ADJUVANTS

OILS, SURFACTANTS AND OTHER ADDITIVES FOR

FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION

Revised September 2019

A NATIONAL REFERENCE MANUAL

grdc.com.au
Title: ADJUVANTS – OILS, SURFACTANTS AND OTHER ADDITIVES FOR FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION –
REVISED 2019 EDITION
Project Code: ICN00023
Authors: Edited by Mark Congreve (Independent Consultants Australia Network).
With previous input from Andrew Somervaille (Jubilee Consulting), Graham Betts (AskGB), Bill Gordon (Bill Gordon
Consulting), Vicki Green (formerly Conservation Farmers Inc), Michael Burgis (formerly Conservation Farmers Inc) and
Protech Consulting.
Cover photos: Evan Collis Photography.
Photographers: Mark Congreve (ICAN) and Evan Collis Photography.
First published 2001
Revised November 2014
Reprinted May 2018
Revised September 2019
© Grains Research and Development Corporation September 2019.
All Rights Reserved
This publication is copyright. Except as permitted under the Australian Copyright Act 1968 (Commonwealth) and subsequent
amendments, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
otherwise, without the specific permission of the copyright owner.
Enquiries: John Cameron, Independent Consultants Australia Network Pty Limited, PH: (+61) 02 9482 4930 [email protected]
This document should be cited as: Congreve, M. and Cameron, J. (eds) (2019). Adjuvants - Oils, surfactants and other additives for
farm chemicals used in grain production - Revised 2019 edition. GRDC publication, Australia.
ISBN 978-1-921779-92-3 (print) 978-1-921779-91-6 (online copy)
Contact details:
Ms Maureen Cribb – Publishing Manager
GRDC
PO Box 5367 KINGSTON ACT 2604
PH: 02 6166 4500
Email: [email protected]
Web: www.grdc.com.au
This report can be downloaded from the GRDC’s website. Go to: https://grdc.com.au/AdjuvantsBooklet and copies are also
available from GroundCover Direct on Freephone 1800 11 0044 (Quote Order Code GRDC210).

DISCLAIMER: This publication has been prepared in good faith on the basis of information available at the date of publication.
Neither the Grains Research and Development Corporation or Independent Consultants Australia Network Pty Limited or
other participating organisations guarantee or warrant the accuracy, reliability, completeness or currency of information in this
publication nor its usefulness in achieving any purpose.
Readers are responsible for assessing the relevance and accuracy of the content of this publication. Neither the Grains Research
and Development Corporation or Independent Consultants Australia Network Pty Limited or other participating organisations will
be liable for any loss, damage, cost or expense incurred or arising by reason of any person using or relying on the information in
this publication.
Products may be identified by proprietary or trade names to help readers identify particular types of products but this is not, and is
not intended to be, an endorsement or recommendation of any product or manufacturer referred to. Other products may perform
as well or better than those specifically mentioned.
CAUTION: Research on unregistered agrichemical use.
Any research with unregistered agrichemical or of unregistered products reported in this manual does not constitute a
recommendation for that particular use by the authors or the authors organisations.
All agrichemical applications must be made in accordance with the currently registered label for that particular agrichemical, crop,
weed and region.
® Registered trademark

2 ADJUVANTS - OILS, SURFACTANTS AND OTHER ADDITIVES FOR FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION
Table of contents

FOREWORD 5
1. BACKGROUND 6
WHAT ARE ADJUVANTS? 6
CLASSIFICATION OF ADJUVANTS 6
HOW DO ADJUVANTS WORK? 6
I. MODIFYING HOW CHEMICAL COMPONENTS OR PRODUCTS INTERACT IN THE SPRAY TANK 6
II. MODIFYING HOW A PRODUCT INTERACTS WITH THE TARGET SURFACE 9
III. MODIFYING HOW A PRODUCT MOVES INTO THE TARGET 9
2. MAJOR ADJUVANT GROUPS 11
SURFACTANTS 11
OILS 12
ACIDIFIERS AND BUFFERS 13
FERTILISER ADJUVANTS 13
3. ADJUVANTS FOR HERBICIDES 15
ACCase INHIBITORS (GROUP A) 15
ALS INHIBITORS (GROUP B) 15
PSII INHIBITORS (GROUP C) 16
MICROTUBULE ASSEMBLY INHIBITORS (GROUP D) 17
PDS INHIBITORS (GROUP F) 17
PPO INHIBITORS (GROUP G) 17
HPPD INHIBITORS (GROUP H) 17
SYNTHETIC AUXINS (GROUP I) 18
LIPID SYNTHESIS INHIBITORS (GROUP J) 19
VLCFA INHIBITORS (GROUP K) 19
PSI INHIBITORS (BIPYRIDYLS) (GROUP L) 19
GLYPHOSATE (GROUP M) 19
GLUFOSINATE (GROUP N) 21
FLAMPROP-M-METHYL (GROUP Z) 21
4. ADJUVANTS FOR INSECTICIDES 22
CARBAMATES (GROUP 1A) 22
ORGANOPHOSPHATES (GROUP 1B) 22
PHENYLPYRAZOLES (GROUP 2B) 22
SYNTHETIC PYRETHROIDS (GROUP 3A) 23

ADJUVANTS - OILS, SURFACTANTS AND OTHER ADDITIVES FOR FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION 3
 NEONICOTINOIDS (GROUP 4A) 23
SULFOXIMINES (GROUP 4C) 23
SPINOSYNS (GROUP 5) 23
AVERMECTINS (GROUP 6) 23
PYMETROZINE (GROUP 9B) 23
BIOLOGICAL INSECTICIDES (GROUP 11A & 11B) 23
DISRUPTORS OF ATP FORMATION (GROUP 12A) 24
OXADIAZINES (GROUP 22A) 24
DIAMIDES (GROUP 28) 24
NUCLEAR POLYHEDROSIS VIRUS (NOT GROUPED) 25
5. ADJUVANTS FOR FUNGICIDES 26
BENZIMIDAZOLES (GROUP 1) 26
DICARBOXIMIDES (GROUP 2) 26
DEMETHYLATION INHIBITORS (GROUP 3) 26
SPIROXAMINE (GROUP 5) 27
SUCCINATE DEHYDROGENASE INHIBITORS (GROUP 7) 27
STROBILURINS (GROUP 11) 27
QUINOXYFEN (GROUP 13) 28
MULTI-SITE FUNGICIDES (GROUP M) 28
6. ADJUVANTS FOR DEFOLIANTS AND GROWTH REGULATORS 29
DEFOLIANTS 29
PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS 29
7. ADJUVANTS FOR FOLIAR NUTRIENTS 30
8. MORE INFORMATION – SPRAYING AND MIXING 31
PESTICIDE APPLICATION 31
BEST PRACTICE SPRAY DRIFT MANAGEMENT 31
WATER QUALITY 32
MIXING ORDER 36
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS 40
GLOSSARY OF TERMS 42
REFERENCES 44

