Engineering Materials Sessional

Military Institute of Science & Technology (MIST)

Department of Mechanical Engineering

ME 194
Engineering Materials Sessional
Level-I, Term-I
Contact Hr: 3.0 Credit Hr: 1.5

Reference books:

• Introduction to Physical Metallurgy (2nd edition) Sidney H Avner, Publisher –

Tata Mc Graw – Hill Edition.

• Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction – W D Callister, Jr.

Publisher – John Wiley and Sons, Inc 1997
Name of the Experiments:

1. Introduction to Metallography and Metallographic Sample Specimen Preparation and

Microscopic Examination

2. Micro-study of Steels

3. Microstudy of Cast Irons

4. Heat Treatment of Steels-1 (Annealing)

5. Heat Treatment of Steels-2 (Normalizing)

6. Heat Treatment of Steels-3 (Hardening and Quenching)

7. Hardness Testing of Metal Specimen

 Lab Report Writing Format

Experiment No:

Experiment Name:

Objectives:

Procedure:

Figure of Apparatus and Equipment name:

Figure/Result Analysis:

Discussion:

Assignment:
 Metallography

Metallography is the study of metals by optical and electron microscopes. Structures,

which are coarse enough to be discernible by the naked eye or under low magnifications,
are termed macrostructures. Useful information can often be gained by examination with
the naked eye of the surface of metal objects or polished and etched sections. Those,
which require high magnification to be visible, are termed microstructures. Microscopes
are required for the examination of the microstructure of the metals. Optical microscopes
are used for resolutions down to roughly the wavelength of light (about half a micron)
and electron microscopes are used for details below this level, down to atomic resolution.

The most commonly used microscope is the conventional light microscope. In principle,
optical microscopes may be used to look through specimens ('in transmission') as
well as at them ('in reflection'). Many materials, however, do not transmit light and so,
we are restricted to looking at the surface of the specimens with an optical microscope.

Etching:
Metallographic etching is done by immersion or by swabbing (or electrolytically)
with a suitable chemical solution that essentially produces selective corrosion. The
purpose of etching is to make visible the many structural characteristics of metal or
alloy.

Common Metallographic Etchants

Etchant Conc. Condition Metal/ Comments

Distilled water
Nitric acid 190 ml
Hydrochloric 5 ml For most aluminum and
10-30 second immersion
acid 3 ml aluminum alloys
Hydrofluoric 2 ml
acid

1 second to several Common etchant for copper

Nitric acid 125 ml
minutes by immersion or and copper alloys such as
Distilled water 125 ml
swabbing brass and bronze

Ethanol 100 ml Both for Nodular & gray cast

Seconds to minutes
Nitric acid 1-10 ml iron

Distilled water
5 ml Boiling for 5 minutes to
Phosphoric Oxide ceramics
85 ml 2 hours
acid

Hydrochloric 10 ml
Seconds to minutes Carbide ceramics
acid 10 ml
 Hydrogen
peroxide
(30%)

Hydrofluoric
100% 10-15 minutes Nitride ceramics
acid

Latic acid
30 ml
Nitric acid
10 ml Seconds to minutes Boride ceramics
Hydrofluoric
10 ml
acid

Distilled water
Ammonium 25 ml
hydroxide 25 ml Seconds to minutes Copper and copper alloys
Hydrogen 5-25 ml
peroxide (3%)

Ferric chloride
Copper
45 gm
ammonium
9 gm Immerse for several A very effective etchant for
chloride
150 ml seconds. Hastelloy metals
Hydrochloric
75 ml
acid
Distilled water

Ethanol
80 ml
Nitric acid
10 ml
Hydrochloric Seconds to minutes High carbon steel
10 ml
acid
1 gm
Picric acid

Ethanol or
methanol
Pure tin, tin-lead alloys, tin-
or Distilled 100 ml
Several minutes antimony-copper alloys
water 2-5 ml
Hydrochloric
acid

Ethanol 100 ml
Seconds to minutes Low carbon steel
Nitric acid 1-10 ml

Distilled water
or Ethanol 100 ml
Several minutes
Hydrochloric 1-5 ml Zinc and zinc alloys
acid

Working Principle of Optical Microscope

It is a techniques used to study the topography of a surface is optical microscopy, also

called light microscopy. An optical microscope usually has a single eyepiece which can
often be fitted with a camera for photography.

