in their baby’s diet and their quantities.
 Growth monitoring through weighing the child. Every month the woman visits the under-
five clinic where the weight of a child is recorded. Depending on the weight, the doctor
may recommend some diet for a child. The children’s clinic card is used for growth
monitoring of the child and it is provided after birth.
Note
 Apart from mass, the growth of an organism can be measured in terms of height, length
and increase in number.

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Main causes of poor health in children at different ages
Age of child Causes of poor health
 Type of food given other than breast milk
0 – l month  Viruses in the air breathed in
 Diseases such as malaria
 Infection caused by bacteria
 Extra foods introduced too early
 Eating contaminated food
1–12 months  Malaria
 Sore eyes
 Fever
 Underfeeding
 Problems caused by indigestion or adaptation to new foods
 Contaminated food
12 – 60 months  Loss of appetite
 Infection
 Malnutrition
 Worm infection
Example
1. Dietary needs vary from person to person.
(a) Name one class of nutrients in a balanced diet necessary for;
(I) Proper skin formation,
(II) Providing energy to do work.
(b) Suggest a reason why a pregnant woman needs more of the following in her diet;
(I) Proteins
(II) Iron
(c) Explain why mothers are advised to take their children monthly to the under-five clinics.
Solution
(a) (I) Vitamins
(II) Carbohydrates or fats (lipids)
(b) (I) For building up the tissues of the baby growing inside the uterus.
To maintain the mother’s own cells.
(II) For building up haemoglobin and production of red blood cells in the blood of both the
mother and the baby.
(c) To check and ensure that the baby is healthy.
For immunization against diseases
Exercise
1. There are seven classes of nutrients important to human beings
(a) State the seven classes of nutrients important to human beings.
(b) Why are these nutrients important to human being?
(c) Define the term nutrient.
(d) Describe the dietary needs for:
(I) Sick people
(II) Pregnant mother
(III) Lactating woman
(IV) Manual worker

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 (V) Elderly people
(VI) Sedentary workers
2. The diagram below shows the Under-Five Clinic Card

(a) What was the maximum age on the card?

(b) During which period was the growth of the child most rapid?
(c) At what age is the child going to experience another rapid growth?
(d) How heavy was the child when he was last weighed?
(e) How heavy was the child when he was six months?
(f) What is the change in weight of the child between the 17th month and 18th month in its
second year?
(g) In what other way can growth of an organism be measured apart from the one shown
in the diagram above?
(h) Apart from tuberculosis and poliomyelitis, name one other disease that a child is
immunized against and the information recorded on the clinic card
(i) Which period on the card identifies the part which describes “danger sign” for the
child’s health?
(j) State two benefits of taking a child to children’s clinic
3. The table below show the sources of the nutrients and the effect of deficiency .Fill in the
missing spaces.
Food nutrient Sources of food nutrients Lack of it causes
Vitamin A
Rickets
Lipids
Carbohydrates
Constipation
Anaemia
Vitamin C

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 Iodized table salt, sea foods
Iron
Kwashiorkor
(a) What information does a children’s card give?
(b) Explain the importance of the under- five clinic.
(c) Using the information in the table plot mass - age graph.
Mass (kg) 3 4 5 6.5 6.5 8 4
Age (months) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(I) What happens to the weight from month one to month three?
(II) Explain what happened to the baby from month four to month five.
(III) What could have led to the weight to drop in month 7?
(IV) Name three of the most common causes of poor health in children in the age group
of zero to five years.
4. The diagram below shows part of an Under Five Card.

(a) Apart from the information shown on the card above, state one other type of information
which can be obtained from an under five clinic card.
(b) Why is it important to know the birthday weight of the baby?
(c) What was the birthday weight of the child?
(d) How often were the parents taking the child to the Under Five Clinic?
(e) By how much did the child lose weight between June and July?
(f) Suggest one disease which brought about the loss in weight of the child in month 4 due to
poor diet.

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THE ENVIRONMENT
Specific Outcome
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. Explain what pollution is.
2. Identify different types of pollution of the environment
3. Identify causes of pollution of the environment.
4. Describe the effects of pollution on the environment
5. Describe ways of preventing pollution of the environment
Water, Air and Land Pollution
Pollution
 Pollution is the contamination of the environment by introduction of harmful/waste/
unwanted substances.
 It can also be defined as the addition of harmful substances to the environment
 A substance that pollutes the environment is called a pollutant
Types of pollution to the environment
There are three types of pollution
 Water pollution
 Air pollution
 Land pollution
Air pollution
 Air pollution occurs when pollutants released into the atmosphere
Causes of air pollution
 Carbon monoxide
 Sulphur dioxide
 Smoke
 Dust
 Fumes
Effects of air pollution
 Causes global warming due to increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
 Causes respiratory infections
 Causes breathing difficulties
 Damage to crops/stunted growth in plants
 Causes acid rain
 Causes environmental degradation
 Causes death
Ways of preventing air pollution
 Industries that emit dangerous gases to the atmosphere should be encouraged to take
preventive measures.
 Education programmes should be introduded to educate people at all levels on the harmful
effects of air pollution.
 Reducing or banning the manufacture of certain products that pollutes the air.
 Using lead-free petrol engines which causes less pollution.
 Encouraging people to use sources of energy that do not pollute the air.
Water pollution
 Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies such as rivers, sreams and lakes.
 It occurs when pollutants are added to water.

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Causes of water pollution
 Untreated sewage overflow
 Chemicals from industries/factories
 Washing of clothes from rivers
 Agriculture leaching of fertilizers/pesticides
 Bathing by humans in lakes/rivers
 Ships/boats oil spillage
Effects of water pollution
 Causes diseases in people like dysentery/cholera/typhoid
 Kills aquatic organisms
Ways of preventing water pollution
 Treating sewage before flowing into streams and rivers
 Do not discharge chemicals into rivers
 Do not over use the psticides
 Do not throw litter into streams
 Laws to punish people/industries polluting water
 Putting in place good drainage and sewerage ssystems
 Building toilets and latrines at least ten metres away form wells and rivers
Land pollution
 Land pollution is the distruction of the earth’s surface.
 It occurs when waste is not dipsosed off properly. It also occurs when people put chemicals
in the soil in the form of fertilizers, inscticides and pesticides during agricultural practises.
Causes of land pollution
 Indiscrimate gargage dosposal
 Effluent from factories
 Sewage overflows
 Mining actvities
 Agriculture actvities
 Nuclear waste
 Oil spills
Effects of land pollution
 Out break of diseases such as typhoid, dysentry and cholera
 Unpleasant smell
 Attracting harmful insects
 Unproductive land
Ways of preventing land pollution
 Avoiding careless dumping of wastes.
 Wastes like plastic bags and metals which do not decomposed should be recycled to avoid
polluting the environment
 Introducing programmes to sensitize people on the importance of keeping the environment
clean
Ways of preventing pollution
 Use of filters
 Recycling materials
 Reducing the use of materials
 Reusing materials

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 Use of 3Rs (Recycle, Reuse, Reduce)
Example
1. The diagram below shows a factory producing pollutants into the atmosphere.

(a) Suggest one pollutant produced by the factory

(b) Apart from factories, name one other sources of air pollution.
(c) Describe two effects of atmospheric pollution.
(d) Suggest two ways of preventing pollution.
Solution
(a) Carbon Monoxide/Sulphur dioxide
(b) Quarries during blasting of stones
Tobacco cigarettes
Charcoal burning
Combustion from vehicles
(c) Pollutants dissolve in rain to form acid rain.
Environmental degradation
Causes headaches, dizziness and stomach cramps.
Lung cancer and other lung related complications.
(d) Use of 3Rs (Re use, Recycle, Reduce)
By using filters
Exercise
1. The three common forms of pollution are land, air and water
(a) State one cause of
(I) Land pollution
(II) Water pollution
(b) Describe one effect of
(I) Air pollution
(II) Water pollution
(c) Describe two ways of preventing pollution
2. The drawing below (not drawn to scale) shows trees near a factory before and after
pollution over a long period of years.

22
(a) What type of pollution could have brought about this change?
(b) State one possible source of this pollution stated in question (a) above.
(c) Name the pollutant which caused the effect on the trees.
(d) What is the effect of the same pollutant stated in questions (c) above to the soil?
(e) Name one pollutant caused by agricultural inputs.
(f) State any way you can minimize pollution caused by agricultural inputs.

23
 PLANTS AND ANIMALS
Specific Outcome
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. Identify the main parts of a microscope
2. Examine the plant cell structure using a microscope.
3. Describe the basic structure of an animal cell
4. Describe the functions of the parts of the cells
5. Identify different features in the basic structure of an animal cell and plant cell
Microscope
 A microscope is an instrument used to magnify (enlarge) small objects
Main parts of the microscope

Functions of parts of the microscope

Part Use / Function
Eyepiece lens  Observation of specimen under the microscope. It magnifies objects
Body tube (Head)  Holds the eye piece and objective lenses in position and allows light from
the specimen to pass to the observer
 The body tube connects the eyepiece to the objective lenses.
Stage  The flat platform where the slide is placed.
 The specimen is placed here during examination
Arm  Supports the body tube and the lenses
 The arm connects the body tube to the base of the microscope
 It is used to hold and carry the microscope
Fine adjustment knob  Moves the tube thus bringing the object (specimen) into focus
 Fine tunes the focus and increases the detail of the specimen
Coarse adjustment knob  Brings the object to view. It brings the image of specimen into focus
Objective lenses  Magnifies the image of the specimen
Revolving nose piece  Holds the objective lenses in position
 Turned to select the objective lens
Base  Supports the entire microscope
Stage clips  Hold the specimen on the slide in position during observation
Mirror  It reflects light through the specimen into the lens

24
Guidelines/precautions using a microscope
 Always use both hands when carrying a microscope
 Do not place the microscope near the edge of a bench or table as it may fall
 Avoid touching the lenses and mirror with your fingers
 Do not place the specimen directly on the stage of a microscope. Always place them on a
microscope slide and cover them with a cover slip
 Always use a lens tissue to clean the lenses. Hard materials are likely to scratch the lenses
 Ensure low power lens is in position before storing the microscope
 Always dust the microscope using a soft cloth like linen
Example
1. The diagram below shows parts of a microscope.