4 ADJUVANTS - OILS, SURFACTANTS AND OTHER ADDITIVES FOR FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION
FOREWORD

Spray adjuvants are used within formulations and in

tank mixes to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of
agricultural chemical application. The Grains Research
and Development Corporation (GRDC) has developed this
publication to equip consultants, agronomists and growers
with a greater understanding of adjuvant attributes and
their properties.
Annual worldwide spray adjuvant sales are currently
estimated to be worth more than $1.5 billion. In Australia
alone, more than 400 branded products are currently
registered for use as spray adjuvants, surfactants or wetting
agents and these products have more than 30 different
“active ingredients” providing different functions for enhanced
agricultural chemical or nutrient efficacy.
The publication is divided into three main sections a) the
major adjuvant groups b) adjuvants for the main groups and
sub groups of agricultural chemicals and c) question and
answers. In addition to these, the booklet provides tips and
tactics on spraying, the effect of adjuvants on spray droplet
quality, how to manage water quality and a quick guide to
which agricultural chemicals need adjuvants and which
do not.
By providing more information on adjuvants, and under what
circumstances they are best used, will improve agricultural
chemical application and efficacy leading to enduring
profitability for the Australian grain grower
The GRDC would like to acknowledge the expert assistance
of agricultural consultants and industry experts Mark
Congreve Independent Consultants Australia Network,
Andrew Somerville, Graham Betts, Bill Gordon, Vicki Green
and Protech Consulting in compiling this publication or
previous editions.

Steve Jefferies
Managing Director
Grains Research and Development Corporation
www.grdc.com.au

ADJUVANTS - OILS, SURFACTANTS AND OTHER ADDITIVES FOR FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION 5
1. BACKGROUND

Annual worldwide spray adjuvant sales are currently

estimated to be worth more than $1.5 billion. A significant GLOSSARY OF TERMS
part of this estimate represents the value of adjuvants built
into pesticide formulations. But many millions of dollars are To help understand the terms used in describing the
also spent on stand-alone products retailed as adjuvants, types and functions of spray adjuvants, a glossary of
surfactants and wetting agents. terms and definitions, based on standard terminology
relating to agricultural tank mix adjuvants developed
In Australia, more than 400 branded products are registered by the American Society for Testing of Materials, is
for use as spray adjuvants (208), surfactants (72) or wetting provided on page 42.
agents (165) (APVMA Pubcris). These include about 30
different ‘active ingredients’, some of which are combined in
individual products to provide different functions.
How do adjuvants work?
While there are many adjuvants available for use with
farm chemicals, a much smaller number of products are Adjuvants work at three levels in the application of farm
recommended by the manufacturers or distributors of chemicals.
farm chemicals. 1. Modifying how chemical components or products interact
This can cause some confusion particularly where there are in the spray tank
a large number of branded products providing identical – or 2. Modifying how a product interacts with the target surface
near to identical – active constituents.
3. Modifying how a product moves into the target
Adjuvants are used in a variety of farm chemicals,
including herbicides, fungicides, insecticides and growth
regulator products. 1. Modifying how chemical components or
In recent years, the major growth area in the use of adjuvants
products interact in the spray tank
has been with herbicides. There has been an economic The two most common properties influenced by adjuvant
incentive to optimise effectiveness of the more expensive products when included in the spray mix are emulsification/
herbicides, under a wide range of conditions. compatibility and the subsequent effect on droplet size.
Emulsifiers/compatibility agents are usually surfactants
What are adjuvants? that enable active and inert materials to co-exist in a stable
solution. These products are normally factory fitted into the
An adjuvant is any material that, when added to a spray formulation and are particularly important in formulations
solution, enhances or modifies the action of a pesticide. Many where the active ingredient is insoluble in water.
adjuvants are included (or ‘factory-fitted’) in the formulations
of various products to facilitate the stability and functionality
of the active ingredient(s) in a spray solution.
In addition to adjuvants in-built into formulations, users are
keenly interested in those adjuvants that can be added to the
spray solution on-farm to help get the most out of their dollars
spent on spraying programs.

Classification of adjuvants Figure 1a: How oil and water solutions can be made to mix
using emulsifying adjuvants
The most useful classification of adjuvants is by chemical
group with the adjuvants divided into the broad categories Without an emulsifier, the addition of an oil-based formulation
of surfactants, oils, acidifiers and buffers, fertiliser adjuvants to water in the spray tank will see the formulation settle to
and ‘others’. the top of the spray tank (top image). When an emulsifier is
included (bottom image) the pesticide formulation can remain
An alternative classification can be made on the basis of suspended in the water.
spray adjuvant function. This can be confusing since some
adjuvants may have more than one function (for example, Matching the correct choice of adjuvant to the pesticide can
spreader and buffer). be challenging as it can be influenced by many factors, i.e.
the chemical properties of both the pesticide and the target

6 ADJUVANTS - OILS, SURFACTANTS AND OTHER ADDITIVES FOR FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION
 esters, Group A, C & G herbicide, glyphosate, paraquat, glufosinate,
Best suited to
many fungicides and contact insecticides salt/amine & soluble liquid formulations

Spray oils Crop oil concentrates NIS & LI-700®

Adjuvant
type (2-5% surfactant) (15-20% surfactant) type surfactants

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Lipophilic (oil soluble) Water dispersible Hydrophilic (water soluble)
HLB value
anti-foam wetter/spreader detergents
water in oil emulsifier oil in water emulsifier

no dispersion unstable milky translucent to clear dispersion

Appearance
in water dispersion

poor dispersion stable milky dispersion clear solution

Figure 1b: Hydrophilic-lipophilic balance and adjuvant type (Adapted from: Wikipedia, 2019; Hess, 1999).