A microscope enlarges the view of an object by enlarging it twice using the objective and
oculus lenses. It happens in the following way:
 1. Light from below a specimen illuminates it.
2. An objective lens placed very close to the specimen produces a ‘real image ’of the
specimen.
3. This image is created somewhere between the two lenses.
4. The oculus lens looks at that real image, already magnified, and creates a ‘virtual
image ’of it that is many times magnified.
5. This image is created far away, behind the actual objective.
6. This final image is inverted to the original object, remember that.
7. The light passes through the specimen and the two lenses to reach your eye. In the
process, the loss of light can be negligible.

Since the light comes through the image, this type of microscope is called a bright-field
microscope. Indeed, the final image is sometimes so bright that there is a dedicated control
to reduce the amount of light that pours into the specimen.
 EXPERIMENT NO – 1

Name of the Experiment: Introduction to Metallography and Metallographic Sample

Specimen Preparation

Objectives:

1. To provide practice in the techniques of micro specimen selection, polishing, and

etching.
2. To provide initial training in the use of metallurgical microscope.

Procedure:

1. Take one sample from your instructor and identify your sample by putting on an
identification number.

2. Polish the specimen manually by grinding on a series of emery papers of progressively

finer grade. To polish at each paper, hold the paper on top of a glass sheet with one
hand while rubbing the specimen with the other hand using moderate pressure, back
and forth across the abrasive surface in one direction only. This creates a series of
parallel scratches or grind marks on the specimen.

3. It is naturally very important to avoid the transfer of loose abrasive particles from one
paper to another. There before proceeding to the next finer paper clean thoroughly the
loose abrasive particles from the specimen and from the hands. Clean each paper
carefully before use to protect the quality of the polishing job.

4. While grinding on the next finer paper, hold the specimen in such a way that the new,
finer set of scratches will be approximately perpendicular to the existing set of
scratches.

5. After completing the paper polishing, clean the sample thoroughly with soap water and
show it to the instructor. He will check its finish and indicate whether you may proceed
to the final polishing step.

6. Place some alumina powder on top of the wet polishing cloth of the grinding wheel.
Hold the specimen face down on the wheel under moderate pressure slowly move in a
direction opposite to the direction of the wheel. Continue final polishing until a mirror-
finish is obtained. Hold the specimen quite stationary during most of the
 polishing operation. Before leaving the wheel at the end of the final fine polishing,
rotate the specimen counter to the direction of wheel rotation to eliminate streaks
caused by draught of inclusions.

7. After a mirror-finish is attained, wash the specimen and hands, and dry the specimen
surface.

8. Never touch the polished surfaces with fingers at any time because skin oil and salt
will deposit a film or cause tarnish, either of which will hide the structure to be
observed.

9. Etch the specimen with 2 percent natal. Avoid over etching. Under etching is
preferable to over etching. Re-polish till the cloudy film has been removed and surface
is again showing a mirror finish. Re-etch carefully. Ask the instructor to check your
etched specimen and advise you on whether to proceed to examine it on the microscope
or whether you need to polish and etch again.

10. Examine the optical features of a metallurgical microscope. Draw on it a broken line
to show the path of rays of light from the light source to the observer’s eye.

11. Examine the microscope. Locate each of its components. Complete the following table
by listing the magnifying power of each objective lens and each eye-piece. Indicate
the total magnifications available on your microscope.

12. Study the structure by focusing it by ‘going away’ from the lens. Using the mechanical
stage movements, explore the etched surface, adjusting the focus, if necessary, as you
go. Practice using both the stage control knobs simultaneously to move the specimen
in various directions. Locate a good area to sketch. If your specimen does not show a
good, clear structure, ask the instructor to advise you whether you should re-polish and
re-etch.

13. Complete the data sheet.

DATA SHEET

Objective Eye-piece Total magnification available with each lens

magnification magnification 1 2 3

Material: …………………………………………………………………………
Magnification: ………………………………..Etchant: ………………………...
Structure: …………………………………………………………………………

Before etching After etching

 Study of Steel

AISI/SAE Steel and Alloys - Designation System

AISI/SAE steel numbers are indicated below.

• AISI - American Iron and Steel Institute

• SAE - Society of Automotive Engineers

Alloy steels and carbon steels can be designated with specific grades by a four-digit
AISI/SAE numerical index system.