(a) Which two labelled parts contain lenses which help to show the image of the specimen?
(b) What name is given to the lenses in the parts identified in question (a) above?
(c) Using the letters on diagram, identify the labelled part on which a person has to put his
eye in order to see the image of the specimen.
(d) Describe the function of the labelled parts;
(I) J
(II) O
Solution
(a) K and M
(b) Converging (convex) lens
(c) K
(d) (I) J: to move or adjust the barrel in order to focus the object or obtain a clear view of the
object
(II) O: To reflect light through the object and the lenses to the eye at K
Exercise
1. The diagram below shows the components of a compound microscope

25
 (a) Identify the part labelled P
(b) Which labelled part on the microscope;
(I) Magnifies the image of the specimen?
(II) Brings the image of the specimen into focus when turned?
(c) Give the function of the part labelled Q
(d) Give one example of a specimen which is best seen under the microscope
(e) Suggest one simple device used in place of a microscope
Cells
 A cell is the smallest structural and functional unit an organism.
 Cells are the basic functional units of living organisms.
 Cells are too small to be seen by the naked eye. We therefore use a microscope to see such
cells.
Animal cell
 An animal cell consists of a cell membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus
Structure of an animal cell

Plant cell
 A plant cell consists of a cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, chloroplast and
vacuole
Structure of a plant cell

Function of the parts of the cells

1. Nucleus
 It is surrounded by the a nuclear membrane

26
Function of the nucleus
 It controls all activities of the cell
2. Cell membrane
 It is a thin membrane which surrounds the cytoplasm.
 It is selectively permeable. This means it controls the movement of substances in and out
of the cell.
Functions of the cell membrane
 It controls the movement of substances in and out of the cell.
 It protects the contents of the cell.
3. Cytoplasm
 This is a jelly-like fluid that fills the space between the cell membrane and the nucleus.
 It contains suspended cell structures called organelles. An organelle is a differentiated
structure within a cell that performs a specific function.
Examples of organelles
 Vacuoles
 Chloroplast
 Nucleus
Function of cytoplasm
 It is a site where all activities of the cell takes place.
Note
 The three parts (nucleus, cytoplasm and cell membrane) are collectively called the
protoplasm. The protoplasm is the living part of the cell.
4. Chloroplasts
 They contain a green pigment called chlorophyll which gives plants their green colour.
Functions of the chloroplasts
 They contain chlorophyll
 They carry out photosynthesis
5. Vacuole
 It is a space surrounded by the cytoplasm and filled with cell sap.
 Cell sap is a solution of dissolved mineral salts, sugars and water.
Functions of the vacuole
 It stores cell sap
 Helps to maintain the shape of the cell
 It releases waste materials excreted by the cell
6. Cell wall
 This is the outermost boundary of the plant cell. It is made of a substance called cellulose.
 It is fully permeable to all substances.
Functions of the cell wall
 It protects the cell
 It gives shape to the plant cell

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Differences between plant and animal cells
Plant Cell Animal Cell
 It has cell wall  It is has no cell wall
 The cell wall contains cellulose  It has no cellulose since it has no cell wall
 It has large permanent vacuole  it has no large permanent vacuole
 It has chloroplasts  It has no chloroplasts
 It has a regular shape  It has an irregular shape
 It is larger  It is smaller
Summary of the structures and comparisons between plant and animal cells
Structure Plant Cell Animal Cell Structure Plant Cell Animal Cell
Cell membrane Present Present Cell membrane √ √
Cell wall Present Absent Cell wall √ x
Cellulose Present Absent Cellulose √ x
Chloroplasts Present Absent Chloroplasts √ x
Cytoplasm Present Present Cytoplasm √ √
Nucleus Present Present Nucleus √ √
Exercise
1. The diagram below shows plant and animal cells of living organisms.

(a) Which labelled part is selectively permeable:

(I) Plant cell
(II) Animal cell
(b) Identify the structure F and explain its function
(c) From the diagram, state one difference between a plant cell and an animal cell.
(d) State one other difference between the plant cell and an animal cell not in the diagram.

28
Plant Growth and Nutrients
Specific Outcome
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. Identify regions of growth of a plant
2. Demonstrate responses to stimuli in shoots and roots
3. Describe nutrients important to plant growth
4. Investigate how plants obtain dissolved mineral salts from the soil
5. Identify sources of plant nutrients
6. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of inorganic and organic fertilizers
7. Explain the effect of excessive use of inorganic fertilizer to the soil.
Growth
 Growth is the permanent increase in size and weight of an organism.
 Seed germinate when they are planted.
 Germination is the process by which a seed begins to spout and grow into a seedling under
the right growing conditions.
Conditions necessary for seed germination
 Water
 Oxygen
 Warmth
Regions of growth of a plant
 There are three regions of plant growth. These are shoot, roots and stem.
Responses to stimuli
 A stimulus is a change in the environment that brings about reaction in an organism
 Plants grow towards or away from the stimulus
Tropisms
 A tropism is a growth response of a plant to stimulus
Examples of tropisms
 Phototropism
 Geotropism
Phototropism
 Phototropism is a growth response to light
 Phototropism occur manly in the stem and root tips
 Shoots grow upwards against the force of gravity.
 Growth towards light is called positive phototropism while growth away from light is
called negative phototropism. Generally, plant shoots are positively phototropic while
roots are negatively phototropic.

 Seedlings bending towards the source of light

Importance of phototropism
 Enables plants to obtain sunlight energy during photosynthesis
Geotropism
 Geotropism is a growth response to gravity

29
  The roots of the germinating seeds grow downwards. Roots grow downwards in the same
direction as the force of gravity.
 The shoots of the germinating seeds grow upwards

 The stems are negatively geotropic as the shoots are growing upwards (away from the
earth)
 The roots are positively geotropic as they are growing downwards (towards the earth)
 Growth towards gravity is called positive geotropism while growth away from gravity is
called negative geotropism. Generally, plant roots are positively geotropic while shoots
are negatively geotropic.
Reason why the cotton wool must be kept moist all the time
 Constant supply of water
 Promotes germination
 Prevents seeds from drying
Importance of geotropism
 Enables plants to obtain nutrients from the soil
 Anchors the plant
 Enables the roots to grow downwards
Example
1. The diagrams below show an experiment on tropisms.

(a) Which labelled part has demonstrated positive

(I) Phototropism?
(II) Geotropism
(b) Explain why these responses are important to the seedlings
(c) Suggest one reason why the cotton wool must be kept moist all the time
(d) Apart from the nutrient in the cotton wool, what other nutrient is needed by the growing
seedlings?
Solution
(a) (I) Y
(II) X
(b) Phototropism
Enables seedlings to obtain sunlight energy
Geotropism

30
 Enables seedlings to obtain nutrients
Anchor the plant
Grow downwards
(c) Constant supply of water
Promotes germination
Prevents seeds from drying
(d) Mineral salts
Oxygen
Exercise
1. Study the diagram below on the effect of stimuli on the growth of a plant.

(a) Name the growth response shown by the;

(I) Shoots
(II) Roots
(b) Explain the importance of the growth response shown by the roots to plants.
(c) State another stimulus and corresponding growth response of the roots.
(d) What are the visible effects on a plant if it lacks mineral element nitrogen?
(e) List any three stimuli that plants respond to.
(f) What causes roots to grow downwards?
(g) Why are tropisms important to plants?
(h) Write the advantage of tropisms to farmers.
Nutrients important to plant growth
Three major elements are:
 Potassium
 Nitrogen
 Phosphorous

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Nutrient Function Effects of deficiency
Nitrogen  Formation of proteins  Yellowing of leaves (Chlorosis)
 It is a component of chlorophyll and hence  Stunted growth
contributes to the green colour of plant  Poor growth of all plant organs
leaves
 It regulates the amount of phosphorous and
potassium in a plant
Phosphorous  It is essential flowering, fruit and seed  Poor establishment of roots and
formation development
 Promotes formation of roots and facilitates  Tubers of root crops fail to get established
germination or are very small and short
 Helps in metabolic activities such as  Leaves turn purple or have red
respiration pigmentation
 Improves the quality of forage  Some leaves turn black in colour
 Useful in the formation of ATP and  Stunted growth and leaf fall
regulation of several enzyme systems
Potassium  Regulates water uptake by roots cells  Leaves may curl and this affects the way
 Regulates the opening and closing of leaves function
Stamata  Yellowing of leaves (Chlorosis)
 Needed in the development of chlorophyll  Premature shedding of leaves occur thus
 Makes crops resistant to certain diseases affecting plant growth and performance
 Strengthens roots and stems  Poorly developed roots and tubers
 Reduced plant growth
 Reduced root, fruit and seed development
 Brown scorching of leaves
 Curling of leaf tips
How plants obtain dissolved mineral salts from the soil
 Plants absorb mineral salts and water through the roots
 From the roots, the mineral salts move up the plant through the stem and finally to the
leaves
 In the stem, there are vessels known as xylem and phloem
 Xylem vessels transport mineral salts and water
 Phloem vessels transport manufactured food
Sources of plant nutrients
There are two main sources of plant nutrients
 Organic fertilizers
 Inorganic fertilizers
Fertilizers
 A fertilizer is a substance containing plant nutrients that are added to soil to help plants
grow.
Organic fertilizers
 Organic fertilizers are also known as natural fertilizers
 They are made directly from plant and animal waste.
 They are a good source of nitrogen
 These are dead, decaying substances such as leaves, cow dung, poultry manure and stalks
of cereals, for example, maize, sun flowers and bean stems.

32
Examples of organic manure
 Farm yard manure
 Green manure
 Compost manure
Advantages of organic fertilizers
 They are a cheaper source of fertilizer
 They increase soil fertility thus increasing productivity
 They are easy to prepare and to use
Disadvantages of using organic fertilizers
 May not be easily available to farmers. Takes a long time from the time it is prepared and
the time it gets ready for use.
 Nutrients from these fertilizers take long to be absorbed by plants
 Produces unpleasant smell when the rotting organic waste decays.
Inorganic fertilizers
 They are also known as artificial fertilizers
 These are man-made fertilizers.
 Once in the soil, these compounds dissolve in the soil and are absorbed by plants through
the roots
Examples of inorganic fertilizers
 Urea
 D Compound (Ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulphate)
Advantages of inorganic fertilizers
 They easily dissolved in the soil and readily taken up by the roots
 They contain all the necessary nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium
Disadvantages of inorganic fertilizers
 They are expensive
 They make the soil acidic if used for a long time
 They destroy the soil structure by making the soil particles sticky and difficult to dig or
plough especially in clay
 They cause water pollution when washed away by rains and drained in water sources
Effects of excessive use of inorganic fertilizer to the soil
 Plants die
 Soil become acidic
 Over growing of plants
Example
1. The following diagram shows an experiment on a plant which was put in a blue solution
and placed in direct sunlight for 3 hours.

(a) Identify the part labelled M

(b) When M was cut across, some cells were found to be Coloured blue.

33
 (I) State the type of cells which were coloured blue
(II) What was the experiment trying to show
(c) Write one example of:
(I) Organic fertilizer
(II) Inorganic fertilizer
Solution
(a) M – stem
(b) (I) Xylem
(II) Absorption/uptake of water from soil; Uptake of water up the stem by xylem
(c) (I) Organic – Manure /Compost
(II) Inorganic – ‘D’ compound; Urea; Ammonium nitrate
(d) Plants wilt/dry
Poor growth of plant
Exercise
1. (a) Mention three major important elements needed for plant growth
(b) What are the two major sources of plant nutrients?
2. (a) Explain the main advantages and disadvantages of artificial fertilizers
(b) What is the effect using excessive artificial fertilizers?
(c) Describe how plants obtain mineral salts from the soil

34
MATERIALS AND ENERGY
Specific outcomes
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. Describe the composition of matter
2. Describe the basic structure of an atom.
3. Identify common atoms using symbols
4. Demonstrate the formation of simple molecules using models of atoms.
Composition of Matter
 Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass
 All matter is made up of particles called atoms
 Atoms are referred to basic building block of matter
 An atom is the smallest particle of an element.
 An element is a substance made of one type of atom. An element can also be defined as
matter that is made up of only one kind of substance.
Basic structure of atom
 An atom contains protons, neutrons and electrons

 The protons and neutron are found in the nucleus. The nucleus is central part of an atom.
 The electrons move around the nucleus using the path called shells
 Shells are paths used by electrons as they revolve around the nucleus
Basic particles of an atom
 There are three smaller basic particles of an atom. These are electrons, protons and
neutrons.
Characteristics of the three basic particles of an atom
1. Electron
Symbol: e
 It is a negatively charged particle.
 It has a charge of −1
 It is found in shells
1
 It has a mass of 1840 atomic mass units (a.m.u)
2. Proton
Symbol: p
 It is a positively charged particle
 It has a charge of +1
 It is found in the nucleus of an atom
 It has a mass of 1atomic mass units (a.m.u)
3. Neutron
Symbol: n
 It is a neutral particle
 It has no charge
 It is found in the nucleus of an atom
 It has a mass of 1atomic mass units (a.m.u)

