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Effect of the weld thermal cycles by the modified indirect electric arc (MIEA)
on the mechanical properties of the AA6061-T6 alloy

Article in Welding International · April 2010

DOI: 10.1080/09507110903568778

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Effect of the weld thermal cycles of the modified indirect electric arc on
the mechanical properties of the AA6061-T6 alloy
Ricardo R. Ambriz a; Gerardo Barrera a; Rafael García a;Victor H. López a
a
Institute of Metallurgical Investigations, Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo, Morelia,
Mich., Mexico

Online publication date: 12 February 2010

To cite this Article Ambriz, Ricardo R. , Barrera, Gerardo , García, Rafael andLópez, Victor H.(2010) 'Effect of the weld
thermal cycles of the modified indirect electric arc on the mechanical properties of the AA6061-T6 alloy', Welding
International, 24: 4, 321 — 328
To link to this Article: DOI: 10.1080/09507110903568778
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 Welding International
Vol. 24, No. 4, April 2010, 321–328
Selected from Revista de Metalurgia 2009 45(1) 42– 51

Effect of the weld thermal cycles of the modified indirect electric arc on the mechanical
properties of the AA6061-T6 alloy
Ricardo R. Ambriz1, Gerardo Barrera2, Rafael Garcı́a3 and Victor H. López
Institute of Metallurgical Investigations, Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo, Morelia, Mich., Mexico
(Received 30 January 2008; final version received 6 August 2008)

Results of temperature measurements during welding of 12.7 mm thick AA6061-T6 alloy plates by modified indirect electric
arc (MIEA) are presented. This study describes the thermal cycles in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) and also in the fusion
zone. Depending upon the position of the transducers, the maximum temperatures measured in the HAZ ranged from 308 to
6938C, these measurements were related with the tensile test results and the failure zone reported previously by the authors
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(Ambriz et al., S&I 2006;11:10 –17). It was observed that there is a decrease in the mechanical strength of the welded joints,
due to the microstructural changes undergone by the AA6061-T6 alloy in which formation of the b 0 occurs according to the
time – temperature transformation diagram. The inherent cooling conditions of the weld pool observed for the MIEA
technique (single welding pass) have made it possible to establish the characteristics of solidification and microstructure for
a specific cooling rate.
Keywords: aluminium alloy; melted pool; heat-affected zone; transformations; overageing; weld thermal cycle

1. Introduction that, inevitably, will be reflected in the mechanical

The measurement of temperature is a very important aspect properties of the welded joint. It should be recalled that
of processes in which the thermal effects cause changes the principal hardening mechanism in heat-treatable
that affect the behaviour of the materials, as is the case with aluminium alloys is the metastable precipitation of
welding, where the heat supplied due to the electric arc hardening phases, which comprise three stages: solubil-
produces significant microstructural changes on the ization, tempering and ageing (artificial or natural)9.
welded materials and, consequently, on their mechanical The type of solidification of fusion welding is
properties2,3. There are a wide variety of sensors for completely related to the heat supply, the chemical
measuring temperature, which are classified according to composition of the welding metal, the rapidity of crystal-
the range of measurement and type of application. line growth, the welding speed and the profile of the molten
Thermocouples are the temperature measurement instru- weld pool in such a way that the grain size of the molten
ments par excellence; they are thermoelectric elements that base metal at the fusion limit acts like a substrate for the
convert a change in temperature into a change of voltage growth of columnar grains10. Additionally, the direction of
(the Seebeck effect); they are manufactured from various growth of the columnar grains changes continually from the
materials, such as Chromel –Alumel (type K), which fusion line towards the centre of the weld, due to the
operate in a range (where behaviour is linear) from 2 270 corresponding change in the direction of the maximum
to 12608C4. The measurement of temperature during the temperature gradient in the molten pool. This is a very
welding process of heat-treatable aluminium alloys is of particular problem for high-energy welding processes such
great interest, due to the sensitivity of these alloys to as submerged arc welding and gas metal arc welding
temperature changes that give rise to a loss of their (GMAW), where the growth of the grain of the base metal is
hardening states, with the consequent reduction in their considerable. Even more so during multipass welds, where
mechanical properties5. Another important point is the columnar grains may re-nucleate within their limits
liquefaction cracking, found within a high-temperature from one welding pass to the next.
region in the heat-affected zone (HAZ)6. Various authors Recently, the authors have experimented with joint
have studied the effect of temperature on the mechanical design in indirect electric arc (IEA) welding11 – 15 in order
properties and the microstructural changes in heat- to weld materials composed of metal matrices and other
treatable aluminium alloys3,7,8. monolithic materials. The technique consists of position-
The recording of temperature variations during ing small feed sheets along the joint of squared edges. The
the welding process, in the molten zone, the HAZ and electric arc is established indirectly over the plates,
the base material, has the objective of establishing the forming a liquid pool of welding that, due to gravity and
microstructural changes that the alloy may undergo and the impulsion of the electric arc, feeds down towards the
ISSN 0950-7116 print/ISSN 1754-2138 online
q 2010 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/09507110903568778
http://www.informaworld.com
 322 R.R. Ambriz et al.