The system is based on the chemical compositions of steels and alloys.

Example AISI/SAE No. 1020

• the first digit indicates that this is plain carbon steel.
• the second digit indicates there are no alloying elements
• the last two digits indicates that the steel contains approximately 0.20 percent carbon

Example AISI/SAE No. 4340

• the first two digits indicates a Nickel-Chromium-Molybdenum alloy steel
• the last two digits indicates carbon content roughly 0.4 percent

Stainless steel and the AISI nomenclatures.

Stainless steels, distinguished by the weight % of constituent alloy elements.

• 304 – Cr (18%) Ni (10%) C (0,05%)

• 304 L – (Low Carbon): Cr (18%) Ni (10%) C (< 0.03%)

• 316 – Cr (16%) Ni (11.3/13 %) Mo (2/3 %)

• 316 L – (Low Carbon): Cr (16,5/18,5%) Ni (10,5/13,5%) Mo (2/2,25%) C (< 0.03%)

• 316 LN – (Low Carbon Nitrogen) (presence of dissolved nitrogen in the crystal lattice

of the material)

• 316 LN ESR (electro-slag remelting)

• 430: Cr (16/18 %) C (0,08%)

Types of steel and application:

There are multiple steel types and alloys that each have unique properties — making
them each suited to specific production goals. Some steels are sturdy and heavy, while
other steels are ductile and versatile.

CARBON STEEL
Technically, carbon steel is a metal alloy that contains both iron and carbon. But in the
manufacturing industry, carbon steel is often defined in multiple ways. Both of the
following constitutes “carbon steel” in the metals market.

• Steel that contains up to 2% carbon

• Steel that does not contain any standard amounts of elements that would
classify it as an “alloy steel” (e.g., cobalt, nickel, tungsten, molybdenum, titanium,
zirconium, vanadium, chromium, etc.)

You may also notice the term “carbon steel” applied to steels with less than 0.4% copper
or steels that have certain magnesium to copper contents, though those definitions are
contested across industries. There are three ways that carbon steel is classified — low,
medium, and high.

LOW CARBON STEEL

Low carbon steel (or “mild carbon steel” or “plain carbon steel”) refers to carbon steels
that have up to 0.30% carbon content. This is, by far, the most common type of steel on
the metals market. There are a few reasons for this. For starters, low carbon steel is
relatively inexpensive. Also, since the carbon content is lower than medium and high
steels, low carbon steel is easy to form and is perfect for applications where tensile
strength is not an immediate issue, such as structural beams.

Another benefit of low carbon steel is that its properties can be improved relatively easily
by adding additional elements, such as magnesium. Low carbon steel is also an ideal
choice for carburizing, which improves case hardness without impacting ductility or
toughness.

What are some common uses for low carbon steel?

• Structural components
• Machinery
• Pipes
• Domestic appliances
• Automobile components
• Surgical instruments
• Medical equipment
• Wires
• Bolts
• Stampings
 Core properties of low carbon steel:
• Low cost
• Low hardness
• Mild strength
• High machinability
• Very high toughness
• High ductility
• High weldability

MEDIUM CARBON STEEL

Medium carbon steel refers to carbon steels that have between 0.31% and 0.60% carbon
content and between 0.31% and 1.60% magnesium. One of the biggest benefits of
medium carbon steel is its strength. However, that comes with some tradeoffs. Medium
carbon steel has low ductility and toughness — making it more difficult to form and weld.

What are some common uses for medium carbon steel?

• Machinery parts
• Pressure structures
• Cranks
• Gears
• Railway tracks

Core properties of medium carbon steel:

• Low hardenability
• Medium ductility
• Average toughness
• Medium strength
• Medium weldability
• Average machinability

HIGH CARBON STEEL

High carbon steel refers to carbon steels that have between 0.61% and 1.50% carbon
content and between 0.31 and 0.90 magnesium. When it comes to hardness and toughness,
high carbon steel is the carbon steel of choice. However, this comes at a tradeoff. It’s very
difficult to weld, cut, or form high carbon steel.

What are some common uses for high carbon steel?