surface and the role that the adjuvant is required to undertake Figure 1c: Using high speed
(e.g. mixing in water, spreading on the leaf, penetrating the photography, various
cuticle). For these reasons, it is common to find that a blend of droplet formation patterns
adjuvants is often built into pesticide formulations. depending on nozzle type,
spray pressure and spray
Hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB) is a measure of the
mixture are illustrated.
relative contribution of the hydrophilic and lipophilic
component of the adjuvant.. It can have a distinct influence
on the performance of adjuvants with different pesticides.
Both the type and size of the hydrophilic (water soluble)
and lipophilic (oil soluble) components of a surfactant may
influence droplet spread, droplet bounce, evaporation and
pesticide absorption. The pesticide needs to be able to be AI110015_5bar_1%Roundup®CT
solubilised in the adjuvant so generally it is more effective to
match a lipophilic adjuvant with a lipophilic pesticide and vice
versa (Figure 1b).
It is common for more than one pesticide to be tank mixed at
application. Different pesticides may have different adjuvant
requirements, meaning a compromise is often required. For
this reason, adjuvants such as crop oil concentrates (COCs),
(particularly those with a high surfactant load) are often
popular for many herbicides that are likely to be tank mixed.
There are a number of adjuvants which, when combined with
pesticides, alter the surface tension properties of the solution.
AI110015_5bar_0.1%Agral® TT11002_2.8bar_1%Roundup®CT
For example, adjuvants which increase the surface tension of
solutions will tend to reduce the atomisation of sprays which
alters the spectrum of spray droplets formed.
A coarser spray can be achieved by increasing the viscosity
of the spray mix. This results in an upward shift of the
droplet spectrum to reduce driftable ‘fines’. Commercially
available drift retardant products often include long chain
polymers or gums that increase the viscosity of the spray
mix. Some studies have found that some of these polymers
may be subjected to shearing (breaking droplets into smaller
droplets) following multiple passes through a sprayer pump,
as would occur in a normal bypass, or the hydraulic mixing in
common agricultural sprayers (Zhu et al., 1997). Gums are not AI110015_5bar_Water XR11002_2.8bar_1%Roundup®CT
sheared as easily as the long chain polymers. Some types
Some adjuvants by their nature increase atomisation,
of polymers (e.g. polyethylene oxide) are sheared in fewer
e.g. surfactants, which reduce surface tension, increase
passes through a pump than other types of polymers (e.g.
the tendency of droplets to break up in the process
polyacrylamides).
of atomisation.
Although drift retardants are generally effective in reducing
This property varies with different surfactants and
the number of driftable fines, in most cases users are better
concentrations so that there may be an apparent variation
off using the appropriate nozzle, operating the sprayer at low
in the tendency of a spray solution to ‘drift’ under a given
pressure to obtain the desired droplet size and spraying when
set of conditions, depending on the surfactant type and the
the environmental conditions are right.
concentration present in the spray solution.

ADJUVANTS - OILS, SURFACTANTS AND OTHER ADDITIVES FOR FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION 7
 A GRDC study (Figure 1e) conducted by the Centre for
Pesticide Application and Safety (CPAS) at its wind tunnel
facility at University of Queensland, Gatton, evaluated the
droplet spectrum produced by a range of adjuvant and fallow
herbicide combinations across three different nozzle types
(all 110-02 (yellow) nozzle size, operating at 4 bar pressure):
■ Turbo TeeJet® (TT) - fine end of medium
■ Air Induction Extended Range TeeJet® (AIXR) - coarse end
of medium
■ Turbo TeeJet® Induction (TTI) - ultra coarse.
As can be seen from the graph below, the selection of nozzle
type has the greatest impact on the percentage of driftable
fine droplets produced.
The addition of ammonium sulphate (AMS and Kombo® type
products) typically had minimal effect on droplet size, where it
was not mixed with an additional surfactant.
Adjuvants that contain significant levels of surfactant
(BS1000®, LI-700®, Liberate®, Hasten®) all increased the
volume of spray present as droplets <150 micron with the
finest of the nozzles tested (Turbo Teejet). As the nozzles
became coarser, this effect diminished.
The guar gum-based adjuvant Dead Sure® consistently
provided a reduction in volume of droplets <150 micron across
Figure 1d: The images above show how two adjuvants with
all the various nozzles and herbicides tested.
the same nozzle set-up and environmental conditions can
result in completely different characteristics of the spray A wide range of herbicide combinations were also tested in
solution. Droplet size is changed causing drift and less this study (data for all herbicides and combinations grouped
product reaching its target. The top image is a spray solution in the graph below). Generally, solvent-based herbicides
with the surfactant LI-700® at 250 ml/100L while the bottom (such as emulsifiable concentrates) or herbicides with in-built
image is Chem-wett 1000 at 200 ml/100L. surfactant tended to slightly increase the volume of droplets
<150 micron, however, the effect of herbicides was typically
third in order of importance behind selection of nozzle type
and adjuvant, respectively.

35

30
% driftable fine droplets (<150 micron)

25

20

15

10

0
TT 110-02 AIXR 110-02 TTI 110-02

Water Herbicide/s only AMS AMS + LI-700® AMS + Hasten® BS1000®

Dead Sure® Hasten® Kombo® LI-700® Liberate®

Figure 1e: Effect of adjuvant type on the volume of ‘driftable fine’ droplets (volume mean diameter (VMD) less than 150 micron)
produced by three different nozzles.