35
Exercise
1. Complete the table below
Particle Symbol Charge Atomic mass Position in the atom
−1 Shells
Proton Nucleus
n 1
Common atoms and their symbols
Atom Symbol
Hydrogen H
Helium He
Lithium Li
Beryllium Be
Boron B
Carbon C
Nitrogen N
Oxygen O
Fluorine F
Neon Ne
Sodium Na
Magnesium Mg
Aluminum Al
Silicon Si
Phosphorous P
Sulphur S
Chlorine Cl
Argon Ar
Potassium K
Calcium Ca
Lead Pb
Copper Cu
Iron Fe
Zinc Zn
Molecules
 A molecule is a small group of atoms joined together
 Molecules can either be formed by atoms of the same element or by atoms of different
elements
Examples of molecules formed by the same kind of atoms
 Hydrogen, H2
 Oxygen, O2
 Nitrogen, N2
Examples of molecules formed by different kinds atoms
 Water, H2O
 Carbon dioxide, CO2

36
The formation of simple molecules using models of atoms
1. Hydrogen molecule, H2
Hydrogen atom + Hydrogen atom ⇾ Hydrogen molecule
H + H ⇾ H2

Hydrogen molecule
 Each hydrogen atom has 1 electron
H1
 Two electrons are being shared
Simple model of hydrogen molecule

2. Oxygen molecule, O2
Oxygen atom + Oxygen atom ⇾ Oxygen molecule
O + O ⇾ O2

Oxygen molecule
 Each oxygen atom has 8 electrons
O 2.6
 Four electrons are being shared
Simple model of oxygen molecule

3. Nitrogen molecule, N2
Nitrogen atom + Nitrogen atom ⇾ Nitrogen molecule
N + N ⇾ N2

Nitrogen molecule
 Nitrogen atom has 7 electrons
N 2.5
 Six electrons are being shared

37
 Simple model of nitrogen molecule

4. Water molecule, H2O

Hydrogen molecule + oxygen atom ⇾ water molecule
H2 + O ⇾ H2O

Water molecule
Simple model of water molecule

5. Carbon dioxide molecule, CO2

Carbon atom + oxygen molecule ⇾ Water molecule
C + O2 ⇾ CO2

Carbon dioxide molecule

 Carbon atom has 6 electrons
C 2.4
Simple model of carbon dioxide molecule

Differences between an atom and a molecule

Atom Molecule
 An atom is the smallest particle of  A molecule is a small group of atoms
an element joined together
 Atoms make up elements so they are  Molecules are made up of two or
of only one type. more atoms. The atoms could be of
one element or two or more elements.
 Atoms are indivisible.  Molecules can be split into atoms
which make them up.
Example
1. Define the following terms:

38
 (a) Atom
(b) Element
Solution
(a) An atom is the smallest unit of matter
It is a substance or basic building block of matter
(b) An element is made up of one type of atoms
2. Describe the basic structure of an atom
Solution
It contains protons, neutrons and electrons
3. How many atoms are there in the following molecule?
(a) CO2
(b) H2
Solution
(a) 3
(b) 2
4. The following diagrams show the basic structures of two different substances

(a) State the name of the structures found in the shell

(b) In the structures of the substances, name the contents of the part labelled nucleus
(c) Explain the difference between substance N and O
(d) What name is given to matter that is made up of only one kind of substance?
(e) What is formed when hydrogen chemically combines with oxygen?
Solution
(a) Electrons
(b) Protons and neutrons
(c) N is an atom while O is a molecule
N has one atom while O has two atoms combined
(d) Element
(e) Water
Exercise
1. The diagram below shows the structure of an oxygen molecule

Oxygen molecule

39
(a) State the particles found in the
(I) Nucleus
(II) Shells
(b) From the molecular structure above, how many electrons are being shared in order for the
atom to combine and form a molecule?
(c) Using the same principle, draw a molecule of nitrogen gas. Nitrogen atom has 7 electrons
(d) Explain the differences between an atom and a molecule

40
Physical Change of State
Specific Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. State what physical change is
2. Describe the arrangement of atoms in the three states of matter
3. Identify the temperatures at which water changes state.
Physical change
 It is change from one state to the another
 Physical change is a change in which there is no new substance formed
State of matter
It is also called Physical form of matter
 State of matter is the form in which matter exists. Matter exists in three forms. These are
solids, liquids and gases
Examples of solids
 Stone
 Salt
 Glass block
 Wooden block
 Copper block
Examples of liquids
 Water
 Cooking oil
 Paraffin
Examples of gases
 Oxygen
 Hydrogen
 Carbon dioxide
Arrangement of atoms in the three states of matter
Solids
 In solids, particles are very closely packed together

 Particles move by vibrating in their fixed positions.

 They have a fixed shape and a have a fixed volume.
Liquids
 In liquids, particles are closely packed together

 Particles move by vibrating rapidly over short distances. Particles move from one position
to the other. Particles slide past each other randomly.
 They have no fixed shape. They take the shape of the container in which they are placed.
They have a fixed volume.
Gases
 In gases, particles are spread far apart.

41
  Particles move at random. Particles move to fill any space available
 They have no fixed shape.
 They have no fixed volume. Particles spread to fill the space available
Changes of state
 A substance can change from one state to another when it is either heated or cooled.
Heating
 Heating involves the addition of heat to a substance.
Effects of heating substances
 Melting
 Evaporation
 Sublimation
Melting
 It is also called liquefaction
 Melting is change of state from solid to liquid.
 Ice changes to water when heated.
 The temperature at which a substance changes from solid to liquid is called melting point.
The melting point of ice is 0oC
Evaporation
 It is also called vapourisation
 Evaporation is the change of state from liquid to gas.
 Water changes to steam (water vapour) when heated.
 The constant temperature at which a substance changes from liquid to gas is called boiling
point. The boiling point of water under normal conditions at sea level is100℃.
Sublimation
 Sublimation is the direct change of state from solid to gas by heating or from gas to solid
by cooling without passing through the liquid state.
 Iodine crystals change to iodine vapour when heated and iodine vapour changes to iodine
crystals when cooled.
Examples of substances that can sublime
 Iodine
 Naphthalene
 Solid carbon dioxide/Dry ice
The temperature at which water changes state
 As water is heated, it absorbs heat energy and its temperature rises, then it changes from
solid to liquid and finally to gas.
 The temperature at which a substance changes from solid to liquid is called melting point.
The melting point of ice is 0oC
 The temperature at which a liquid changes to gas is called boiling point. The boiling point
of water under normal conditions at sea level is 100℃.
The heating curve
 The heating curve is a graph showing changes in temperature with time for a substance
being heated.

42
Slope sections of the heating curve
 As a substance is heated, it absorbs heat energy and its temperature rises, then it changes
from solid to liquid and finally to gas.
Flat sections of the heating curve
 The flat section shows the melting point and boiling point. Here the temperature remains
constant over a period of time as energy being absorbed is used to change the state of a
substance (change of state points).
Example
1. The diagram below shows changes in temperature a solid substance X underwent when it
was heated.

(a) Which letter on the graph represents melting point?

(b) Which letter on the graph represents boiling point?
(c) Give reasons for your answers in (a) and (b) above.
(d) Identify the stage in which the substance X would be in liquid state only
(e) At what stage would substance X exist in two different states of solid and liquid at the same
time?
(f) What is the term given to change of state of substance X from R to T?
(g) What is the term given to change of state of substance X from P to T?
Solution
(a) Q
(b) S
(c) Temperature remains constant/Change of state point(s)

43
 (d) Stage R
(e) Stage Q
(f) Evaporation
(g) Sublimation
2. The diagram below shows an experiment on changes of state.

(a) What is the reading on the thermometer?

(b) What must be done to the melting ice for it to completely change to the next state of matter?
(c) Describe the change of state that the ice will undergo in question (b) above
(d) What term is used to describe the temperature at which ice changes its state?
(e) Some substances can change from solid state into gaseous state without becoming a liquid.
What term is used to describe such a reaction?
Solution
(a) 0oC (Temperature for melting ice)
(b) It must be heated/warmed/put in sunlight
(c) Melting
(d) Melting point
(e) Sublimation
Exercise
1. The diagram below shows a heating curve for a pure substance. The temperature rises with
time as the substance is heated.

(a) What physical state(s) is the substance in at A and C?

(b) Describe the movement of the particles of the substance at A and C?
(c) What is the melting point and boiling point of the substance?
(d) Describe what happens to the temperature while the substance is changing its physical
state.

44
Cooling
 Cooling involves the removal of heat from a substance.
Effects of cooling substances
 Condensation
 Freezing
Condensation
 It is also called Liquefaction
 Condensation is the change of state from gas to liquid.
 For example, steam changes to water when cooled.
Freezing
 It is also called Solidification
 Freezing is the change of state from liquid to solid.
 For example, water changes to ice when cooled.
 The constant temperature at which a liquid changes into a solid is called freezing point.
 Freezing point is also called the melting point for a pure substance.
Summary of the changes of state

Example
1. The diagram below shows changes of three states of matter

(a) Identify the process involved in the change f state of matter at

(I) P
(II) R
(b) If this substance in the diagram was water, which state of matter would be ice?
(c) Give one example of a substance which can change by the process labelled U
(d) Suggest one natural process of change of state
(e) Explain what is meant by boiling point
Solution
(a) (I) P = Freezing/Solidification
(II) R = Evaporation/Vaporization
(b) Solid
(c) Iodine
Naphthalene
Solid Carbon Dioxide/Dry Ice

45
(d) Evaporation of water
Ice rain
Melting of snow
(e) It is a temperature at which a liquid changes to gas

46
Mixtures
Specific Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. Explain what a mixture is
2. Identify different types of mixtures
3. Identify methods of separating mixtures.
4. Explain some of the industrial applications of separation techniques
Mixture
 A mixture is a substance made up of two or more substances that are not chemically
combined. This means that the two substances are only physical combined.
Solution
 It is a mixture made up of a solvent and a solute.
Solvent
 It is a liquid in which a solute dissolves. A solvent separated from a solute by evaporating
the liquid and then condensing it, in a process called distillation.
Solute
 It is a substance that dissolves in a solvent. A solute can be separated from a solvent by
evaporation or crystallization. A solute can either be a solid, liquid or gas.
Miscible liquids
 They are liquids that can mix completely when they are put together. Examples of miscible
liquids are ethanol and water
Immiscible liquids
 They are liquids that do not mix completely when they are put together. Examples of
immiscible liquids are water and cooking oil.
Residue
 It is a solid that is trapped on the filter paper during filtration.
Filtrate
 It is a clear liquid that passes through the filter paper
Different types of mixtures
1. Sugar solution: It is a mixture of water and sugar
2. Sea water: It is a mixture of water, salts and dissolved organic and inorganic materials and
a few atmospheric gases.
3. Air: It is a mixture of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, water and other gases.
4. Soil: It is a made up of substances such as humus, gravel, minerals and dead and living
organisms
5. Mud: It is a mixture of water and soil
6. Fruit salad: It is a mixture of different types of chopped fruit
7. Marbles: This is a form of limestone that is made up of different substances of different
colours
Methods of separating mixtures
 Filtration
 Evaporation
 Simple distillation
 Magnetization
 Use of a separating funnel

47
Filtration
 Filtration is a method of separating an insoluble solid from a liquid using a filter paper.
 Sand particles can be separated from water using filtration
 When the mixture of sand and water is poured on the filter paper, the filter paper allows
water to pass through but traps sand particles.

Evaporation
 This is a method used to separate a solid from a liquid by heating

 When the solution is gently heated, the level of the solution in the evaporating dish drops.
This is because water changes into vapour. As the solution continues being heated, all the
water evaporates leaving salt on the evaporating dish.
Simple distillation
 Simple distillation is a method by which a solvent (liquid) is obtained from a solution

 As the solution boils, the water in it evaporates as water vapour.