Table 1. Chemical composition of the 6061 alloy and ER4043 filler wire, wt.%.

Alloy Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Zn Ti Al
6061-T6 0.561 0.289 0.310 0.052 0.986 0.067 0.024 0.018 Bal.
ER4043 5.25 0.8 0.30 0.05 0.05 – 0.10 0.20 Bal.

bottom of the joint, making it possible to weld thicknesses order to evaluate the mechanical properties of the welded
of 12.7 mm in a single welding pass. This technique, joints, sheets of 70 mm width and 150 mm length were used
however, has the disadvantage that the remaining feed and traction specimens were mechanized in accordance
sheets have to be removed. Under the same schema, the with ASTM standard B557M-94. The results of these tests
authors modified this joint. Instead of using the feed were presented in a work cited above1. With reference to
sheets, they machined a small flap in the upper part of the the zones where the failure of the traction specimens took
sheets to be welded, so that this design came to be called place and the microhardness measurements made in the
modified indirect electric arc (MIEA) welding. HAZ, the authors decided to carry out the measurement of
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The present investigation was carried out in order to the thermal cycle welding sheets with a thickness of 25 mm
determine the relationship between the temperature each. Moreover, this width made it possible to place the
measurements and the effect on the mechanical resistance thermocouples with precision. The filler material was a
of the joints, due to the microstructural changes due to the
commercial electrode with a high silicon content
transformation of intermetallics of the Mg2Si-type using
(ER4043) and a diameter of 1.2 mm. Table 1 shows the
MIEA welding. In the same context, the conditions and
chemical composition of the materials used, which was
characteristics of the cooling of the pool of liquid metal
obtained using atomic absorption spectroscopy.
were studied, which are also influential in the mechanical
A semiautomatic GMAW process was used, with
behaviour of a welded joint. It is important to emphasize
100% argon as the shielding gas, with a flow of 23.6 l/min.
that for thickness of 12.7 mm, it is necessary to apply
several welding passes, which leads to a greater heat supply The operative variables were adjusted in order to obtain a
to the base material and, consequently, a greater degree of metal transference via pulverization, with an approximate
heat effect and softening in the HAZ of a precipitation- current of 230 A, a separation of the contact tip and the
hardened aluminium alloy. Thus, it proves beneficial to use base material of 20 mm, inverse polarity (CDEP), constant
a joint design that allows the joining of these alloys in a voltage of 23 V and a displacement speed of 3.6 mm/s of
single pass, while reducing the loss of hardening. Also, it is the heat source; in this case, a joint preparation of the flap
important to note that the mechanization of the new joint is style, which was named MIEA, using a preheat of 50, 100
no more complicated or costly than the preparation of a and 1508C1. The joint design and the dimensions thereof
simple V joint. are shown in Figure 1.
The base material, filler material and welded joints
were traction tested (using at least three specimens)
2. Experimental development according to the recommendations of ASTM standard B
2.1 Operational variables, welding conditions and 557M-9416. Table 2 shows the results obtained for the base
mechanical properties material and filler material, while those corresponding to
The base metal used was an aluminium alloy 6061-T6 the welds are presented in the analysis and discussion of the
(Al – Si – Mg) in sheets, with a thickness of 12.7 mm. In results. Additionally, microhardness measurements were
carried out on the base material and welded joints, applying
a load of 0.1 N for 15 s. The average microhardness value
for the base material was 152.5HV0.01, while the welded
joints were evaluated using microhardness scans and
correlated with their welding profile.