8 ADJUVANTS - OILS, SURFACTANTS AND OTHER ADDITIVES FOR FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION
Adjuvants may also modify the evaporation of spray droplets increase potential for spray drift, retention on leaf surfaces
as they are released. As droplets containing surfactants or (particularly on ‘difficult to hit’ targets such as narrow, upright
oils are released into the atmosphere, evaporation of the leaves of small grasses) is improved. These smaller droplets
spray droplet continues until the surface tension of the droplet have less velocity, there is increased movement through
‘skin’ prevents further evaporation. the canopy and lower impact energy when contacting the
Medium and large size droplets are more likely to reach the leaf surface.
target under the influence of gravity, compared to droplets Decreased surface tension and increased spreading does
that are initially very small (or evaporate to a small size), not always equate to improved herbicide performance. The
which makes them more vulnerable to the influence of opposite trend (improved weed control with reduced droplet
air movement. spreading) may occur in some situations. For example,
hydrophilic herbicides (e.g. glyphosate) that are slow to
2. Modifying how a product interacts with penetrate the leaf can benefit from a larger droplet that
doesn’t spread and is slower to evaporate, by allowing
the target surface increased time in a semi-liquid state on the leaf surface.
The most common way of modifying the interaction of spray
droplets and the target surface is by altering the surface 3. Modifying how a product moves into
tension of the droplet.
the target
Droplets with a high surface tension will be more likely to
bounce off target surfaces while those with a lower surface Uptake of pesticides across a target surface is complex, and
tension will tend to collapse and spread on contact and be often involves more than one pathway.
retained on the leaf surface (Figure 1c). For example, with a hydrophilic herbicide such as glyphosate,
Surfactants lower the surface tension of the spray droplet by some movement of the active ingredient is due to a simple
moving to the surface where they form a ‘micelle’ layer. process of diffusion across the leaf cuticle (Figure 1g). Diffusion
appears to be improved when the spray deposit is retained
Surface tension decreases until the surfactant concentration in a semi-liquid state by increasing the period of uptake,
reaches a point known as the Critical Micelle Concentration so adjuvants that delay the drying of spray deposits often
(CMC). At this point, addition of more surfactant does not improve control.
decrease surface tension further, though enhancement
of pesticides (particularly herbicides) may continue with Lipophilic pesticides (for example many contact insecticides,
additional surfactant (Hess, 1999). Group F & G herbicides and herbicides formulated as esters)
will find it easier/faster to enter through the waxy cuticle
Reducing surface tension to as low a level as possible via diffusion.
may not always be beneficial. Droplets may run off the
target surface as droplets coalesce (due to very low surface Certain adjuvants (in particular oils and ‘penetrating’
tension or where a high volume application causes droplets surfactants) may also increase the uptake of pesticides across
to run together). a plant or insect cuticle, by physically disrupting or dissolving
the waxy surface. For enhanced pesticide entry via this
pathway the pesticide needs to be soluble in the adjuvant.
Correspondingly, a lipophilic adjuvant will work best with a
lipophilic pesticide and a hydrophilic adjuvant will assist a
(a) hydrophilic pesticide.
(b)
This cuticle-disrupting property of some adjuvants may
heighten the injury to the target crop. Faster entry, or greater
Figure 1f: Contact angle of droplet on a difficult-to-wet leaf total volume of pesticide entering the leaf, may result in
surface without (a) and with (b) surfactants (Source: Devine et al., higher quantities of pesticide requiring metabolism by the
1993 adapted by Hall, 1999). crop. If this process cannot occur fast enough, crop damage
may be seen in some situations. In addition, the disruption
As well as affecting droplet spread, surface tension can to cell membranes associated with certain crop oils when
influence the formation of spray droplets, rate of evaporation exposed to heat or ultra-violet light on leaf surfaces, can
and retention on sprayed surfaces. result in phytotoxicity to some crops, even in the absence of
any pesticide.
Dynamic surface tension is the measure of how quickly
surfactants migrate to the surface of the droplet at the point of
impact. Unlike static surface tension (measured after a spray
droplet has been deposited on a surface for a period of time),
dynamic surface tension can decrease at concentrations
greater than the CMC.
Recent evidence has shown that the effects of adjuvants
on post-emergent herbicide performance are due more to Cell wall
dynamic surface tension than static surface tension. Retention
of sprayed solutions on a target is usually at an optimum
when surfactant levels are well above the CMC, particularly if
the surface is hairy.
Decreasing the surface tension of a solution will result in a Figure 1g: Cross section of a leaf surface with spray droplet
decrease in the size of spray droplets produced by a nozzle. on surface. The waxy surface acts as a barrier to water
Many non-ionic surfactants may do this. While this may droplet penetration (Source: Rochecouste, 2004).

ADJUVANTS - OILS, SURFACTANTS AND OTHER ADDITIVES FOR FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION 9
Once inside the leaf, uptake across the cell wall and
plasmalemma (cell membrane) may occur via diffusion,
ion transfer or be facilitated by an electrochemical
transport system, depending upon the pesticide involved.
Ammonium-based spray adjuvants have been shown to
assist in ion transfer when used with some weak acid
herbicides e.g. glyphosate.

For more information on herbicide entry through

the plant cuticle refer to the GRDC publication
‘Understanding post-emergent herbicide weed
control in Australian farming systems’ chapter
4.3.2. https://grdc.com.au/understanding-post-
emergent-herbicide-weed-control

TO SUM UP
■ Adjuvants are products added to a spray solution that
enhance or modify the action of a pesticide.
■ Adjuvants can be classified according to their function or
chemical grouping.
■ Adjuvants can have a variety of functions such as
spreading, wetting and/or modifying leaf surface, droplet
formation or droplet behaviour.
■ While there are many types of spray adjuvants, they can
be conveniently categorised as surfactants, oils, acidifiers/
buffers and fertiliser adjuvants.

10 ADJUVANTS - OILS, SURFACTANTS AND OTHER ADDITIVES FOR FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION
2. MAJOR ADJUVANT GROUPS

Surfactants Table 2a: Surfactant types according to

Surfactants make up by far the largest group of spray electrical charge on thehydrophilic group.
adjuvants.
Surfactant Charge on Hydrophilic group
The primary role of surfactants is to act at the surface of type hydrophilic group examples
a droplet to reduce surface tension. This assists dispersal
Sulphate
of many pesticides in the spray tank, while also aiding the
droplet to spread over the leaf surface. Surfactants are made Sulphonate
up of two functional parts – a hydrophilic polar group or Ether sulphate
‘water loving’ structure (head) attached to a lipophilic long
Anionic Negative Ether phosphate
chain hydrocarbon group or ‘fat loving’ component (tail)
(Figure 2a). Ether sulfosuccinate
Ether carboxylate
Carboxylate
Primary ammonium
Secondary ammonium
Cationic Positive
Tertiary ammonium
Quaternary ammonium
Amine oxide
Amphoteric Positive and negative Betaine
Amino carboxylate
Figure 2a: Interaction of hydrophilic and lipophilic parts of a
surfactant to reduce surface tension and spread the droplet Polyoxyethylene (ethoxylate)
(Source: Hall et al, 1999). Acetylenic
Surfactants are often classified on the basis of the Non ionic No charge Monoethanolamine
electrical charge carried by the hydrophilic group (Table Diethanolamine
2a). Surfactants may be anionic (negative charge), cationic
Polyglucoside
(positive charge), amphoteric (carry both positive and negative
charge) or non-ionic (no charge).
hydrocarbon base comprising the lipophilic component of
The lipophilic tail is derived from natural or petrochemical
fatty alcohols, alkylphenols, fatty amine or sorbitan esters
feedstocks. Lipophilic groups include:
attached to an ethylene oxide (EO) or ethylene + propylene
■ Alkylbenzenes (PO) chain of varying length. Increasing the number of EO
or PO units increases the polarity (hydrophilicity) of the
■ Linear alkyls
surfactant.
■ Branched alkyls
In recent years, surfactants based on a trisiloxane-backbone
■ Linear alkyls, e.g. derived from plant and animal fats (organosilicones) have been developed with agricultural
applications.
■ Alkylphenyls, e.g. Nonylphenol
■ Polyoxypropylenes
■ Polysiloxanes
Non-ionic (having no net electrical charge) surfactants (NIS)
are widely used in agricultural applications, either added to
the pesticide formulation, supplied as a stand-alone adjuvant
or included in an adjuvant blend. Traditionally, these non-
ionic agricultural surfactants have a non-ionic head with a