 The cold water flowing through the condenser cools the steam.
 The steam condenses back to liquid which drips into the collecting container

48
  The liquid collected into the conical flask is called a distillate. A distillate is a pure and
condensed liquid obtained by distillation
Exercise
1. The apparatus below was used in the extraction of ethanol from fermented maize grain.

(a) Name the apparatus labeled Y.

(b) What improvement can be made to the above arrangement to get pure ethanol?
(c) State the purpose of the cold water which passes through Y.
(d) Name the separation technique being used above.
(e) State an industrial application for the technique shown in the diagram above.
Fractional distillation
 Fractional distillation is a method which can be used to separate two miscible liquids
 Fractional distillation can be used to separate ethanol from a mixture of ethanol and water.

 Ethanol and water have different boiling points. Ethanol boils at 78oC and water boils at
100oC.
 When temperature reaches 78oC, ethanol, which is more volatile than water, boils off first.

49
Properties upon which the mixture (liquids) depends to allow separation
 The liquids must be miscible
 The liquids must have difference boiling points.
Note
 The glass beads provide a large surface area for condensation and allow efficient separation
of the components in the mixture.
 Cold water enters the condenser from the bottom to ensure that the region is the coldest so
that all the vapour entering the condenser will turn into a liquid.
 The Liebig condenser cools the vapour causing it to condense into liquid. It also prevents
the distillate formed by condensation from running back into the fractionating column.
 The thermometer is placed at the top of the fractionating column so that it records the
temperature of the vapour.
 The top of the receiver should be open.
Example
1. The diagram below shows the experiment on separation of a mixture.

(a) What is the name of the separation process shown in the diagram?
(b) State two properties of the mixture that allows the separation to take place.
(c) What is the function of the apparatus labeled U?
(d) Name the first part of the mixture that will be collected in the conical flask.
(e) Suggest one industrial use of the separation technique shown in the diagram.
Solution
(a) Fractional distillation
(b) Liquids must be miscible/mix completely (but not react)
Liquids must have different boiling points
(c) Cools the vapour causing it to condense into liquid
(d) Ethanol
(e) Separation of crude oil (at oil refinery plant)
Exercise
1. Darlington Naosa set up the apparatus shown in the diagram to separate a mixture by
fractional distillation.

50
 (a) Name the process which can be used to separate the mixture.
(b) State three errors Darlington Naosa made in the set-up of the apparatus. Explain your
answer in each case.
(c) What other additional piece of apparatus would enable Darlington Naosa obtain a pure
distillate in the receiver?
(d) State one example of a mixture which could be separated by this technique.
(e) Why should there be a constant supply of cold water in the Liebig condenser?
(f) What physical property of substances in the mixture makes it possible for them
to be separated in this method?
Magnetization
 Magnetization is method of separating a mixture of a magnetic material and a non-magnetic
material
Examples of magnetic substances
 Nickel
 Iron
 Steel
 Cobalt
Examples of non-magnetic substances
 Saw duct
 Brass
 Lead
 Aluminum
 Copper
 Iron fillings
The iron fillings are attracted by the magnet leaving the saw dust which is non-magnetic in the
petri dish.

51
Use of a separating funnel
 The separating funnel is used to separate two or more immiscible liquids.
 Immiscible liquids are liquids which do not mix completely when they are put together.
Examples of immiscible liquids
 Water and cooking oil
 Water and paraffin
The method depends on the differences in densities of liquids to be separated.
 The less dense liquid floats on the surface while the denser liquid sinks to the bottom

 When cooking oil and water are shaken, in a separating funnel and allowed to settle down,
two layers are formed; a lower layer of water and an upper layer of cooking oil.
 The two layers are formed because cooking oil and water are immiscible
 When the tap is turned on, the water runs out leaving the cooking oil. The cooking oil is
then poured out using the mouth of the funnel.
Exercise
1. Study the diagram below and then answer the questions that follow. The apparatus
labelled A is used separate a mixture of water and cooking oil

52
 (a) What name is given to the apparatus marked A?
(b) Identify the layers marked B and C
(I) Layer B
(II) Layer C
(c) What name is given to the apparatus labelled D?
(d) Give the type of mixture separated using the method shown above.
(e) Explain how a mixture is separated using the method shown above.
(f) What method can you use to separate each of the following mixtures?
(I) Salt from sea water
(II) Water and alcohol
(III) Iron fillings and saw dust.
Industrial applications of separation techniques
1. Making sugar: Sugar is extracted from sugar cane juice by evaporating excess water from
the juice
2. Extraction of salt from sea water: Sea water is a solution of water and salt. Evaporation and
crystallization are the processes used to extract salt from sea water.
3. Separation of scrap metals
4. Purification of domestic water supply: On a large scale, filtration is applied in the
purification of domestic water supply

53
Mass and Weight
Specific Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. State what mass is
2. Measure the mass of different objects
3. State what weight is
4. Measure the weight of a given object correctly
5. Calculate the weight of a substance given the mass
6. Distinguish between mass and weight
Mass
Symbol: m
SI unit: Kilogram [kg]
 Mass is the quantity of matter in a substance.
Measurement of mass
 Mass can be measured using the following instruments:
– Electronic balance
– Weighing balance
– Beam balance

 Mass does not change from one place to another. It remains constant at all places.
Units used to measure mass
 Mass can be measured depending on the size or quantity of the object being measured.
Nature of object Unit Symbol
Very large Tonne t
Large kilogram kg
Small Gram g
Tiny Milligram mg
Conversions of units
 1g = 1000mg
 1kg = 1000g
 1t = 1000kg
Example
1. Convert
(a) 30g into kg
(b) 3t into kg
Solution
(a) 1000g ⇾ 1kg
30g ⇾ x
30g x 1kg
x = 1000g

54
 x = 0.03kg
(b) 1t ⇾ 1000kg
3t ⇾ x
3t x 1000kg
x= 1t
x = 3000kg
Exercise
1. Convert
(a) 50g to kg
(b) 2000g into kg
Mass of a liquid
Formula: m = m2 – m1
m = mass of liquid
m2 = mass of beaker and liquid
m1 = mass of empty beaker
Example
1. The diagram below shows a cylinder placed on a mass balance with and without a liquid
inside.

What is the mass of liquid J?

Data Solution
m =? m = m2 – m1
m2 = 91.4g m = 91.4g – 50.2g
m1 = 50.2g m = 41.2g
Exercise
1. In an experiment to determine the mass of a certain volume of paraffin, the mass of the
beaker was found to be 20g. When the paraffin was poured into the beaker, the mass
increased to 42.5g. What was the mass of paraffin?
2. An empty container has a mass of 35g. When filled with water, its mass becomes 85g.
Calculate the mass of water.

55
Weight
Symbol: W
SI unit: Newton, N
 Weight is the pull of gravity on a body.
 The pull of gravity is the force which pulls objects towards the center of the earth.
Measurement of weight
 Weight can be measured using the instrument called spring balance

 The spring balance consists of a coiled spring wire which can be stretched by the weight
of an object.
 Weight changes from one place to another depending on the distance from the center of the
earth.
 The weight of an object is more on earth compared to the moon.
Differences between mass and weight
Mass Weight
 Mass is the quantity of matter in a  Weight is the pull of gravity on a
body body
 Mass is measured using a beam  Weight is measured using a spring
balance balance
 Mass does not change from one place  Weight changes from one place to
to another. (Mass is constant) another
 SI unit for mass is the kilogram  The SI unit for weight is the Newton
 Mass is usually measured in grams (g)  Weight is measured in Newtons
and kilograms (kg)
Calculating the weight of a substance given the mass
 W=mxg
W = weight [N]
m = mass [kg]
g = acceleration due to gravity [N/kg]
Note
 The value of g on earth is 10N/kg

56
  The value of g on the moon is 1.6N/kg
Example
1. Calculate the weight of a 20kg stone on earth (acceleration due to gravity is 10N/kg)
Data Solution
W =? W = mg
m = 20kg W = 20kg x 10N/kg
g = 10N/kg W = 200N
2. The mass of a man is 70kg. What is his weight on the moon?
Data Solution
W =? W = mg
m = 70kg W = 70kg x 1.6N/kg
g = 1.6N/kg W = 112N
3. The following diagrams below show two different instrument used for measuring objects.

(a) From the diagrams, identify the instrument used to measure:

(I) Mass
(II) Weight
(b) Apart from the differences in the instruments used for measuring, explain two other
differences between mass and weight
(c) Given that object R has a mass of 200g, calculate its weight.
(Take acceleration due to gravity as 10m/s2)
Solution
(a) (I) Instrument Q
(II) Instrument P
(b) Mass does not change from one place to another while weight changes from one place
to another
Mass is usually measured in grams (g) and kilograms (kg) while weight is measured in
Newtons
Mass is the quantity of matter while weight is the pull of gravity
(c) Data Solution
W =? W = mg
m = 200g = 0.2kg W = 0.2kg x 10m/s2
g = 10m/s2 W = 2N

57
Exercise
1. A car has a mass of 600kg. Find the weight of the car:
(a) On earth
(b) On the moon
2. Calculate the weight of a 15000g mass on earth’s surface.
(Take the gravitational force to be 10N/kg)

58
Volume
Symbol: V
SI unit: cubic meter [m3]
Definition
 Volume is the amount of space occupied by an object.
Other units for volume
 Cubic centimeters, cm3
 Milliliters, ml
 Litres, L
Relationship of units
 1ml = 1cm3
 1L = 1000ml = 1000cm3
 1m3 = 1000L = 1000000cm3
Note
 In the laboratory, we usually use cubic centimeters because the cubic meter is a very large
unit.
Volume of regular solids
 An irregular solid is an object whose sides can be measured easily.
Procedure
 Measure the length of an object using a ruler or vernier calipers or micrometer screw gauge
 Use the appropriate formula to find the volume.
Name of shape Shape of object Formula for volume (m3)

V=lxbxh
Cuboid (rectangle) V=Axh

V = l3
Cube (square)

Sphere (circle) 4
V = 3πr3

V = πr2h
Cylinder (wire or pipe) V=Axh

Cone 1
V = 3π2h

59
Examples
1. Find the volume of the block which has the following measurements; length = 4cm, breadth
= 3cm, height = 2cm.
Data Solution
V =? V=lxbxh
l = 4cm V = 4cm x 3cm x 2cm
b = 3cm V = 24cm3
h = 2cm
2. Find the volume of a cube of sides 2cm.
Data Solution
V =? V = l3
l = 2cm V=lxlxl
V = 2cm x 2cm x 2cm
V = 8cm3
3. Calculate the volume of the sphere of radius 2cm.
Data Solution
V =? 4
V = 3πr3
22
π= 7 4 22
V = 3 x 7 x 2cm x 2cm x 2cm
r = 2cm
V = 33.5cm3
Exercise
1. A cube of side 2cm is immersed in a measuring cylinder containing water of volume (V1)
20cm3. What is the new volume (V2) after immersing the cube in water?
Volume of liquids
 Liquids take the shape of the container in which they are placed.
 If a container is filled to its capacity, its volume can be determined by pouring the contents
into the measuring cylinder.
How to read volumes of liquids
 When a liquid is poured into a measuring cylinder, it forms a curved surface on the upper
part of the liquid.
 The curve could be concave or convex depending on the properties of the liquid.
 The curved surface is called meniscus and is caused by the attraction between the liquid
particles and the container.
 When the meniscus is convex (i.e. curving upwards) it is read from the top and when it is
concave (i.e. curving downwards) it is read from the bottom.
How to use the measuring cylinder
 Pour the measured liquid into the measuring cylinder.
 Read the scale at the flat surface of liquid.