• Railways
• Bars
• Spring steel
• Plates
 Core properties of high carbon steel:

• Low hardenability
• Low ductility
• Reduced weldability
• Low machinability
• High toughness
• High strength

STAINLESS STEEL
While carbon steel is typically defined by its carbon content, stainless steel is defined by its 10.5%
minimum chromium content. Like carbon steel, stainless steel also contains carbon and iron, but
the extra chromium is the key that gives it its unique properties. One of the biggest benefits of
stainless steel is that it protects the steel for oxidization — which degrades metals over time.
Stainless steel is also identified by its sheen, a property provided by the chromium. You will often
see stainless steel utilized in cookware, knives, and medical equipment.

Like carbon steel, there are various types of stainless steel, each with a unique market price and
properties.

AUSTENITIC ALLOYS
Stainless steel austenitic alloys are, by far, the most common types of stainless steel metals on
the market. They resist oxidation, provide a unique look, and are non-magnetic (though they can
become magnetic in certain circumstances).

There are two common austenitic alloy grades:

• Grade 304
• Grade 316
Grades of austenitic alloys also include 301, 302, 303, 309, and 321.

FERRITIC ALLOYS
Stainless steel ferritic alloys are another semi-common stainless steel alloy. Unlike austenitic
alloys, they are magnetic — lending them to applications where magnetism is necessary. These
are typically the cheapest stainless-steel alloys due to their relatively low nickel content.

There are two common ferritic alloy grades:

• Grade 430
• Grade 434
MARTENSITIC ALLOYS
Stainless steel martensitic alloys are the least common stainless-steel alloy. These alloys have
incredible hardiness and toughness, but they have poor oxidation properties, making them only
suited for applications that require incredible hardiness.

There is one common martensitic alloy grade:

• Grade 420

ALLOY STEELS
The widest and most diverse range of steel alloys is “alloy steels.” These are made by combining
carbon steel with various alloying elements to provide unique properties to each steel. There is
an incredibly wide range of alloy steels, but some of the most common include:

• Chromium
• Cobalt
• Molybdenum
• Nickel
• Tungsten
• Vanadium

Due to the incredible variety of alloy steels, you can create steels with almost every possible
property using alloy elements. That being said, some of these steels are relatively expensive.

TOOLING STEELS
The final steel group is tooling steels. These are steels used for tooling activities such as drilling.
Commonly made up of molybdenum, vanadium, tungsten, and cobalt, tooling steels are heat-
resistant, durable, and strong.

There are 6 grades of tool steel:

• Air-hardening
• Water-hardening
• D-type
• Hot-working
• Shock-resisting types
• Oil-hardening
 Properties of steel

Physical Metric English Comments

Properties
Density 7.80 - 8.00 g/cc 0.282 - 0.289 lb/in Density usually ranges from 7.8 - 7.9 g/cc
³ for carbon and low alloy steels. Stainless
steels typically have densities around 8
g/cc.

Mechanical Metric English Comments

Properties
Hardness, 121 121 Varies widely with composition and heat
Brinell treatment.
Hardness, Knoop 140 140 Varies widely with composition and heat
treatment.
Hardness, 126 126 Varies widely with composition and heat
Vickers treatment.
Tensile Strength, 420 MPa 60900 psi This is the value for AISI 1020, a mild
Ultimate steel. Values can range from 295 - 2400
MPa, depending on composition and heat
treatment.
Tensile Strength, 350 MPa 50800 psi AISI 1020 Steel. Yield strength varies as
Yield Ultimate Tensile Strength values, from 200
- 2100 MPa.
Elongation at 15% 15% AISI 1020. Generally, as hardness and
Break tensile strength goes up, elongation goes
down.
Modulus of 200 GPa 29000 ksi
Elasticity
Bulk Modulus 140 GPa 20300 ksi
Poisson’s Ratio 0.25 0.25 Calculated
Machinability 65% 65% for 1020 steel. Varies from 0 - 100, Based
on 100% machinability for AISI 1212 steel.
Shear Modulus 80.0 GPa 11600 ksi

Electrical Metric English Comments

Properties
Electrical 0.0000170 ohm- 0.0000170 ohm-
Resistivity cm cm

Component Metric English Comments

Elements
Properties
Carbon, C 0.030 - 1.25 % 0.030 - 1.25 %
Iron, Fe 80 - 98 % 80 - 98 %
Manganese, Mn 0.20 - 16 % 0.20 - 16 %
Phosphorus, P <= 0.050 % <= 0.050 %
Silicon, Si 0.00 - 0.50 % 0.00 - 0.50 %
 EXPERIMENT: 02

Name of the experiment: Micro study of Steels

Objective:
To study the microconstituents present in the microstructure of various steel specimens.