ADJUVANTS - OILS, SURFACTANTS AND OTHER ADDITIVES FOR FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION 11
 Table 2b: Examples of common agricultural surfactants by chemical types.
Fatty amine Alkylaryl ethoxylates
Organo-silicones (tallow amine) Alcohol alkoxylates di-1-p menthene Soyal phospholipids
ethoxylates Nonyl phenol Octyl phenol

e.g. e.g. Many of the wetter Wetter 600 type Wetter 1040 or TX Spreader/stickers e.g.
Freeway Deluge® 1000 type products products type products e.g. Liberate®
Maxx® Gly Wetter plus e.g. e.g. e.g. Nu-Film
BS1000® Agral Trilogy Tru-Film 905
Surewet 1000 Shirwet® 600 Wetter 1040 TX

Organo-silicone plus Alcohol ethoxylate plus nonyl phenol

alcohol ethoxylate Many combination formulations exist.
e.g. Usually 1000g/L formulations.
Bond

Organo-silicone plus Fatty amine plus alcohol ethoxylate

latex Combination formulations exist.
e.g.
Designer®

A number of dry formulations utilise anionic surfactants (net Oils can also be used as carriers/bulking agents for ultra-low
negative electrical charge) built into the formulation to assist volume (ULV) spray applications in certain situations.
in dispersibility when added to the spray tank. Another group
Oils can be categorised on the basis of their origin (i.e.
occasionally represented as agricultural surfactants are
vegetable or petroleum base) and their formulation.
cationic surfactants (with a net positive electrical charge).
Petroleum based oils can be subdivided into those with
low (1-3%), medium (5%) and high (>15%) levels of added
Oils surfactant/emulsifier (often referred to as petroleum spray
Historically, oils were used for insect and weed control as oils, petroleum oil/surfactant blends and petroleum spray oil
well as anti-microbial agents before the development of concentrates respectively).
synthetic pesticides. The type and amount of surfactant used in a petroleum spray
As adjuvants, oils are used to: oil product can have a major effect on performance.

■ Enhance the penetration of systemic pesticides into plants Petroleum oils also vary in base oil composition, paraffin
and insects; content and the amount of unsulfonatable residue. These
properties influence viscosity and phytotoxicity.
■ Reduce evaporation of spray droplets after they leave the
sprayer; Some petroleum spray oils, e.g. Canopy®, contain additional
UV stabilisers which provide a degree of UV protection
■ Extend the active life of certain herbicides, insecticides for pesticides.
and fungicides on plant surfaces, by reducing the speed of
droplet drying. Vegetable oils are usually emulsified and may be categorised
according to their crop origin. In addition, plant-based oils

Table 2c: Examples of oil-based adjuvants and oil-surfactant blends commonly used in agricultural
applications by the amount and type of emulsifier added.
Petroleum Petroleum spray oil Multipurpose petroleum oil
spray oils plus surfactant Petroleum spray oil concentrates adjuvants providing
(1–3% emulsifier) (5% emulsifier) (>15% emulsifier) additional functions
e.g. e.g. e.g. e.g.
Ad-Here® (970 mL/L) D-C-Tron® Cotton (827 g/L) In-bound® (653 g/L + 217 g/L non-ionic fatty acid ethoxylates) Hot-Up® (190 g/L mineral oil + 340 g/L NIS + 140 g/L AMS)
Empower® (861 g/L) Cropshield® (838 g/L) Uptake® (582 g/L + 240 g/L alkoxylated alcohol NIS) Dead Sure® (358 g/L paraffinic oil + 47 g/L guar gum)
AntiEvap® (859 g/L)
Vegetable oils Vegetable oils Multipurpose vegetable oil adjuvants providing
(emulsified) (esterified and emulsified) additional functions
e.g. e.g. e.g.
Codacide® (860 g/L) Banjo® (725 g/L methyl esters of canola oil fatty acids) Outright® 770 (136 g/L vegetable oil ester + 334 g/L NIS blend + 300 g/L AMS)
Nexus® (865 g/L) Hasten® (704 g/L ethyl and methyl esters of canola oil + 196 g/L NIS) Kondemn® (139 g/L vegetable oil ester + 105 g/L NIS + 572 g/L AMS)
X-Seed® (85 5g/L) Kwickin® (704 g/L ethyl and methyl esters of canola oil + 196 g/L NIS)
NIS = non-ionic surfactant (unspecified)
AMS = ammonium sulphate
Oil adjuvants grouped in the various categories in the Table may not be necessarily identical in their composition or performance. Differences in qualities of the feedstock used
(e.g. hydrocarbon chain length); types of emulsifiers used and combination with other minor ingredients for example, can give rise to differences in performance.
Where pesticide labels specify a particular brand of adjuvant for use, the specified product should be used.

12 ADJUVANTS - OILS, SURFACTANTS AND OTHER ADDITIVES FOR FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION
may be esterified as well as emulsified (see Table 2c) to give solution to pH 7 or below are found on US product labels for
a much lower viscosity than the parent oil. As with petroleum dimethoate and carbaryl.
oils, the types of emulsifiers used can affect the properties of
Acidification of spray solutions may not always be helpful to
the formulated product and its phytotoxicity.
the activity of pesticides. Some products, for example some
Herbicides vary significantly in their response to various oil 2,4-D amine formulations, may ‘salt out’ or ‘gel’ at low pH.
adjuvants depending on their relative solubility in water or oil. Accelerated degradation of many sulfonylurea herbicides will
For example, glyphosate is hydrophilic and water soluble and also commence as the spray solution reduces below pH 5.
the addition of crop oils sometimes reduces its effectiveness.
In contrast, herbicides such as atrazine or clethodim and
most ester formulations are more lipophilic and are generally Fertiliser adjuvants
enhanced by the addition of oil adjuvants. Some ammonium-based fertiliser products have been
investigated as adjuvants with various herbicides. Rates are
Acidifiers and buffers generally 2% volume to volume (v/v) for liquid products or
1-2% weight to volume (w/v) for solid formulations.
Acidifiers are usually based on proprietary mixes of acids
Ammonium sulphate (AMS) has been shown to enhance
(primarily propionic but also phosphoric, carboxylic and
effectiveness of certain salt-based formulations of herbicides
others) or phosphate ester derivatives (Table 2d). Many
(e.g. glyphosate, 2,4-D, MCPA, picloram, bentazone,
acidifying adjuvants are formulated with a non-ionic surfactant
imazethapyr), however, only limited products such as
blend or plant-derived lipids (e.g. LI-700®).
glyphosate, imazethapyr and pyrasulfotole (when formulated
Certain weak acid herbicides applied in the salt form, as Precept®) have recommendations for the addition of
especially those with a dissociation constant (pKa) in the ammonium sulphate on manufacturers’ product labels.
range of 3-5, may benefit from being applied in an acidic But ammonium sulphate is often used with clethodim,
spray solution i.e. spray tank pH in the range of 4.5-6. For imidazolinone and phenoxy herbicides more generally.
example, the absorption and translocation of 2,4-D was
Liquid ammonium sulphate formulations are typically 417 to
greatly increased in some experimental studies (Ashton &
425 g/L formulations whereas spray-grade formulations are
Crafts, 1973) when applied at a pH below 6. This principle has
980g/kg formulations, milled to a particle size that enhances
led to many users wanting to acidify the spray tank before
quick dissolving in the spray tank. Prilled ammonium sulphate
adding many weak acid herbicides. However, acidification
is unsuitable as an adjuvant with glyphosate products
of the spray solution may result from adding certain of
because the aluminium used in the prilling process is
these acidic pesticides to the water, without any acidifying
antagonistic to glyphosate.
adjuvant. For example, glyphosate is an effective acidifier in
its own right when added to water of neutral or alkaline pH In recent years, combination adjuvants that contain AMS in a
and can normally reduce pH to around 5 (the optimal pH for liquid form along with a surfactant or oil + surfactant blends
glyphosate activity) without the addition of any acidifying are becoming more popular as multi-purpose adjuvants.
adjuvant, depending on the dilution rate.
Conditioning the spray water with AMS can enhance
Alkaline hydrolysis (degradation under alkaline conditions) performance by:
of certain insecticides, particularly organophosphates, is also
i) reducing antagonism between certain products (e.g. when
sometimes the basis for the use of acidifiers and buffers with
mixing atrazine and glyphosate)
these products. But much of the data showing extremely short
half-lives for active ingredients under alkaline conditions ii) reducing the formation of insoluble salts of some
is for the technical material rather than for the formulated herbicides (see “Conditioning ‘hard’ water withAMS” on the
product. Buffering capacity built into formulated products may following page), and
significantly reduce the effects of alkaline hydrolysis.
iii) free ammonium may assist weak acid herbicides cross
Currently, no Australian insecticide product labels specify the plasma membrane surrounding the cell (via a process
the use of buffering or acidifying agents to ensure product known as ion-trapping).
efficacy, although recommendations for buffering spray