Table 2. Mechanical properties of the base material and filler

wire.

Flow strength Stress resistance Lengthening

Alloy (MPa) (MPa) (%)
6061-T6 300 328 14
Figure 1. Joint design and thermocouple location for measuring ER4043 164 190 –
the temperature in the liquid metal pool.
 Welding International 323

Table 3. Location of the thermocouples.

Thermocouple X (mm) Y (mm) Z (mm)

1 4.0 10.0 2 9.7
2 6.0 42.5 2 6.7
3 3.0 75.0 2 1.2
4 8.0 107.5 2 10.7
5 10.0 140.0 2 3.7
6 212.0 10.0 2 8.7
7 25.0 42.5 2 4.7
8 27.0 75.0 2 2.7
9 211.0 107.5 2 10.7
10 29.0 140.0 2 6.7
Bottom 0 72.0 2 9.2
Figure 2. Sketch representation of a K thermocouple for
temperature measurement in the HAZ.
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2.2 Temperature measurement in the HAZ hole in the supporting plate, in order to obtain temperature
measurements in the molten pool, the location of which is
In order to avoid interference in the heat transference shown in Figure 1. It is well known that the cooling speed
patterns at the time of completing the weld, small in the fusion zone is much quicker than that of an ingot17.
thermocouples, type-K, with a wire diameter of 0.3 mm, Consequently, it is necessary to take into consideration a
were set up. Silver covers were manufactured, with an sampling speed that makes it possible to provide
external and internal diameter of 1.5 and 1 mm, information regarding the solidification phenomenon, as
respectively, with the thermocouples being situated within a result of which the signals were acquired at 60 readings
the said covers or isolators. The isolation of the per second; i.e. the signals were converted from analog to
thermocouples was completed by filling the internal digital at 60 Hz.
diameter with a silicon oxide (SiO2) ceramic, as shown in
Figure 2.
The placement of the thermocouples for the 2.4 Digitalization of the signals
measurement of temperature in the HAZ was established
In order to record the signals from the thermocouples, a
by fixing a system of rectangular coordinates (X, Y, Z), the
card connected with one of the PCI ports of the computer
origin of which was located in the upper face of the base
was used, with 16 different analog inputs. This includes a
metal sheets and in the centre of the joint preparation
thermocouple conditioning unit. For the data acquisition
(Figure 3). A total of 10 thermocouples were placed in
phase, programs written in the graphic programming
the alloy sheets to be welded. Table 3 shows the positions
language G, better known as ‘Virtual Instrumentation’
of each of these.
(LabVIEW 8.2), were used, within the Windows XPw
operating system.
2.3 Temperature measurement in the liquid weld pool
A type-K thermocouple, with a wire diameter of 0.8 mm, 3. Results and discussion
was located at the bottom of the prepared joint, using a 3.1 Temperature in the HAZ and effect on mechanical
resistance
Table 4 shows the maximum temperatures measured for
the different preheat conditions. It can be seen that the
temperature intervals increase according to the depth at
which the sensors are found relative to the heat source, as
well as the preheat conditions used. For example, the
maximum temperatures measured for position 1 are 308.8,
450.8 and 534.18C. However, this behaviour is not
complied with in all cases, e.g. for the maximum
temperature measured in position 2 with preheat at
1008C, which saw an increase of 458C over the maximum
temperature measured for a preheat of 1508C. This
phenomenon can be explained according to the disalign-
Figure 3. Coordinate system for the location of the ment of the joint relative to the heat source and the nature
thermocouples. of the arc itself, which tends to maintain its stability
 324 R.R. Ambriz et al.

Table 4. Maximum temperatures measured in the HAZ. Table 5. Heating and cooling rates.