60
Precautions
 Place the measuring cylinder on the horizontal flat surface
 Place the eye level with the flat surface of liquid.
(The surface of liquid is curved where it meets the glass. This surface is called the
meniscus.)
Volume of irregular solids e.g. stone
Formula: V = V2 – V1
V = volume of irregular solid
V1 = initial volume of liquid
V2 = final volume of liquid

Precautions
 Use a thin string to reduce the amount of water displaced by it.
 Use a solid that does not react or dissolve in the liquid.
 Lower the irregular solid gently to avoid the splashing of the liquid.
 Place the measuring cylinder on the flat or horizontal surface
 Tap the measuring cylinder to remove any amount of air bubbles.
 Place the eye level with the flat surface of the liquid [in case of water, read from the bottom
of the meniscus]
Example
1. 100cm3 of water is poured into a measuring cylinder. A block of copper wire is gently
lowered into the measuring cylinder and the water level rises to 183cm3 mark. What is the
volume of the copper block?

61
 Data Solution
V =? V = V2 – V1
V2 =183cm3 V = 183cm3 – 100cm3
V1 = 100cm3 V = 83cm3
2. An irregular solid of mass 9g was suspended in 25cm3 of water by a thin string as shown.

What is the volume of an irregular solid?

Data
Volume of irregular solid =?
Volume of water + irregular solid = 40cm3
Volume of water alone = 25cm3
Solution
Volume of irregular solid = (Volume of water + irregular solid) – (Volume of water alone)
= 40cm3 – 25cm3
= 15cm3
Exercise
1. 150cm3 of water is poured into a measuring cylinder. A block of copper is gently lowered
into the measuring cylinder and the water level rises to 200cm3 mark. What is the volume
of the block of copper?
2. A body of mass 500g was suspended in 100cm3 of water by a piece of cotton. The water
level rises to 150cm3. What is the volume of the body?

62
Density
Specific Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. Explain the meaning of density
2. Demonstrate how to determine the densities of different substances.
3. Demonstrate that an object will sink or float on a liquid.
4. Describe how vessels float.
5. Explain the effects of overloading vessels.
Density
Symbol: D
SI unit: Kilogram per cubic meter [kg/m3]
It can also be expressed in grams per cubic centimeters [g/cm3]
 Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance
m
Formula: D = v
D = Density
m = Mass
v = Volume
Densities of different substances
Density of a liquid
m −m
Formula: D = 2 V 1
D = density [g/cm3]
m2 = mass of container and water [g]
m1 = mass of empty container [g]
v = volume of liquid [cm3]
Example
1. A container of mass 200g and contains 160cm3 of liquid. The total mass of the container
and liquid is 520g. What is the density of the liquid?
Data Solution
m −m
D =? D = 2V 1
m2 = 520g 520g−200g
m1 = 200g D = 160cm3
320g
v = 160cm3 D = 160cm3
D = 2.0g/cm3
2. A liquid has a mass of 1000g and a volume of 50cm3. Calculate its density.
Data Solution
m
D =? D=
V
m = 1000g 1000g
v = 50cm3 D = 50cm3
D = 20g/cm3
Exercise
1. A beaker containing 40cm3 of liquid weighed 90g. What is the density of the liquid if the
mass of the beaker is 30g?
Density of an irregular solid e.g. stone
m
Formula: D = V −V
2 1
D = density [g/cm3]

63
 m = mass of solid [g]
V2 = final volume of liquid
V1 = initial volume of liquid
Examples
1. A stone of mass 500g was suspended in 100cm3 of water by a piece of cotton. The level
rises to 150cm3. What is the density of the stone?
Data Solution
m
D =? D = V −V
2 1
m = 500g 500g
V1= 100cm 3 D = 150cm3−100cm3
V2 = 150cm3 500g
D = 50cm3
D = 10g/cm3
2. A stone has a mass of 450g and a volume of 10cm3. Calculate its density.
Data Solution
m
D =? D= V
m = 450g 450g
v = 10cm3 D = 10cm3
D = 45g/cm3
3. Study the diagrams on the experiment on density of a stone.

(a) Calculate the volume of water used in the experiment.

(b) What is the increase in height of water in the vessel after the stone was placed in it?
(c) Calculate the volume of the stone in the experiment.
(d) If the mass of the stone used is 300g, calculate the density of the stone (show all your
working)

64
 Data Solution
(a) V =? V=lxbxh
l = 5cm V = 5cm x 10cm x 15cm
b = 10cm V = 750cm3
h = 15cm
(b) Increase in height of water = 18cm – 15cm
= 3cm
(c) V =? V=lxbxh
l = 5cm V = 5cm x 10cm x 18cm
b = 10cm V = 900cm3
h = 18cm Volume of stone = V2 – V1
V = 900cm3 – 750cm3
V = 150cm3
m
(d) D =? D= v
m =300g 300g
V = 150cm3 D = 150cm3
D = 2g/cm3
Exercise
1. A stone of mass 20g was completely immersed in 10cm3 of water in a measuring cylinder.
The level of water rose to 15cm3. Calculate the density of the stone.
2. The information below show determination of density of a solid. The girl made the
following measurements:
Volume of water in the measuring cylinder before immersing the stone = 30cm3
Volume of water in the measuring cylinder after immersing stone = 50cm3
Mass of measuring cylinder and 30cm3 of water = 120g
Mass of measuring cylinder, 30cm3 of water and the stone = 170g
Use the information above to determine the density of the stone.
Density of a regular solid e.g. block of wood
m
Formula: D = v
v=lxbxh
v = volume [cm3]
l = length [cm]
b = breadth [cm]
h = height [cm]
Example
1. A block of wood has a mass of 120g and it has the following measurements; length = 6cm,
breadth = 4cm, height = 2cm. Find the density of the block of wood.
Data Solution
D =? V=lxbxh
m = 120g V = 5cm x 4cm x 2cm
l = 6cm V = 40cm3
m
b = 4cm D= V
h = 2cm 120g
D = 40cm3
D = 3g/cm3

65
Exercise
1. A piece of wood has a density of 0.5g/cm3 and a volume of 5cm3. What is its mass?
Sinking and floating
 An object sinks in a liquid if its density is greater than that of the liquid.
The stone will sink in water because its density is greater than that of water.
 An object floats in a liquid if its density is lower than that of a liquid.
A leaf will float in water because its density is less than that of water.
Similarly, cooking oil will float on water because its density is less than that of water.
How vessels float
 Vessels float on water because they have a larger volume and are less dense.
 All objects displace a certain volume of water. Vessels that float on water displace a large
volume of water. The volume of water is equal to that of the vessels. This is made possible
because of their large surface area.
Effects of overloading vessels
 It causes sinking of vessels
 It causes accidents
 It reduces the speed of the vessel
Example
1. A toy boat of mass 500g made of metal, a stopper of mass 80g made of wood and
an iron nail of mass 50g were put into a container filled with water as shown below.

(a) Define density.

(b) Calculate the density of the stopper if its volume was found to be 100cm3. (Show your
working)
(c) What term is given to objects which stay on top of water as shown by the stopper and
boat?
(d) Explain why the boat stayed on top of the water but the nail went down to the bottom of
the water.
(e) Predict what would happen to the boat if it was filled with water.
Solution
(a) Density is mass per unit volume of a substance.
Mass
(b) D = Volume
80g
D = 100cm3
D = 0.8 g/cm3
(c) Buoyant objects
(d) The boat is made in such a way that it is mainly hollow and therefore displaces.
a big volume of water

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 The nail sunk because it is denser than water.
(e) It would sink.
2. Study the diagrams on the experiment on density of a stone.

(a) What is the mass of the liquid?

(b) Determine the volume of the solid
(c) Calculate the density of the liquid
(d) Explain why the solid sunk to the bottom of the liquid.
(e) What happens if the irregular solid was replaced by another solid of density 0.5g/cm3?
Data Solution
(a) m =? m = m2 – m1
m2 = 50g m = 50g – 10g
m1 = 10g m = 40g
(b) V =? V = V2 – V1
V2 = 50cm 3
V = 50cm3 – 30cm3
3
V1 = 30cm V = 20cm3
m
(c) D =? D= v
m = 40g 40g
V = 20cm3 D = 20cm3
D = 2g/cm3
(d) The solid sunk because it is denser
than the liquid
(e) Density of liquid = 2g/cm3 The other solid will float
3
Density of another solid = 0.5g/cm
Exercise
1. Two objects T and u with mass 30g were placed in mercury of density 13.6g/cm 3. Object
T displaced 2cm3 of mercury while object U displaced 1.5cm3 of mercury.
(a) Calculate the density of object T.
(b) (I) Did object U sink or float in the mercury?
(II) Give a reason for your answer.
(c) Explain why two objects having the same mass displaces different amounts of mercury.
(d) What makes vessels like ships float on water?
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Heat Transfer
Specific Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. Demonstrate the types of heat transfer
2. Investigate the movement of heat in matter
3. Describe how the vacuum flask works.
Heat Transfer
 Heat transfer is the movement of heat from one place to another.
 Heat is a form of energy which leads to increase of temperature in a body or object.
Types of heat transfer
 There are types of heat transfer. These are conduction, convection and radiation.
1. Conduction
 Conduction is the movement of heat in solids. It is the transfer of heat through solids.
 Heat is transferred from the hot region to the cold region by vibration of particles. Heat
travels from where it is more to where it is less. The heated part has more heat.
The movement of heat in solids
 Some solids transfer heat faster than others. These objects are called good conductors of heat.
Metals are examples of good conductors of heat.

 When the copper rod is heated, the wax melts and the pins fall off one by one starting with
pin A. This is because particles at the end of the copper rod in the flame become hot and start
to vibrate more strongly. As these particles vibrate, they hit other particles next to them and
make them vibrate as well. In this way the hot particles transfer some of their heat to the
cooler particles next to them. This continues until heat reaches the other end of the copper
rod. In this way we say heat has been conducted along the copper rod. Heat reach the wax
on the copper rod by conduction.
 The purpose of the cardboard is to prevent heat transfer by radiation.
 If you keep your hand on the handle of a spoon, you would soon feel warm. This is because
heat has been conducted from the source to the end of a spoon and finally to your hand.
 Other objects do not allow heat to pass through them. These are called insulators or poor
conductors. Examples of insulators include wood and paper. Poor conductors of heat do not
transfer heat.
 When one end of the wooden stick is heated, the wax does not melt and the pins do not fall.
This is because the wooden stick is a poor conductor of heat.

 Metal spoons have plastic or wooden handles because they are poor conductors of heat.

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Example
1. The diagram below shows a copper rod dipped into a beaker containing mercury on one side
and a beaker containing water on the other side. The rod was then heated in the middle using
a Bunsen burner.

(a) (I) State the term given to the movement of heat in the copper rod.
(II) Explain why asbestos boards were placed in the positions shown.
(b) (I) Which wax would melt first?
(II) Give a reason for your answer in question (b) (I) above.
(III) Explain why the wax on the other beaker did not melt at the same time as the one
mentioned in (b) (I) above.
(c) Suggest a method of heat transfer not demonstrated in the experiment above.
Solution
(a) (I) Conduction
(II) Prevent heat transfer by radiation
(b) (I) Wax 1
(II) Mercury is a good conductor of heat.
(III) The boiling point of mercury (357°C) is higher than that of water (100°C).
(c) Convection
Exercise
1. One end of the metal rod was heated for 4 minutes

(a) Which pin A, B, C or D falls first? Explain your answer?

(b) By what process does the heat reach the wax on the metal rod?
(c) One end of the wooden stick was heated for 4 minutes.