Table 2d: Examples of acidifiers or buffers commonly used in agricultural applications.

Propionic acid-based adjuvants e.g.
LI-700® (350 g/L propionic acid + 350 g/L soyal phospholipids)
Buff-It (383 g/L propionic acid + 545 g/L non-ionic fatty acid ethoxylates + 192 g/L triethanolamine)
Phosphoric acid-based adjuvants e.g.
Primabuff® (375.1 g/L phosphoric acid derivatives + 266.2 g/L nonoxinol-9)
Quatrabuff (375.1 g/L phosphoric acid derivatives + 266.2 g/L nonyl phenol ethoxylate)
Carboxylic acid-based adjuvants e.g.
Ag-buffer 550 (350 g/l aliphatic carboxylic acid + 200 g/L NIS)
Kombo 950 (150 g/kg carboxylic acid + 800 g/kg AMS)
Phosphate ester-based adjuvants e.g.
Agri-Buffa® (430 g/L phosphate esters of polyalkylene oxide derivative + 100 g/L polyalkylene oxide derived of synthetic alcohols)
Triad (290 g/L phosphate esters of alcohol ethoxylate + 550 g/L alcohol ethoxylate)
NIS = non-ionic surfactant (unspecified)
AMS = ammonium sulphate

ADJUVANTS - OILS, SURFACTANTS AND OTHER ADDITIVES FOR FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION 13
US research has shown that reduction in efficacy of clethodim TO SUM UP
by sodium bicarbonate in spray solution is effectively
overcome by the addition of a crop oil concentrate plus ■ Surfactants and oils make up the two largest groups of
ammonium sulphate (McMullan, 1994). spray adjuvants.
■ Surfactants (surface acting agents) are made up of ‘water
loving’ (hydrophilic) and ‘fat loving’ (lipophilic) parts.
Conditioning ‘hard’ water
■ Surfactants may be cationic (having a positive charge),
with AMS anionic (having a negative charge) or non-ionic (having no
The most common use of AMS is to pre-condition ‘hard’ charge). Surfactants recommended as spray adjuvants are
water to make it more suitable for herbicide use, in most commonly non-ionic.
particular with glyphosate formulations. By definition, ■ The most common surfactant types include alcohol
hard water contains elevated levels of cations. Often this alkoxylates e.g. BS1000®; alkylaryl ethoxylates e.g. Agral®,
is due to high levels of calcium carbonate (CaCo3), Wetter 1040 TX; fatty amine ethoxylates e.g. Deluge®,
however, other positively charged ions such as sodium, organosilicones e.g. Freeway or soyal phospholipids
manganese, aluminum or iron may also contribute to e.g. Liberate®.
‘hardness’ of the water.
■ There are a range of other common adjuvant blends e.g.
Glyphosate acid is the form of glyphosate that is LI-700® (soyal phospholipids + propionic acid), Hot-up
herbicidally active. However, glyphosate acid has very low (ammonium sulphate + non-ionic surfactant + oil), and
solubility and poor ability to penetrate the waxy cuticle, specialised sticking and ‘filming’ agents e.g. Bond,
hence is formulated as a salt (e.g. isoproplyamine (IPA), Nu-Film®-17.
potassium (K) or monoammonium salts are common).
Glyphosate, in these salt forms, will have increased ■ Spray oils are petroleum (mineral) or vegetable
solubility and leaf penetration as the spray droplet (plant) based.
is drying. ■ Many oils (particularly petroleum based) have pesticidal
Using elevated levels of calcium carbonate as an example properties in their own right.
of hard water, if one of these glyphosate salt formulations ■ Petroleum based oils vary according to the base oil
is added to a water source high in calcium, some of composition and the amount and type of surfactant/
the glyphosate molecules will disassociate from their emulsifier used in the formulation.
formulated salt and preferentially recombine with the
calcium cation to form a glyphosate-calcium salt. Solubility ■ Vegetable oils vary according to the plant oil source,
of glyphosate-calcium salt is very low, reducing solubility method and degree of processing.
in the spray tank, with entry through the leaf cuticle also ■ Esterified vegetable oils are reacted with short chain
severely reduced. alcohols to produce final products of lower viscosity than
Adding AMS to the spray water before adding the the parent oil.
glyphosate formulation results in calcium sulphate forming, ■ Most oil adjuvants contain emulsifiers/surfactants to allow
removing available calcium from the spray water. This then them to mix readily in water.
results in less glyphosate dissociation after the glyphosate
is added. ■ Acidifiers and buffers reduce the pH of alkaline solutions to
minimise the effects of alkaline hydrolysis that occurs with
It is extremely important that spray-grade AMS is fully certain pesticides.
dissolved, and that the AMS has had time to precondition
the water, before adding glyphosate to the spray tank. ■ Formulated acidifying and buffering agents usually contain
Using a liquid formulation of AMS can speed the tank a surfactant component to provide a dual purpose role.
filling operation, as the liquid AMS does not need to be ■ Acidification of spray solutions may not always be helpful
dissolved first. to the activity of pesticides. Some products may ‘salt out’ or
‘gel out’ or degrade at low pH.
Other fertiliser products claimed to be of benefit as adjuvants
■ Fertiliser adjuvants are most widely used with the herbicide
with glyphosate include urea and certain liquid fertiliser
glyphosate and are usually based on ammonium sulphate.
preparations which also contain nitrogen in the ammonium
Some other products that contain free ammonium ions may
form, e.g. urea ammonium nitrate (UAN). UAN will not assist
also have a beneficial effect.
in reducing antagonism or alleviating the effects of hard water.
The addition of an organic acid such as food grade citric acid
may also be effective in removing hard water ions from the
water source. Some organic acids are effective because
the conjugate base (negative portion) of the acid binds to
and removes positively charged cations (such as calcium)
from solution.