Specimen: Low-carbon steel, Medium-carbon steel, High-carbon steel, Alloy Steels

(Stainless steel, Tool steel)

Procedure:
1. Obtain a specimen of steel from the instructor. Polish and etch the specimen
according to the procedures as used in the previous experiment.
2. Examine the specimen on the microscope, using a magnification of X400.
Reproduce the microstructure, labeling all micro constituents carefully and
neatly.
3. Estimate the approximate relative amounts of the micro constituents present
in your sample. Identify the steel by calculating the carbon content. Also,
check the carbon content using XRD if possible. Draw the microstructures in
the data sheet.
4. Complete the report by answering the following questions:

a) Which is the predominant constituent in the dead soft steel? What is the
estimated percentage of carbon in dead soft steel you have observed?
b) The matrix of the materials microstructure often plays a major role in
determining the properties that the material has. In the case of dead soft
steel, what particular property does the matrix contribute? Explain.
c) What is the predominant constituent of mild steel? How does it affect
the properties of the steel?
d) How does an increase in carbon affect the structure of plain carbon
steels?
e) Why are high carbon steels less ductile than steels of lower carbon
content? For what purposes are high-carbon steels best suited?
DATA SHEET

Microstructure of ………………………………… showing grains of………………...

and ………………….. Etched in …………………….Magnification …………………

Microstructure of ………………………………… showing grains of………………...

and ………………….. Etched in …………………….Magnification ………………
 CAST IRON

• Cast irons typically have carbon levels of about 2–6.67 wt.% carbon.
• There are many types of cast irons. Most are the so-called graphitic cast irons but there
are other high-alloy cast irons designed for wear resistance, corrosion resistance, and heat
resistance.

Types of cast iron and their applications

Cast iron can be classified into grey cast iron, white cast iron, malleable cast iron and
ductile cast iron, depending on its composition.

Grey cast iron

• Grey cast iron, or gray iron, has a dark grey fracture colour due to a graphitic
microstructure.

• The presence of graphite flakes is due to the addition of silicon, which acts to stabilise
carbon in the form of graphite as opposed to iron carbide.

• Grey cast iron typically has a composition of 2.5 wt.% – 4.0 wt.% carbon and 1.0 wt.% –
3.0 wt.% silicon.

Grey cast iron applications

• Grey cast iron is the most common form of cast iron.

• It is used in applications where its high stiffness, machinability, vibration dampening,

high heat capacity and high thermal conductivity are of advantage, such as internal
combustion engine cylinder blocks, flywheels, gearbox cases, manifolds, disk brake
rotors and cookware.

A commonly used classification for grey cast iron is ASTM International standard A48.
Under this system, grey cast irons are graded according to their tensile strength, with class
20 grey cast iron, for example, having a minimum tensile strength of 20,000 psi (140
MPa).

White cast iron

• White cast iron has a white fracture colour due to the presence of iron carbide, or
cementite Fe3C.

• The presence of carbon in this form, as opposed to graphite, is the result of a lower silicon
content compared to grey cast iron.
• White cast iron typically contains 1.8 wt.% – 3.6 wt.% carbon, 0.5 wt.% – 1.9
wt.% silicon and 1.0 wt.% – 2.0 wt.% manganese.

White cast irons are extremely wear-resistant yet brittle. They exhibit high hardness
as a result of their microstructure containing large iron carbide particles and are not
easily machined.

White cast iron applications

White cast irons are used in abrasion-resistant parts where it’s brittleness is of
minimum concern such as shell liners, slurry pumps, ball mills, lifter bars, extrusion
nozzles, cement mixers, pipe fittings, flanges, crushers and pump impellers.

A popular grade of white iron is high chrome white irons, ASTM A532. This
contains nickel and chromium for good low-impact abrasion applications.

Malleable cast iron

• Malleable cast irons are formed via a slow annealing heat treatment of white cast
iron.

• This results in the conversion of carbon, in the form of iron carbide in white iron,
to graphite, with the remaining matrix being composed of ferrite or pearlite.

• Graphite is present in the form of irregular round shapes called ‘tempered carbon’.