Preheat 508C 1008C 1508C

Position 508C 1008C 1508C 16.5 8.0
Heating (8C/s) 16.8 (1.0088C/min) (9908C/min) (4808C/min)
1 308.8 450.8 534.1 0.8 1.0
2 368.7 542.9 497.9 Cooling (8C/s) 0.6 (368C/min) (488C/min) (608C/min)
3 409.5 430.3 611.8
4 469.8 462.9 577.6
5 530.7 479.5 553.1
6 383.1 421.3 450.2 identical. This behaviour offers sufficient information to
7 461.7 384.1 577.0
explain why the traction resistance or maximum strain of
8 445.9 460.0 574.9
9 Open 456.4 614.4 the welded joints appears to be practically the same, as can
10 610.5 552.2 693.7 be seen in Table 6.
Here, too, the correlation of the thermal cooling cycles
with the TTT curve of the alloy can be seen, corresponding
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towards one side, causing it to have greater molten mass to the thermocouple furthest from the fusion zone, it being
on one of the walls of the joint, giving rise to higher found that for any preheat condition, the corresponding
temperature measurements. Moreover, the effect of heat cooling cycles fall back to the TTT curve for the formation
conduction due to the fusion and solidification of the base of the b 0 phase (Mg2Si). In addition, it is to be expected
material and the heat supplied have a very significant that the growth of overaged precipitates (b 0 phase) will be
effect on the temperature measurements of the sensors greater for the condition of 1508C preheat, promoting the
found at the end of the sheets or at different heights occurrence of the failure zone further from the fusion line
respective to the heat source18. (Figure 5)1.
In Figure 4, the curves corresponding to temperature It is clear that the maximum temperatures reached (in
measurements within the HAZ are shown for position 6, relation to thermocouple 6) do not exceed the solubil-
corresponding to 12-mm distance from the central axis of ization temperature of alloy 6061, which is found at
the joint preparation, in accordance with Table 3, for 500, around 5308C. However, these temperatures are above the
100 and 1508C of preheat. It can be seen that the maximum temperature for the formation of Guinier –Preston zones,
temperature peaks reach a higher value, as the preheat is in accordance with the precipitation sequence for alloys of
increased. The values of the heating and cooling rates Al –Si – Mg20. The maximum temperatures reached are
calculated are shown in Table 5. 383, 421 and 4508C for their respective preheats, which are
It should be noted that the behaviour of the cooling rate very close to the corresponding values reported by Myhr
for each of the curves after a certain time has passed et al.7, who established that the transformation of b 00
(approximately 200 s), and once it has passed the time – precipitates to b 0 occurs when the peak temperature
temperature transformation (TTT) curve is practically exceeds 3258C, with a time interval of at least 10 s
(a condition fulfilled in the case of the curves of
Figure 4) and at 3908C, the b 0 phase begins to be the
dominant microstructural constituent. The above also
corresponds to the investigations carried out by Malin2
into the relationship that exists between the maximum
temperature measured in the HAZ and the location of
failure in aluminium alloys 6061-T6 extruded and welded
in the conventional manner by means of a simple V joint
preparation, finding that the minimum microhardness
value and fracture location are associated with temperature
peaks at around 3808C.

Table 6. Mechanical properties of the welded joints1.

Preheat Lengthening Elastic Traction Failure

(8C) (%) limit (MPa) resistance (MPa) zone
50 13.8 102.7 183.0 HAZ
100 15.4 101.0 181.7 HAZ
Figure 4. Cooling thermal cycles at 12 mm from the heat source 150 17.2 106.5 179.3 HAZ
and its relation with the TTT curve5,19 for 6061 alloy.
 Welding International 325
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Figure 5. Relationship between the microhardness profiles and the failure zone (a) MIEA 508C, (b) MIEA 1008C and (c) MIEA 1508C.