14 ADJUVANTS - OILS, SURFACTANTS AND OTHER ADDITIVES FOR FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION
3. ADJUVANTS FOR HERBICIDES

ACCase inhibitors (Group A) herbicides in combination with oil-based adjuvants, rainfast

periods are usually relatively short.
Group A herbicides include products belonging to the
The addition of oil-based adjuvants used with these Group A
aryloxyphenoxypropionate (or ‘fops’), cyclohexanediones
herbicides may also increase the speed of leaf entry of some
(or ‘dims’) or phenylpyrazole (or ‘dens’) class of herbicides
broadleaf herbicide tank-mixed partners, which can result in
that inhibit the enzyme, acetyl CoA carboxylase (ACCase).
additional crop injury in certain broadleaf crops. For example,
ACCase is important for cell wall production in new growth.
clethodim labels recommend not to mix with the broadleaf
Group A herbicides are typically used for post-emergent herbicides diflufenican (e.g. Brodal®), bentazone (e.g.
grass weed control in a range of cereals and broadleaf crops. Basagran®) or acifluorfen (e.g. Blazer®), while the haloxyfop
label recommends not to mix with broadleaf herbicides in
Use of adjuvants with Group A winter crops but does support mixtures with bentazone or
acifluorfen in summer broadleaf crops, provided that a NIS is
The use of adjuvants with these products is extensive. used in place of an oil-based adjuvant.
For example, the original Group A herbicide Hoegrass®
(diclofop-methyl) was shown to benefit from a range of The ‘dim’ herbicides butroxydim (e.g. Factor®) and tralkoxydim
surfactants (principally non-ionic surfactants such as the (e.g. Achieve®) are less lipophilic, and therefore likely
ethoxylated alkyl alcohol types, including BS1000®) and to respond better to an adjuvant with a more balanced
petroleum spray oils (such as D-C-Tron® Cotton and hydrophilic-lipophilic (HLB) value. Spray oil concentrates
D-C-Trate®). As more Group A herbicides were developed, with a higher NIS load are generally preferred. The use of
crop oil concentrates (including those with a much higher Supercharge® Elite is the preferred adjuvant for tralkoxydim
proportion of surfactants than the original petroleum spray and butroxydim herbicides.
oils) and esterified vegetable oil adjuvants became more Results from other studies with different adjuvant types
widely recommended with Group A herbicides. sometimes indicate little difference in herbicide performance
There are four broad groups of adjuvants that may be at label rates on susceptible weeds and under favourable
recommended for use with Group A herbicides: growing conditions. Differences may become apparent when
marginal application rates for the prevailing conditions are
i) Petroleum spray oils, e.g. D-C-Tron® Cotton, Cropshield used, or conditions are sub-optimal. In these situations, there
ii) Petroleum spray oil concentrates, e.g. Uptake®, In-bound® may be differences in performance of certain adjuvant types.
(these ‘oils’ incorporate a relatively high loading of
surfactant, in addition to a refined petroleum oil) ALS inhibitors (Group B)
iii) Non ionic surfactants (NIS) – generally either linear alcohol Group B herbicides include three main subclasses used
ethoxylates or alkoxylated alcohol types in grain production: sulfonylureas (e.g. chlorsulfuron,
iv) Esterified vegetable oils that include a surfactant to metsulfuron, triasulfuron, sulfosulfuron and many others),
facilitate emulsification with aqueous solutions and imidazolinones (e.g. imazamox, imazapic, imazapyr,
enhance uptake e.g. Hasten®, Kwickin® imazethapyr), and sulfonamides (e.g. florasulam, flumetsulam,
metosulam, pyroxsulam).
Of these groups, the use of petroleum spray oil concentrates
or the esterified vegetable oils are the most common with These products control weeds by inhibiting the acetolactate
Group A herbicides. synthase (ALS) enzyme, thus preventing the formation of
certain plant amino acids, resulting in eventual plant death.
The addition of a NIS in the adjuvant formulation can increase
the coverage and droplet retention on the leaf. This can
be significant when targeting small grass weeds which are Use of adjuvants with Group B
difficult to contact, especially where larger droplets are being Imidazolinone formulations may be available as either
used for drift management. Oil concentrate adjuvants with aqueous concentrates (e.g. Spinnaker®) or water-soluble
higher NIS load may also be beneficial where these Group A granules (e.g. OnDuty®). Sulfonylureas and sulfonamides are
herbicides are tank mixed with more hydrophilic tank often formulated as either dry flowable (DF), wettable granule
mix partners. (WG) or water dispersible granule (WDG) formulations.
Clethodim, pinoxaden and most ‘fop’ herbicides are relatively For dry formulations, surfactants are generally included
lipophilic in their applied form and will therefore be best during formulation to aid in the binding during granule
matched with a lipophilic (oil-based) adjuvant which will production and dispersal in the spray tank.
increase leaf penetration. Due to the rapid leaf entry of these