Malleable cast iron exhibits good malleability and good ductility. Due to the lower
silicon content compared to other cast irons, it exhibits good fracture toughness at
low temperature.

Malleable cast iron applications

• As a result of its good tensile strength and ductility, malleable cast iron is used for
electrical fittings and equipment, hand tools, pipe fittings, washers, brackets, farm
equipment, mining hardware, and machine parts.

A common classification for malleable cast iron is ASTM A47.

Ductile cast iron

• Ductile cast iron, also known as nodular cast iron and spheroidal graphite cast iron,
is defined by the presence of graphite in the form of spherical nodules, as with
malleable cast iron.

• Differently to malleable cast iron, ductile cast iron is formed not by heat treatment
of white iron, but through a specific chemical composition.
• Ductile cast iron contains 3.2 wt.% – 3.6 wt.% carbon, 2.2 wt.% – 2.8 wt.% silicon
and 0.1 wt.% – 0.2 wt.% manganese, as well as smaller amounts of magnesium,
phosphorus, sulfur and copper.

• The presence of manganese is responsible for the spherical form of graphite

inclusions.

Ductile cast iron applications

• Due to its microstructure, this material is more ductile than grey or white cast irons.

• For this reason, it is used as ductile iron pipe for water and sewage infrastructure.

• It can also withstand thermal cycling and is therefore used in vehicle gears and
suspension components, brakes and valves, pumps and hydraulic parts, and housings
for wind turbines.

Ductile cast iron is commonly classified as ASTM A536.

Effect of Alloying Elements

• Alloying elements increase the strength of cast irons through their effect on the
matrix.

• Common alloy elements include manganese, copper, nickel, molybdenum, and

chromium, elements added primarily to control the matrix microstructure, having
only a small effect upon the solidification microstructure.

• Two important mechanisms contribute to strengthening by alloying in the as-cast

grades of gray iron, pearlite refinement (pearlite spacing gets smaller as a result of
the alloy depressing the pearlite reaction to lower temperatures) and solid solution
strengthening of the ferrite.

• As an example, an addition of 0.5% molybdenum to gray cast iron will increase

the tensile strength by about 35–50 MPa for all values of CE.
 PROPERTIES & SPECIFICATIONS OF CAST IRONS

Most common characteristics and typical applications for the various types of CIs are given
below with their corresponding industry specifications.
 EXPERIMENT NO – 3

Name of the Experiment: Micro study of Cast Irons

Objective:
To study the microconstituents present in the microstructures of specimens provided.

Specimen: White CI, Gray CI, Malleable CI, Dutile CI, Brass

Procedure:
1. Obtain the specimens of cast iron and brass from the instructor. Polish the specimen
according to the procedures as used in the first experiment.
2. Examine the specimens under the microscope, both etched and unetched conditions,
using a magnification of X400. Reproduce the microstructure, labeling all micro
constituents carefully and neatly.
3. Complete the report by answering the following questions:
a) Indicate the difference, silicon and manganese contents between malleable
and ductile cast irons.
b) Why cast irons are used as raw material for producing malleable irons?
c) Discuss what happens during first, second and third stages of
malleabilizing heat treatment.
d) Why is bull’s eye structure produced?
e) Indicate the functions of magnesium in producing ductile iron.
f) Why desulphurization treatment is necessary during ductile iron
production?
g) Summarize a comparison between malleable and ductile irons about their
quality. What is the range of carbon percentage in cast irons? Why those
materials are named as cast irons?
h) How cast irons are usually classified?
i) Which is the predominant constituent in grey cast iron?
j) Why graphite flakes are observed in unetched conditions?
k) Which properties of grey cast irons are attributed respectively by the
matrix and graphite flakes?
l) Why white cast irons are not used as structural materials? Name some
applications of white cast irons.
DATA SHEET

Microstructure of ………………………………… showing grains of………………...

and ………………….. Etched in …………………….Magnification …………………

Microstructure of ………………………………… showing grains of………………...

and ………………….. Etched in …………………….Magnification …………………

Microstructure of ………………………………… showing grains of………………...

and ………………….. Etched in …………………….Magnification …………………
 Heat treatment of Steel

Heat treatment is a process that uses controlled heating and cooling to modify the crystalline
structure of metals and metal alloys. Depending on the material and treatment process, heat
treating can provide numerous benefits, including enhanced hardness, increased temperature
resistance, greater ductility, and improved material strength. Heat treatments are a critical
aspect of metal fabrication processes, as they allow the materials to gain desirable physical
and mechanical properties without altering the shape of the product.