On the other hand, the b 00 phase with acicular

morphology is that which produces the greatest effect on
the hardening of the alloy 6061-T6, according to that
established by Dutta and Allen20, while the b 0 phase, which
has a bar shape, will grow depending on the temperature
increase in the HAZ giving rise to overageing and,
consequently, its incoherence with the aluminium matrix.
The above is shown in the image of Figure 6, corresponding
to the fracture of one of the MIEA joints, in which a Mg2Si
particle of large size can be seen, among others.
It is clear that the fracture was caused by the softening
of the HAZ by the formation of particles of b 0 and/or b
(equilibrium) precipitates, a product of the thermodynamic
instability of the b 00 precipitates during a fusion welding
process. However, the mechanical properties obtained
after the MIEA joining process (with a single welding Figure 6. Fracture of the 6061-T6 weld showing Mg2Si
pass) are considerably greater relative to welds carried particles.
 326 R.R. Ambriz et al.

maximum, i.e. 19.96 s. The above may be corroborated

according to the weld speed used for the welding process
(3.6 mm/s), and by making use of the definition to
determine the speed at that moment, it is possible to
calculate the distance in the following manner:

d ¼ vt ¼ ð3:6 mm=sÞð19:96 sÞ ¼ 71:85 mm: ð2Þ

The value calculated results in a distance that

corresponds, approximately, to the distance at which the
thermocouple was located. Consequently, there is
sufficient evidence to determine that the filler material is
forced, by the effect of gravity, towards the joint of the
plates to be joined and not by means of a possible flow of
molten metal ahead of the heat source (i.e. the heat source
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Figure 7. Profile of the temperature measured in the weld pool. is perpendicular to the temperature sensor). An important
point to take into consideration is that the maximum
out in the conventional manner, with a simple V joint temperature measured in the welding metal is the
preparation and three or four welding passes1,21,22. temperature corresponding to a distance of 3.5 mm
above the support plate and not the temperature at which
the drops of filler material are detached by the welding
3.2 Temperature in the molten weld pool process8.
Figure 7 shows the graph of the data obtained using the Figure 8 is the graph corresponding to the time interval
data acquisition system for the measurement of tempera- in which the temperature is maximum in the liquid weld
ture in the molten weld pool, in accordance with the metal. Carrying out an analysis according to the fusion
position of the thermocouple in Figure 1, in which it can be temperature of the filler material (6308C) and its eutectic
seen that the process of data acquisition began when the temperature (5818C), it is possible to determine the
minimum temperature was 978C (time 0 s) and reached a cooling time for a temperature drop of 498C, correspond-
maximum temperature of 11578C, corresponding to 1198 ing to 0.76 s, as a result of which the cooling rate will be
readings (19.96 s), as a result of which a temperature
increase of 10608C was obtained. 498C
Gt ¼ ¼ 64:478C=s:
Carrying out an analysis of the data obtained, it was 0:76 s
observed that, for a total of 615 readings (10.25 s), i.e.
This cooling speed is lower than the high values for a
when T ¼ 1118C, the increase in the heating rate was
GMAW process23. However, the degree of previous sub-
insignificant, at around 1.388C/s. This increment corre-
cooling experienced in the solidification process promotes
sponds to the initial straight line portion of the curve of
Figure 7, as a result of which it is possible to take the time
of beginning temperature measurement at the value of 615
readings, an aspect that becomes obvious due to the fact
that the slope of the curve from this value onwards begins
to be very long. Based on the above, it can be determined
that the time required to reach the maximum temperature
is 9.7 s, with the heating rate being able to be calculated
through the slope of the curve of Figure 7, by means of the
following ratio:

T p 2 T i ð1157 2 111Þ8C
Gt ¼ ¼ ¼ 107:88C=s; ð1Þ
t 9:7 s
where Gt is the heating or cooling rate, Tp is the maximum
temperature and Ti is the initial temperature recorded by
the thermocouple.
The actual distance of the thermocouple relative to the
beginning of the thermal cycle of the weld (beginning of Figure 8. Temperature profile of the weld pool in which the
the arc) was 72 mm (Table 3), which should in theory temperature is maximum and the liquid– solid transformation
correspond to the time at which the temperature is takes place.
 Welding International 327

the development of a fine grain size, as shown in the

micrograph of Figure 9, corresponding to the central
portion of the weld for an MIEA joint preheated to 1508C.
Once the maximum temperature has been reached, this
begins to decrease due to the movement of the heat source
according to the weld speed of the welding process,
according to what has been established in investigations into
moving heat sources by Rosenthal18. During cooling, energy
begins to be supplied to the lateral walls of the joint
preparation, experiencing a drop in temperature until a
minimum, corresponding to 7378C, is reached, which is
above the fusion point of the base material (6528C) and of the
filler material (6308C). At this point, the lateral walls are
completely fused and consequently a liberation of the latent
heat of fusion occurs, which represents the energy generated
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during the liquid–solid transformation, which is absorbed by