Explain what happens to the pins?

(d) How would you make use of the principle of heat transfer demonstrated by the metal rod
and wooden stick in daily life?
(e) Between the metal rod and wooden stick, which material is a good or bad conductor of
heat?
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 (I) Good conductor
(II) Bad conductor
(f) Why does the handle of pot become hot even if is not sitting on the stove
(g) Why do metal spoons have plastic or wooden handles?
Convection
 Convection is the movement of heat in liquids and gases
 Heat travels through liquids like water
The movement of heat in liquids by convection
 When water is heated, bubbles are seen rising up. The bubbles move upwards when water is
heated. This shows that heat is travelling through water
 The water at the bottom of the container rises. Heat travels through water by convection
 In convection, heat is carried by the particles from the hot region to the cold region.

 When the water is heated, the hot  A few crystals of potassium

particles of the water at the bottom permanganate are dropped into the
rises to the top. At the same time, the bottom of the beaker through a straw.
cold particles of water at the top  The colour changes as shown by
moves down to the bottom and also arrows
become heated.  The coloured path shows the
 This process of the hot particles convection current in water
rising and cold particles moving Cautions for the setting
downwards results in convection  It must be heated at the bottom of the
currents potassium manganate.
Movement of heat in air by convection
 The direction of convection currents created by the heat source is made visible by the smoke
from the smouldering cloth.
 The smouldering cloth is used to show convection current.

 The smoke produced by the smoldering cloth goes down through the cold chimney, flows
through the top of the glass smoke box and comes out the through the hot chimney.
 When the air above the heat source is heated, it becomes light. It therefore rises and escapes
through the hot chimney directly above the heat source.
 Colder air at the top of the cold chimney rushes down through the hot chimney to replace the
risen air.
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  The movement of smoke suggests that heat travels in air by convection currents.
Precautions
 Smoldering cloth must be placed just above the cold chimney.
 The heat source must be placed under hot chimney.
Effects of convection
Sea and Land Breeze
 Sea breeze is the movement of air from the sea to the land.

During the day, the surface of the land is warmed by the sun and the air above it rises. The
water takes long to warm up and so the air above it is cooler, therefore taking longer to rise.
The air above the sea therefore moves towards the land to replace the hot air which has
risen.
 Land breeze is the movement of air from the land to the sea.

At night, the reverse occurs. The land loses its heat quickly and becomes cold, but the water
in the sea loses its heat more slowly. Therefore, the air above the water is warmed and rises.
This causes the cold air above the land to move towards the sea to replace the rising warm
air.
Radiation
 Radiation is the method of heat transfer from the source without requiring particles of a solid,
liquid or gas.
 The heat reaching your hands when you hold them near a fire reaches them by radiation.
Heat from the sun reaches us also by radiation.
 Radiation is the only method of transfer of heat which does not require a medium (solid,
liquid or gas) to travel from one place to another. It can travel through a vacuum (space that
is empty)

71
Experiment
Aim: To show which surface absorbs heat better (black and white).
Experimental set up

Cautions for the setting

 The tins must be the same size.
 The tins must have the same amount of water
Result
 The thermometer in the black tin shows a higher temperature reading than the one in the
white tin.
Conclusion
 The black (dark) surface is a good absorber of heat.
Experiment: To show which surface emits heat better (black and white).
Experimental setup

Cautions for the setting

 The thermometers must be at the same distance from each wall (don’t touch the walls).
 The thermometers must be far from the heat source. (It prevents the thermometers from
heating by the heat source directly.)
Result
 The thermometer near the black wall shows a higher temperature reading than the other.
Conclusion
 The black (dark) surface is a good emitter of heat.
 The dark colour emits and absorbs the heat well, otherwise the bright shiny colour can
prevent the heat loss by radiation.
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Example
1. Grade 8 learners carried out an experiment by putting 100ml of hot water into the three
different cups of the same thickness but made of glass, aluminum and ceramic. This was
followed by inserting thermometers in the cups as shown below:

One of the learners touched the outside of the cups and compared how hot each cup felt.
(a) Which cup felt the hottest?
(b) Give a reason for your answer in question (a) above.
(c) If the cups were allowed to cool for 10 minutes, and then the thermometers read, which cup
would the temperature drop;
(I) Fastest?
(II) Slowest?
(d) What conclusion can be drawn from the experiment above?
(e) Name one device used to keep hot liquids hot and cold liquids cold.
Solution
(a) Aluminum cup
(b) Aluminum is a metal and therefore, a good conductor of heat.
(c) (I) Aluminum cup
(II) Ceramic cup
(d) Metals are both good conductors and emitters of heat.
(e) Thermos or vacuum flask
2. Study the diagrams showing two equal sized metal cans both containing hot water at 950C.

The metal cans were allowed to stand in the open for 40 minutes and then temperature
recorded again.
(a) Which of the metal cans M or N will record a lower temperature than the other after 40
minutes?

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 (b) What could be the reason for the other metal can having the higher temperature after the
40 minutes?
(c) Suggest the function of the filter paper covering the metal cans in the above experiment.
(d) Mention the method by which heat is lost by the painted surfaces of the metal cans.
(e) What conclusion can be made in the above experiment?
(f) Explain why it is important to paint houses white or bright colours in very hot countries?
Solution
(a) N
(b) It has higher temperature because it loses less heat.
(c) To prevent heat loss from the liquid.
(d) Radiation
(e) Polished white or silver material loses less heat than black materials.
(f) It reflects heat away and makes the inside of the house cool
The vacuum flask
 A vacuum flask is used to keep hot liquids hot and cold liquids cold for a long time.
 It is a vessel used to maintain liquids at a constant temperature.
 It is called vacuum flask because it uses a vacuum to reduce heat loss or gain by convection
and conduction.
Structure of a vacuum flask
 A vacuum flask is made up of a glass vessel, vacuum, cork stopper and outer case.

Functions of parts of a vacuum flask

1. Glass vessel
 It is the main insulator in the vacuum flask
 The glass vessel has double silvered walls (inner and outer walls) which reduce heat loss by
radiation.
Function of the glass vessel
 The glass vessel is mainly used as an insulator to reduce heat loss by conduction since it is a
poor conductor of heat
 The inner silvered wall reflects heat back to the liquid so that the hot liquid remains hot
 The outer silvered wall reduces heat gain by reflecting the heat towards the outer casing so
that the cold liquid put in the flask remains cold
 The sealed tip on the glass vessel is where the air was sucked out from between the walls
2. Vacuum
 It is a space found between the silvered walls
Function of the vacuum
 It reduces heat loss or gain by convection and conduction
3. Cork stopper
 It is found at the mouth of the vacuum flask
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Function of the cork stopper
 It reduces heat loss or gain by evaporation convection and conduction
4. Outer case
 It is held away from the vessel by cork supporter to reduce heat loss or gain by conduction
Function of the outer casing
 It protects the inner parts of the flask from damage
Exercise
1. Study the diagram showing the vacuum flask.

(a) Name the parts labelled A, B, C and D.

(b) Why does a vacuum flask use glass inside?
(c) Explain why the glass vessel has a silver colour.
(d) Which two labelled parts prevent heat loss by conduction and convection?
(e) Identify the part which prevents heat transfer by conduction only.
(f) What is the function of the parts labelled A and D?
(g) Describe the importance of the apparatus shown above.
Solution
(a) A – Cork stopper
B – Inner silvered glass wall
C – Vacuum
D – Sealed tip
(b) Glass is a poor conductor of heat.
(c) It radiates or reflects heat back into the liquid to keep it hot.
It reflects heat towards the outer case to keep the liquid cold for long time.
(d) A – Cork stopper
C – Vacuum
(e) Cork support
(f) A – Reduces heat loss by convection and conduction.
D – It is a point where gases or air was sucked
(g) It is used to keep hot liquids hot and cold liquids cold for a long time.

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Heat and Expansion of Substances
Specific Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. Demonstrate expansion of substances
2. Describe the use of the expansion of different substances in everyday life
3. Explain the effect of expansion and contraction of substances.
Expansion
 Expansion is the increase in size of a substance due to heating
 Contraction is the decrease in the size of the substance due to cooling
 Solids, liquids and gases change in volume when they are heated or cooled.
 Gases expand more than liquids, while liquids expand more than solids. This means that
when the same amount of heat at the same temperature is applied on the gas, liquid and solid,
the gas will expand by a greater volume followed by the liquid then a solid
 If these substances are cooled by the same temperatures, you will see less contraction in the
solid, more in the liquid and most contraction in the gas.
Expansion of solids
 Different solids have different expansion rates from fastest to slowest.
 Solids expand when they are heated.
Expansion of solids using a ball and ring

 The ball freely fits through the ring before heating and fails to pass through the ring after it
has been heated. This is because after heating, the ball expands making it bigger than the
ring.
 When allowed to cool, the ball passes through the ring. This is because cooling the ball causes
it to contract.
 Solids expand when heated and contract when cooled.
Exercise
1. The diagram below shows an experiment on heat.

(a) Try to pass the ball through the ring. What happens?
(b) Heat the ball for five minutes.
(I) Try to pass the ball through the ring again. What happens?
(II) What do your observations tell you about the effects of heating solids?
(c) Cool the ball in cold water.
(I) Try to pass it through the ring again. What happens?
(II) What do your observations tell you about the effects of cooling solids?
(d) Suggest why the handle attached to the ball is made up of wood
Expansion of solids using a bimetallic strip
 A bimetallic strip is a strip of two different metals joined together. Bimetallic strips are used
in thermostats.
 A bimetallic strip is usually made of iron and copper or brass and iron.
 When heated or cooled, one metal expands or contracts faster than the other, causing the strip
to bend.
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  When a bimetallic strip is heated, it bends. This happens because one of the metals expands
more than the other. The substance that expands more than the other will be on the outside
of the curve.
 When a brass/iron bimetallic strip is heated, it will bend in such a way that the brass will be
on the outside of the curve. This is because brass expands more than iron.

 When heated or cooled, one metal expands or contracts faster than the other, causing the strip to
bend.
 Aluminum expands more than copper does when they are heated to the same temperature.
Exercise
1. The bimetallic strip is heated evenly in a flame.

After a few minutes, the following shape is produced.

(a) Which metal expanded more?

(b) If the metals are aluminum and copper, which one of these is metal A?
(c) What is the name of the device in which a bimetallic strip is used to control the temperature
in an iron or stove?
Expansion of liquids
 Liquids are kept in containers because they have no fixed shape. To see the increase in
volume of a liquid due to heating, we also heat the container in which the liquid is. The
container will also expand.
 If the liquid level in the container rises as it is being heated, then the liquid has expanded
more than the container.

77
  The level of coloured water first falls and then rises steadily. The initial drop in the water
level occurs because the test tube expands first, before the heat reaches the water.
 The next rise in the water level is due to the volume of the water increasing as it is heated.
 Liquids expand when heated.
Exercise
1. Heat the bottom of the flask carefully for 3 minutes.
(a) What was your observation in the narrow glass tube as the water was being heated?
(b) What do your observations tell you about the effects of heating liquids?
2. Remove the source of heat and allow the flask to cool down and carefully observe
(a) What was your observation as the water cooled?
(b) What do your observations tell you about the effects of cooling liquids?
(c) Was there a change in the water level during:
(I) Heating?
(II) Cooling?
Expansion of gases
 The expansion of gases is so large that we can ignore the expansion of the containers they
are stored in.