Carbon steel is an incredibly versatile material, and its properties can be altered. The
material does have its limitations, including:

• Limited hardness, tensile strength, and hardness in its untreated form

• Poor oxidation resistance
• Cracking and distortion caused by drastic quenching
• Can undergo softening at high temperatures
• Large sections are difficult to harden

These limitations make steel unsuitable for specific applications in its untreated form. By
adding carbon and using heat treatment, these properties can be altered within limits,
creating a more robust and durable product.

Methods of Heat-Treatment

Hardening

When steel with a medium to high carbon content is subjected to heat treatment, it can be
hardened. Depending on steel’s carbon content, they can be heated to specific temperatures
(780 oC to 850 oC) and then quenched in oil or water to cool them quickly. The higher the carbon
content, the lower the temperature needed to harden the metal. This temperature is also known
as the “austenitic crystal phase”.

This process alters the crystal structures within the metal, forming cementite (otherwise known
as iron carbide), a hard, brittle material that is classified as ceramic in its pure form. Cementite
has an orthorhombic crystal structure and is 6.67% carbon and 93.3% iron by weight.
Annealing

Annealing changes a metal's properties by altering and realigning the grain structure using heat,
making the metal softer and more ductile. In this process, the steel is heated to just above its re-
crystallization point, allowing it to cool slowly. A full anneal involves leaving the metal to cool
in the furnace itself.

Normalizing

When heating the metal to a point higher than that of the annealing process and allowing it to
air cool, the grain structure stresses can be removed. Normalizing steel gives the structure more
stability and the metal can be prepared for other processes.

Tempering

Steel can be made more malleable by “tempering” it. This involves heating the metal to a
predetermined temperature which depends on the level of malleability required. Tempering
takes away a small amount of hardness from the steel.

Quenching

Quenching refers to the rapid cooling of hot metal using oil or water. This sets the steel, making
it hard but brittle. Steel is heated and quenched several times, creating a tough product that will
ensure it is strong enough to support buildings, bridges, and any other structure it may be used
in.

Annealing, quenching, and tempering are generally always used in the heat treatment of steel.
 EXPERIMENT NO – 4

Name of the Experiment: Heat treatment of steels-1 (Annealing)

Objective:
• To understand the reasons for heat treating steels, the ways of doing it, and to study the
nature and type of resultant microconstituents that influence the properties of heat-
treated steels.

• To compare the microstructure of specimens before and after annealing.

Procedure:
1. Obtain a specimen of steel from the instructor for heat treatment.
2. Observe the heat-treating furnace, the method of heating and measuring temperature
used.
3. Study the ingredients and observe the method of producing the mixture that is to be
used to control the furnace atmosphere.
4. Observe the method of packing the sample in heat treatment box and then charging
into the furnace.
5. Observe the programming or setting up the temperature and time for heating, holding
and cooling cycles of heat treatment.
6. Observe the method of cooling of sample during each heat treatment process.
7. Take the heat-treated sample and grind and polish it as before to study its
microstructure.
8. Draw the representative microstructure of the heat-treated steel and label it.

9. Preserve your heat-treated samples by labelling them for future experimental use.
10. Complete the report by answering the following questions:
a. Why an accurate temperature measurement in heat treatment process is important?
b. Which equipment is used in your experiment to measure temperature? Name three
other temperature measuring devices.
c. Describe the function of each ingredient used to prepare the heat treatment
mixture.
d. List the names of some common defects that you may find in heat treated steel
sample.
e. Indicate the purposes of annealing.
f. Indicate the proper annealing temperatures of mild steel and a file steel sample.
DATA SHEET

Microstructure of steel sample before annealing showing ...................................... and

………………………..Etched in………………………Magnification………………...

Microstructure of annealed steel sample showing ................................................. and

………………………..Etched in………………………Magnification………………...
 EXPERIMENT NO – 5

Name of the Experiment: Heat Treatment of Steels-2 (Normalizing)

Objective:
• To understand the principles of normalizing operations of steel, the methods of
doing it, and to study the nature and type of resultant micro constituents that
influence the properties of heat-treated steels.