the liquid metal, increasing its temperature by around 758C in
a short time, 1.41 s, reaching a maximum of 8128C.
The classical theory for heterogeneous nucleation Figure 10. Comparison of cooling patterns between traditional
and IEA welding13.
explains that the form in which the latent heat of fusion is
dissipated determines the growth mechanism and final
structure of the solidified material. This theory was the basis dT L
GL ¼ : ð3Þ
for the development of the ideas of Garcia et al.13, who dx
explained, schematically, the behaviour of the cooling rate in Based on the graph measuring the temperature in the
traditional welding processes and by IEA (Figure 10). fusion pool, it is possible to obtain the curve segment
It can be seen that in the case of solidification for corresponding to the cooling of the liquid welding metal
traditional welding, subsequent to the sub-cooling, there (Figure 11).
exists a thermal stabilization (columnar growth) and, It can be seen that the transformation from liquid to
afterwards, if the conditions are present, there may be solid, during the solidification process, occurs in a
equiaxial grain growth due to the constitutional sub- continuous manner from the fusion temperature of the
cooling. However, in the case of welding via IEA, there is alloy of the filler material (6308C) to the solidification of
a sub-cooling of the liquid, then a recalescence and, the latter (5818C).
finally, a continuous cooling at a high-cooling rate. Based on the polynomial approximation obtained in
Consequently, it is important to evaluate the the graph of Figure 11, it is possible to carry out the
temperature variation of the molten weld pool GL with calculation corresponding to the temperature variation in
respect to the distance from the heat source, corresponding
to the fusion limit (solid – liquid) defined by

Figure 9. Microstructure of the weld metal in a joint preheated

to 1508C, showing heterogeneous nucleation. Figure 11. Fraction of the cooling curve of the weld pool.
 328 R.R. Ambriz et al.

the centre of the molten pool, in relation to the Notes

advancement of the heat source, in the following manner: 1. Email: [email protected]
d 2. Email: [email protected]
GL ¼ ð41805:2 2 909:55x þ 5:016x 2 Þ 3. Email: [email protected]
dx
¼ 2909:55 þ 10:03x: ð4Þ
From Figure 11, the distance, 6 mm, travelled by the References
heat source from a temperature of 811.9 to 5818C can be 1. Ambriz RR, Barrera G, Garcı́a R. S&I. 2006;11:10– 17.
obtained. Consequently, a temperature gradient of 2. Malin V. Weld J. 1995;74:305s– 318s.
849.378C/mm can be generated. In accordance with the 3. Li Y, Murr LE, McClure JC. Mat Sci Eng A.
microstructural variation diagram developed by Kurz and 1999;271:213– 223.
4. Anderson NA. Instrumentation for process measurement and
Fisher24, the type of microstructure in the centre of the control. p. 131– 133.
weld corresponds to a cellular dendritic type (Figure 9). 5. ASM. Heat treater’s guide: nonferrous alloys. p. 204.
6. Huang C, Kou S. Weld J. 2004;83:111s –122s.
7. Myhr OR, Grong O, Fjaer HG, Marioara CD. Acta Mater.
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4. Conclusions 2004;52:4997– 5008.

8. Lu MJ, Kou S. Weld J. 1989;68:382-s – 388-s.
. The cooling rate at any condition of MIEA welding 9. Hatch JE. Aluminum properties and physical metallurgy.
exceeds the TTT curve of precipitate formation, b 0 , Metals Park, OH: American Society for Metals; 1993.
and, at a given time, these speeds tend to become p. 134– 148.
10. Davies GJ, Garland JG. Int Metall Rev. 1975;20:83– 106.
similar, since the mechanical resistance is practi-
11. Garcia R, Lopez VH. J Mater Sci. 2006;42:7856– 7963.
cally the same due to the transition of precipitates of 12. Garcia R, Lopez VH, Kennedy AR, Arias G. J Mater Sci.
the b 00 phase to b 0 . 2007;42:7794– 7800.
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