 When the air in the flask is heated, bubbles start  When you hold the base of the flask with
coming out of the submerged delivery tube in both hands, the coloured drop of water in
the beaker due to the expansion of the air inside the narrow glass tube rises because the gas
the flask caused by the heating. has expanded. When you take your hands
of the flask, the drop of coloured water
falls because the gas has contracted.
 Gases expand when heated and contact when cooled
The use of the expansion of different substances in everyday life
1. In thermometers
 The thermometer is an instrument used to measure temperature
 In most thermometers the liquid used is mercury because it expands quickly when heated.
Other thermometers use alcohol.
Reasons why mercury is suitable for use in thermometers
1. It is easy to see through the glass
2. It does not wet the glass
3. It expands a lot when heated
4. It has a high boiling point and very low freezing point
5. It responds quickly to changes in temperature
Clinical thermometer
 The clinical thermometer is used to measure the temperature of the human body.

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  The physical property that the clinical thermometer uses to measure temperature is the
expansion of the liquid.

 The clinical thermometer has a constriction which is a sharp bend in bore at the bottom of
the scale.
 The constriction helps to prevent the mercury thread from flowing back before the reading
is taken.
 The clinical thermometer has a short range of temperature because it measures body
temperature. The range is from 35oC to 42oC.
2. In thermostats
 A thermostats is a device used to maintain temperature between certain limits in an electrical
appliance.
 Thermostats are used as automatic switches in firearms, hot water tanks, electric pressing
irons, fridges, incubators etc. These devices use bimetallic strips as switches.
How a thermostat works in an electric pressing iron
 When a circuit is closed, the two contacts in the thermostat stick to each other.
 If the electric iron get too hot (expands), the bimetallic strip bends, breaking the contacts.
This switches off the electric iron.

 When the temperature falls, the bimetallic strip returns to its original position where the two
contacts are touching. The circuit is closed and so the pressing iron is switched on again. The
electric current passes through the strip again.
3. In internal combustion engines
 Most internal combustion engines are called four stroke engines because it takes four
movements of the piston to take fuel, ignite it by a spark from a spark plug and get rid of
smoke (exhaust gases).
Stages of the four stroke combustion engine

1. Inlet
 The inlet valve is open while the exhaust valve is closed.
 Fuel and air mixture enters the cylinder and the piston moves downwards.
2. Compression
 Both the inlet and exhaust valves are closed.

79
  The piston moves upwards reducing the volume in the cylinder and compressing the fuel and
air mixture.
3. Power
 Both the inlet and exhaust valves are closed.
 A spark causes the mixture to explode and expand, pushing the piston downwards. This
expansion is what actually causes the forces to move the piston.
4. Exhaust
 The inlet valve is closed while the exhaust valve is open.
 The exhaust gases are pushed out of the cylinder as the piston moves upwards.
The effect of expansion and contraction of substances
(a) Fracture of bridges
 To prevent fractures, metal bridges are made in such a way that one end is usually fixed
while the other end rests on rollers to allow movement due to expansion.

(b) Buckling of rail tracks

 To prevent the buckling of rail tracks from bending due to expansion, gaps are left between
the ends of the rails and to join them by “fishplate”. The rails of railway lines expand when
the temperature rises.

(c) Breakage of glass e.g. window pane

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Reflection and Refraction of light
Specific Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
3. Describe what reflection is.
4. Investigate the characteristics of reflection of light on mirror.
5. Describe what refraction is.
6. Identify the real and apparent depths of an object under water.
7. Explain the application of reflection and refraction.
Reflection
 Reflection is the bouncing of light off a smooth surface such as a mirror.
 Light that bounces off a smooth surface such as a mirror is reflected in a regular way
while light bouncing off a rough surface is reflected in an irregular way.

Terms used in reflection

Medium
 A medium is a substance through which light moves.
Examples of media
 Air
 Water
 Glass
Ray
 A ray is a path followed by light.
Normal
 Normal is the line drawn at right angles to the reflecting surface at the point of incidence.
When the incident ray strikes a medium at right angles, it does not get refracted.
 It is a perpendicular line drawn to the reflecting or refracting surface of a medium.
Normal ray
 Normal ray is a ray of light that passes through the normal.
Point of incidence
 Point of incidence is the point where the ray strikes the reflecting surface.
Incident ray (i)
 Incident ray is a path followed by light before it strikes the surface of the next medium.
 It is a ray that falls on the reflecting surface.
Angle of incidence
 Angle of incidence is the angle between the incident ray and the normal.
Angle of reflection (r)
 Angle of reflection is the angle between the reflected ray and the normal.
Reflected ray
 Reflected ray is a path followed by light after reflection.
Laws of reflection
 The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
 The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal all lie in the same plane.

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Application of reflection
 Reflecting view mirrors in cars
 Dressing mirrors
 Telescope
 Security mirrors in shops
 Searchlights
 Headlamps
 Magnifying mirrors
Example
1. The diagram below shows a ray of light falling on a smooth surface.

(a) What term is used to describe the behaviour of light shown in the diagram?
(b) Identify
(I) V
(II) W
(c) What is the size of angle r when angle i is 30o?
(d) Give a reason for your answer in (c)
(e) Give one application of the light ray shown in the diagram above.
Solution
(a) Reflection
(b) (I) V – Incident ray
(II) W – Reflected ray
(c) Angle r = 30o
(d) Angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection
(e) Reflecting view mirrors in cars
Dressing mirrors
Telescope
Security mirrors in shops
2. The diagram below shows a ray of light striking a mirror.

Find the:
(a) angle of incidence (i)
(b) angle of reflection (r)
Solution
(a) Angle i = 90o – 50o
Angle i = 40o
(b) i = r
Angle r = 40o
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Exercise
1. Study the diagram below which shows the effect of the mirror, then answer the questions that
follow.

(a) What term is used to describe the behaviour of light shown in the diagram above?
(b) Identify the rays PO and OQ.
(c) Given that angle PON = 40o, find angle q (show all your working).
(d) Suggest one application of the light ray shown in the diagram above.

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Refraction
 Refraction is the bending or changing of direction of light rays when they pass from
one material into another.
Angle of refraction (r)
 Angle of refraction is the angle between the refracted ray and the normal.

 Refraction takes place at the boundary of the two media (singular – medium).
 When light passes from a less dense medium to a denser medium, it is refracted towards
the normal.

 Light travelling from a denser medium to a less dense medium is refracted away from
the normal.

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  However, whether light is from a less dense medium to a denser medium, or vice versa,
refraction will not occur if it strikes the surface at right angles

Laws of refraction
 The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a
constant.
 The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal are in the same plane
Real and apparent depths of an object under water

 Light is refracted as it moves from water to air.

 The object in water appears nearer to the surface than it really is. This is because light from
the object in water is refracted before reaching the observer’s’ eyes.

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  Light from point D is refracted away from the normal at the water surface.
 Light reaching the observer appears to come from point B, which is directly above
point D. The object D appears to be in position B. Thus RB is its apparent depth. The
true or real depth is RD since the coin has not been raised.
 The apparent depth is always less than the real depth of the object.

 The stick appears to be broken or bent. This is because the stick in water reflects rays of
light to the observers’ eye through the air. Since water is denser than air, the rays of light
bent away from the normal, hence the stick appears bent or broken at the water surface.
 Swimming pools or fish in ponds appear shallower than they really are, and why a fish in
water appears closer to the surface of the water than it actually is because light is refracted
as it moves from water to air.
Application of refraction
Refraction is applied in lenses of instruments such as:
 Camera
 Binoculars
 Telescope
 Spectacles
 Microscope

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Composition of air
Specific Outcomes
1. Identify the components of air
2. Investigate the proportion of each substance in air
3. Describe the nature of each substance in air
4. Describe the uses of each substance in air
Components of air
 The components of air are nitrogen, carbon dioxide, oxygen and water vapour.
Proportion of each substance in air
 Oxygen 21%
 Nitrogen 78%
 Other gases 1% (carbon dioxide, hydrogen, water vapour). The percentage of carbon dioxide
is about 0.03%.

Investigating the proportion of each substance in air

 The candle is fixed firmly to the bottom of a dry trough and enough water is placed in the
trough to cover the lower half of the candle.
 The candle is lit and while the candle is burning, it is covered with a dry gas jar.

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  As the candle burns, the level of the water in the gas jar rises until the candle goes out.
The water in the gas jar rises to replace the air that has been used during burning
(combustion).
 The water rises to a level of about one fifth (21%) of the height of the gas jar. This
shows that oxygen is the gas that supports combustion and that it makes about 21% of
the air in the atmosphere.
 The water did not fill the whole jar as seen because some air was not used in burning.
This is the inactive part of the air which is a mixture of several gases, the main one
being nitrogen occupying approximately four fifth 78% of the volume of air around
us.
 The percentage of other gases (carbon dioxide and water vapour) is 1%.
 The total percentage of the part of the air that does not support burning is 79%.
The nature and uses of each substance in air
Nature of nitrogen
 It is colorless
 It is odourless (has no smell)
 It is insoluble in water
 It has the same density as that of air.
Uses of nitrogen
 It is used in the manufacture of ammonia.
 It is used in the manufacture of fertilizers e.g. ammonium nitrate.
 It is used to provide an inert atmosphere in electric bulbs.
 It is used to freeze materials and keep things cold during transportation.
 Plants with nodules containing bacteria such as legumes can convert nitrogen into nitrates
thereby enriching the soil for good plant growth.
Nature of oxygen
 It is colorless
 It is odourless
 It is slightly soluble in water (It dissolves in water).
 It is denser than air.
Test for oxygen
 It relights a glowing splint.
Uses of oxygen.
 The uses of oxygen will be classified into medical industrial and others.
Medical uses of oxygen
 It is used in incubators for premature babies.
 It is used in ventilators for patients on life support system.
 Oxygen therapy is used to treat some infections, diseases and disorders.
 Oxygen supplementation increases the oxygen levels in patient’s blood.
Industrial uses of oxygen
 It is used for welding in the oxy-acetylene flames.
 It is used in the manufacture of steel.
 It is important in combustion process such as the motor car engine and rocket fuel in
which it is mixed with the fuel
 It combines with hydrogen to form water.
 It is used in the chemical industry for the manufacturer of some chemical compounds.
Other uses of oxygen
 It is used by both animals and plants to produce energy during aerobic respiration.
 It is used by deep sea divers and mountain climbers to assist them in breathing.

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Nature of carbon dioxide
 It is colorless
 It is odourless (has no smell)
 It is slightly soluble in water forming a weak acid.
 It is denser than air
 It does not support burning
Test for carbon dioxide
 Carbon dioxide turns lime water milky.
Uses of carbon dioxide
 It is used in fire extinguishers, this is because it does not support combustion.
 It is used to make carbonated (fizzy) drinks.
 It is used as a refrigerant because it can be made into a white solid (dry ice).
 It is used in bakeries where it is produced through fermentation thereby causing the dough
to rise as the gas begins to escape.
 It is used by green plants for the process of photosynthesis.
Nature of hydrogen
 It is colorless
 It is odourless
 It is less dense than air
Uses of hydrogen
 It is used in the manufacture of ammonia.
 It is used in the production of fertilizers.
 It is used for hardening vegetable oils, changing them into solid saturated fats such as
margarine.
 It combines with oxygen to form water.
 It is used for removing impurities in refining petrol.
 It is used in extracting metals such as iron from oxide ores.
Example
1. The pie-chart below shows the approximate composition of air in the atmosphere.

(a) Identify gases J and K.

(b) Which gas J or K dissolves in water?
(c) Name two gases that make up other gases.
(d) Which gas is used to harden vegetable oils?
Solution
(a) J – Nitrogen
K – Oxygen
(b) Gas K
(c) Carbon dioxide; hydrogen; water vapour
(d) Hydrogen (gas)

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Exercise
1. The bar chart below shows the approximate composition of gases in the atmosphere.

(a) Name the gases 1 and 4.