• To compare microconstituents of specimens before and after normalizing.

Procedure:
1. Obtain a specimen of steel from the instructor for heat treatment.
2. Observe the programming or setting up the temperature and time for heating,
holding and cooling cycles of normalizing treatment.

3. Take the heat-treated samples and grind and polish them as before to study
their microstructures.
4. Draw the representative microstructures and label them.
5. Preserve your heat-treated samples by labelling them for future experimental use.

6. Complete the report by answering the following questions:

a) Indicate the purposes of normalizing.

b) Indicate the proper normalizing temperatures of mild steel and a file steel
sample.
c) Write down the differences between annealing and normalizing.
DATA SHEET

Microstructure of steel sample before normalizing showing..................................... and

………………………..Etched in………………………Magnification………………...

Microstructure of normalized steel sample showing ............................................. and

………………………..Etched in………………………Magnification………………...

Microstructure of annealed steel sample showing ................................................. and

………………………..Etched in………………………Magnification………………...
 EXPERIMENT NO – 6

Name of the Experiment: Heat Treatment of Steels-3 (Hardening and Tempering)

Objective:
• To understand the principles of hardening and quenching operations of steel,
the methods of doing it, and to study the nature and type of resultant micro
constituents that influence the properties of heat-treated steels.

• To compare microconstituents of specimens before and after hardening and

quenching.

Procedure:

1. Obtain a specimen of steel from the instructor for heat treatment.

2. Observe the programming or setting up the temperature and time for heating,
holding and cooling cycles of hardening treatment.
3. Observe the method of quenching of sample after hardening.
4. Take one hardened sample and temper it at the temperature indicated.
5. Take the heat-treated samples and grind and polish them as before to study
their microstructures.
6. Preserve your heat-treated samples by labelling them for future experimental use.
7. Draw the representative microstructures and label them.
8. Complete the report by answering the following questions:
i. What is the principle reason of hardening a steel sample?
ii. Indicate why low carbon steels are not hardened?
iii. List the salient features of martensitic transformation.
iv. Why tempering is necessary after heat treatment?
v. What happens to the hardened structure during tempering?
vi. If you want to retain a maximum hardness, what should be the proper
tempering temperature?
DATA SHEET

Microstructure of steel sample before hardening showing ....................................... and

………………………..Etched in………………………Magnification………………...

Microstructure of hardened steel sample showing ................................................. and

………………………..Etched in………………………Magnification………………...

Microstructure of tempered steel sample showing ................................................ and

………………………..Etched in………………………Magnification………………...
 EXPERIMENT NO – 7

Name of the Experiment: Hardness Test of Metal Specimen

Objectives:
• To determine the Brinell and Rockwell Hardness numbers of specimens.
• To compare the hardness of the specimens based upon understanding of
the microstructure.

Specimen: Initial specimens developed earlier in different experiments

Machine: The Brooks Model MAT 10/RAB Hardness Tester (using 15

Rockwell Hardness Scales or Brinell Test with 187.5 kg load).

Figure: Brooks Model MAT 10/RAB Hardness Tester

Procedure:

• For the material to be tested, first choose the appropriate hardness scale 9 from
the knowledge of previous experience) and the corresponding indenter.
• Select the color of the scale from the table (Rockwell-Hardness Scale) as
per the selected indenter and note the corresponding load in Kgf.

• Place the lever at ‘A’ position of the tester.

• Set the load on the scale.

• Place the specimen on the anvil.

• Apply the minor or pre-load of 10 Kgf by turning the hand-wheel clockwise.

• Apply the major load gradually by taking the lever from position ‘A’ to
position ‘B’.

• When the pointer of the dial gauge reached steady position, remove the major
load by returning the lever gradually from position ‘A’ to position ‘B’.

• For the Rockwell test, we get the value of reading directly from the dial gauge

• Relate the result with the Rockwell Hardness Scale (Rockwell Hardness Scale
and obtain the required result.

• Turn back the hand-wheel and remove the specimen. Repeat the same
procedure for further specimens.

• For Brinell test, measure the diameter of penetration with the help of Brinell
Microscope.

• Determine the Brinell hardness number by using the conversion scale

(Hardness Conversion Chart). Before using the conversion chart, carefully read
the instructions mentioned below the Hardness Conversion Chart.