(b) Which number in the chart represents the gas that support burning?
(c) Identify the bar that shows a mixture of other gases.
(d) State a gas that combines with the gas shown by bar 2 to form water.
(e) Describe one use of the gas shown in bar 4.

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GLOSSARY
Afterbirth placenta and membranes that are expelled from the uterus after a
young mammal is born
Apparent depth the distance between the apparent position of the object in the water
and the surface
Atom the smallest particle of an element
Amnion a fluid filled bag in which an embryo develops
Anemia a condition in which an animal has insufficient red blood cells
Artery a vessel carrying blood away from the heart
Atmosphere a mixture of gases that surround a planet
Balanced diet a diet with sufficient mixture of different types of nutrients an animal
requires
Bimetallic strip a strip made of two metals which expand by different amounts when
heated
Birth the expulsion of the foetus from the uterus at the end of pregnancy
Boiling point the temperature at which a liquid changes into a gas when the liquid
is boiling
Capillary a very fine and narrow blood vessel found in all tissues of animals
Cell a smallest basic unit of a living thing
Cell membrane a membrane that encloses a cell and controls the movement of
substances in and out of the cell
Cell sap a solution of dissolved mineral salts, sugars and water found in the
vacuoles of plant cells
Cell wall the rigid wall surrounding a plant cell, outside the cell membrane
Cervix a short narrow tube connecting the uterus to the vagina
Chloroplast a small structure containing chlorophyll in some plant cells
Clinical thermometer an instrument used to measure body temperature
Compost decaying plant material that provides mineral salts in the soil
Condensation a change of state from gas to liquid
Conduction the transfer of heat through a solid
Contraction a decrease of volume of a substance when cooled
Convection the transfer of heat in a liquid or gas
Cytoplasm a semi-fluid surrounding the nucleus in which most of the cell
activities take place
Deficiency disease any disease caused by lack of nutrients in the diet
Density the mass per unit volume of a substance
Diet the type, quality and amount of food eaten by an animal
Dissolve to make a solid or gas disappear into a liquid
Dry ice solid carbon dioxide
Embryo a structure formed from the zygote which develops into a new
individual
Evaporation a change of state from liquid to gas
Exhaust valve a part of the engine which lets out burnt fuel gases from the cylinder
Expansion increase in volume of a substance when heated
Fallopian tube in females, a tube through which ova pass from ovary to uterus. It is
also known as oviduct
Fertilization the joining of male and female sex cells to form a zygote
Fertilizer a substance containing plant nutrients that are added to soil to help
plants grow

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Filtrate the liquid that passes through the filter paper
Filtration the process of separating undissolved solid from a mixture of a liquid
and solid using a filter
Foetus an embryo that has developed recognizable features
Fractional distillation a method which can be used to separate two miscible liquids
Freezing a change of state from liquid to solid
Fuel any substance that can burn to produce heat
Germination the process by which a seed begins to spout and grow into a seedling
under the right growing conditions.
Geotropism the response to a stimulus of gravity
Gestation period the time taken between fertilization and birth
Growth the permanent increase in size and weight of an organism.
Inlet valve a part of the engine which lets a mixture of air and fuel into the
cylinder
Insulator a substance which prevents transfer of heat or electricity
Irregular solid a solid having a shape whose sides cannot be measured
Lactating producing breast milk
Land breeze movement of air from the land to the sea caused by convection
currents developed above the sea
Magnetization a method of separating a mixture of a magnetic material and a non-
magnetic material
Manure faeces of animal used as a source of mineral salts for plants
Mass the quantity of matter contained in a body
Matter anything that occupies space and has mass
Melting change of state from solid to liquid
Melting point the temperature at which a solid changes into a liquid
Menstruation the shedding of the lining of the uterus along with some blood in
females when fertilization does not occur.
Microscope an instrument used to magnify objects too small to be seen with the
naked eye
Molecule a small group of atoms joined together
Nucleus part of the cell controlling most of the cell activities
Nutrient a substance found in the food which provides the body with
nourishment necessary for growth.
Ovum female sex cell
Penis the male reproductive organ used to deposit sperms into the vagina
Phototropism the response to a stimulus of light
Piston a cylindrical piece of metal in an engine that is pushed down by
expansion of exploding fuels in a tightly fitting cylinder to provide
power
Placenta an organ through which the foetus obtain food and oxygen
Pollution the addition of harmful substances to the environment
Pregnant having an embryo developing in the uterus
Protoplasm the living part of the cell which is composed of the cell membrane,
cytoplasm and the nucleus
Puberty the stage in the development of the body when one reaches sexual
maturity and becomes capable of reproduction.
Radiation the transfer of heat in which a material medium is not required
Reflection the bouncing of light off a smooth surface such as a mirror

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Refraction the bending or changing of direction of light rays when they pass
from one material into another.
Regular solid a solid having a shape whose sides can be measured
Reproduction the process by which living things produce new individuals
Residue the solid left after distillation, evaporation and filtration
Sea breeze movement of air from the sea to the land caused by convection
currents developing above the land
Simple distillation a method by which a solvent (liquid) is obtained from a solution
Solute a substance that dissolves in a solvent to form a solution
Solution a mixture of solvent and solute
Solvent a liquid in which a solute dissolves to form a solution
Spark plug a device for producing an electric spark to ignite the fuel-air mixture
inside the cylinder of an engine
Specimen an object or part of an object which is used as a sample for
examination or study
Sperm a male sex cell
Sperm duct a narrow tube which conducts sperms from the testis
States of matter the different forms in which matter exists, namely solid, liquid and gas
Stimulus a condition that causes a response from a living thing
Sublimation a change of state from solid directly to gas, or from gas directly to
solid
Telescope an instrument used to look at objects which are far away from us in
the universe
Temperature a measure of the degree of hotness or coldness of a body or substance
on a particular scale
Testicle an organ where sperms are produced. It also known as testis
Testis an organ where sperms are produced. It also known as testicle
Thermometer an instrument used to measure temperature
Thermostat a device for maintaining a constant temperature
Tropism a growth response of a plant to a stimulus
Umbilical cord a tube the foetal artery and vein connecting the foetus to the placenta
Urethra a small tube in mammals which conducts urine from the bladder to the
exterior. In males it also carries sperms
Uterus the hallow thick-walled muscular organ in female mammals where the
embryo develops
Vacuole a space surrounded by the cytoplasm and filled with cell sap in a plant
cell
Vacuum flask a vessel used to keep hot or cold substances at a constant temperature
Vagina a muscular tube leading from the cervix to the outside which receives
sperms and through which the baby is born
Vein blood vessel which collects blood from the tissues to the heart
Vibration a rapid to and fro movement
Volume the amount space occupied by a substance
Weight the force of gravity acting on an object
Xylem vessel one of the narrow tubes inside a plant through which water and
mineral salts move up from roots to the leaves
Zygote a fertilized female sex cell

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APPENDIX
 The appendix (which is relevant only to Integrated Science) will prove helpful to candidates
as a guide; it is neither exhaustive nor definitive.
 The appendix has been deliberately kept brief, not only with respect to the number of terms
included, but also to the descriptions of their meanings. Candidates should appreciate that
the meaning of a term must depend, in part, on its context.
1. Define (the term(s)……) is intended literally, only a formal statement or equivalent
paraphrase being required.
2. What do you understand by / what is meant by (the term(s)…….) normally implies that
a definition should be given, together with some relevant comment on the significance or
context of the term(s) concerned, especially where two or more terms are included in the
question. The amount of supplementary comment intended should be interpreted in the light
of the indicated mark value.
3. State implies a concise answer with little or no supporting argument (e.g. numerical answer
that can readily be obtained by ‘inspection’). It may also imply to give, say or write down
the information asked for.
4. List requires a number of points, generally each of one word, with no elaboration. Where a
number of points is specified this should not be exceeded.
5. Explain may imply reasoning or reference to theory depending on the context. Give the full
details in full sentences and give reasons.
6. Describe requires the candidate to state in words (using diagrams where appropriate) the
main points of the topic. It is often used with reference either to a particular phenomenon or
to particular experiments. In the former instance, the term usually implies that the answer
should include reference to (visual) observations associated with the phenomenon. In other
contexts, ‘describe’ should be interpreted more generally (i.e. the candidate has discretion
about the nature and organization of the material to be included in the answer). ‘Describe’
and ‘explain’ may be coupled, as may ‘state’ and ‘explain’.
7. Discuss requires the candidate to give a critical account of the points involved. It involves
giving different ideas and arguments about the topic.
8. Outline implies brevity (e.g. restricting the answer to giving essentials).
9. Predict implies that the candidate is not expected to produce the required answer by recall
but by making a logical connection between other pieces of information. Such information
may be wholly given in the question or may depend on answers extracted in an earlier part
of the question. ‘Predict’ also implies a concise answer with no supporting statement
required.
10. Deduce is used in a similar way to ‘predict’ except that some supporting statement is
required, e.g. reference to law or principle or the necessary reasoning is to be included in the
answer.
11. Suggest is used in two main contexts, i.e. either to imply that there is no unique answer (e.g.
in chemistry, two or more substances may satisfy the given conditions describing an
‘unknown’), or to imply that candidates are expected to apply their general knowledge of the
subject to a ‘novel’ situation, one that may be formally ‘not in the syllabus’ – many data
response and problem – solving questions are of this type. It may also imply giving ideas,
solutions or reasons for something.
12. Find is a general term that may variously be interpreted as calculate, measure, determine etc.
13. Calculate is used when a numerical answer is required. In general, working should be shown,
especially where two or more steps are involved.
14. Measure implies that the quantity concerned can be directly obtained from a suitable
measuring instrument (e.g. length, using a rule, or mass, using a balance).

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15. Determine often implies that the quantity concerned cannot be measured directly but
obtained by calculation, substituting measured or known values of other quantities into a
standard formula e.g. relative molecular mass. It may also mean to find out.
16. Estimate implies a reasoned order of magnitude statement or calculation of the quantity
concerned, making such simplifying assumptions as may be necessary about points of
principle and about the values of quantities not otherwise included in the question.
17. Sketch, when applied to graph work, implies that the shape and / or position of the curve
need only be qualitatively correct, but candidates should be aware that, depending on the
context, some quantitative aspects may be looked for (e.g. passing through the origin, having
an intercept). In diagrams, ‘sketch’ implies that simple, freehand drawing is acceptable;
nevertheless, care should be taken over proportions and the clear exposition of important
details.

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QUESTION TYPES
(a) Multiple – choice questions
 Each multiple – choice question / item will consist of two basic parts: a stem and a list of
suggested solutions (alternatives / options).
 The stem will be in the form of either a question or an incomplete statement, a graph or
diagram, and the list of alternatives will contain one correct option (key) and three incorrect
alternatives (distracters).
 Each multiple – choice question will carry one mark and each correct answer will score one
mark. A mark will not be deducted for a wrong answer.
 Candidates will be required to indicate their choice of answer from the given options by way
of crossing or shading the letter indicating the chosen option. Read all the optional answers
before you decide. Do not guess.
(b) Structured questions
 These are compulsory questions which will comprise questions that will require candidates
to supply responses in the form of words, numbers, symbols, phrases, definitions,
comparisons, calculations etc. Give one word only if you asked to do so. Do not write full
sentences unless you are asked to do so.
 Where the response needs units, candidates are expected to supply the correct units. Failure
to do so will result in no mark being awarded even if the numerical is correct.
 Where working is required to be shown, and a candidate supplies a correct numerical
response with wrong working or no working shown, no marks will be awarded.
 The number of marks available per question will be shown in square brackets [ ] at the end
of the question.
 Candidates will be provided with answer booklets and are required to write their answers in
the spaces provided.

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