ADJUVANTS - OILS, SURFACTANTS AND OTHER ADDITIVES FOR FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION 15
Some sulfonylureas are subject to degradation in the spray Some herbicides within these sub-groups have little post-
tank under acidic conditions, i.e. pH <5. To address this, emergent activity (e.g. simazine), while others (e.g. atrazine,
quality formulations may contain a pH buffer designed to terbuthylazine, diuron) can also enter via the leaf and move to
prevent spray tank pH falling too low. Acidifying agents the chloroplasts within the cells. When applied post-emergent,
typically should not be used in combination with sulfonylurea there is minimal movement out of the treated leaf, so they
herbicides due to the effect of low pH increasing acid should be treated more like a contact herbicide, ensuring
hydrolysis. Once mixed in the spray tank, Group B herbicides good coverage and targeting small weeds. The addition of a
should be applied as soon as possible. surfactant may assist in leaf coverage and droplet retention
under certain situations, especially where droplet retention or
Most Group B herbicides have intermediate lipophilicity and
coverage is sub-optimal.
generally can enter the leaf and translocate throughout
the plant without difficulty when applied under good As herbicides within these sub-groups tend towards the
environmental conditions. For this reason, tank mixed lipophilic end of the spectrum, oil-based adjuvants are
adjuvants designed to modify performance on the leaf likely to result in improved leaf penetration. The addition
surface may be less important than is the case for many other of an oil-based adjuvant can often increase post-emergent
herbicides. weed control in susceptible species, although this may
also increase crop injury where full crop selectivity is not
Non-ionic surfactants usually enhance performance by
present. Refer to individual directions on the label with
assisting with droplet capture and leaf spread and are
regard to situations where the use of oil-based adjuvants
often recommended. The most common surfactant group
can be supported.
recommended are the alkoxylated alcohol types
e.g. BS1000®. Trials conducted in Young, NSW, in 2007 showed good
responses to the addition of Hasten® (an esterified seed oil
Adjuvants that increase cuticle penetration (i.e. oils) are
adjuvant) to the Group C herbicide Terbyne, for wild radish
generally not recommended for most in-crop uses. Adjuvants
control in TT canola (Figure 3a).
that increase penetration are likely to increase the speed
of leaf entry which can be associated with increased crop
phytotoxicity where full selectivity is not present. Oil plus
surfactant adjuvant blends are recommended for some 100
products (e.g. Atlantis®, Crusader®, Monza®, OnDuty®), 90
specifically for early post-emergent applications and 80
% of wild radish control

particularly when targeting difficult to contact small grass 70

weeds. Careful consideration should be given to the choice 60
of adjuvant in situations where a partner herbicide may 50
recommend an oil-based adjuvant. 40
30
Only Spinnaker® (imazethapyr) and Raptor (imazamox) 20
identify the use of ammonium sulphate as being beneficial, 10
particularly under adverse growing conditions. Addition 0
of ammonium ions in the form of ammonium sulphate or a Terbyne Terbyne Terbyne Terbyne Atrazine 900
0.7kg 0.7kg + 1.4kg 1.4kg + 2.2kg +
UAN (urea ammonium nitrate) solution has been shown to
Hasten® Hasten® Hasten®
enhance the activity of imidazolinone herbicides, including
imazethapyr, on certain species of Ipomoea. Spray mixture and rate per hectare

Figure 3a: Effect of addition of Hasten® spray adjuvant on

PSII inhibitors (Group C) post emergent activity of Terbyne (terbuthylazine) on
4–8 leaf wild radish in TT canola Source: Sipcam Pacific Australia
Group C herbicides include a diverse group of products
Pty Ltd. Trials conducted Young, NSW 2007.
that inhibit photosynthesis at photosystem II (PSII).
Group C herbicides used in broadacre grains and cotton
production include: Physical compatibility problems may occur between some
glyphosate and triazine formulations. Pre-conditioning the
■ Triazines – atrazine, cyanazine, prometryn, simazine, spray water with AMS may help to reduce incompatibility.
terbuthylazine, terbutryn;
Metribuzin. The triazinone herbicide metribuzin is less
■ Triazinones – metribuzin; lipophilic and substantially more soluble than the triazines
■ Benzothiadiazinones – bentazone; and ureas and hence is more mobile within the plant. Foliar
uptake occurs where applied post-emergent, although root
■ Ureas – diuron, fluometuron; uptake is the preferred method of plant entry. When used
■ Nitriles – bromoxynil. early post-emergent, herbicide overspray onto the soil is
also likely to contribute to weed control via root uptake, with
labelled application rates reflecting soil type interactions.
Use of adjuvants with Group C
Many of the post-emergent uses on Australian metribuzin
Triazines and ureas. Most triazines and ureas are typically labels have marginal selectivity to the crop. As such,
most effective when applied to the soil and are taken up by adjuvants that increase herbicide entry are generally
roots, with transportation in the xylem to the leaves where not advised.
they inhibit photosynthesis. As solubility of these herbicides
is generally low, they require good soil moisture for effective Bentazone has good leaf uptake when applied as a post
root uptake. emergent application. As with most other Group C herbicides,

16 ADJUVANTS - OILS, SURFACTANTS AND OTHER ADDITIVES FOR FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION
any overspray reaching the soil can also enter the plant via products should be applied as separate applications, ideally
root uptake. Bentazone is not lipophilic so typically the choice at least 10 days apart.
of adjuvant will be a NIS (or an adjuvant blend with a high
Diflufenican + MCPA formulations also recommend against
NIS component).
adding any surfactant when mixing with metsulfuron.
Bromoxynil. The nitrile herbicide bromoxynil is used
extensively in grain production, sometimes as a standalone
herbicide but more commonly as a tank mix partner or PPO inhibitors (Group G)
pre-formulated with herbicides from other modes of action. Group G herbicides are inhibitors of enzyme
Bromoxynil is somewhat different to most other Group C protoporphyrinogen oxidase (PPO). Inhibition of this enzyme
herbicides in that it is well absorbed through the leaf. When interferes with the chlorophyll biosynthetic pathway leading
applied in the ester form, it will quickly enter the leaf and to cell membrane disruption.
move to the target site within the chloroplast inside the cells.
Within this mode of action there are a number of herbicide
Many labelled crops do not have complete selectivity to sub-classes used in grain production, including:
bromoxynil, with certain label statements recommending
avoiding applications when temperature exceeds 20°C, as ■ diphenylethers (oxyfluorfen, acifluorfen);
speed of activity will be increased and the crop will have ■ n-phenylphthalimides (flumioxazin);
less time to metabolise the herbicide before injury occurs.
There are certain situations on the label where a NIS may ■ phenylpyrazoles (pyraflufen);
be recommended. ■ pyrimidindiones (butafenacil, saflufenacil); and
The addition of a penetrating surfactant, such as an oil, would ■ triazolinones (carfentrazone).
further increase speed of activity, and hence is generally not
recommended for bromoxynil. The main exception is where
bromoxynil is pre-formulated with a post-emergent Group H Use of adjuvants with Group G
herbicide. Talinor® recommends the addition of Adigor® or Most PPO inhibitors tend towards being lipophilic in nature,
Hasten® while Velocity® supports the addition of Hasten®, suggesting that an oil-based adjuvant will lead to increased
Supercharge® or Uptake®. It should be noted that both of leaf penetration. Many of these herbicides are used in fallow
these herbicides have a crop safener built into situations, or prior to planting, so when used in a ‘non-crop’
the formulation. situation, an oil-based adjuvant will usually be advantageous
in increasing control of weeds targeted by these herbicides.
Microtubule assembly inhibitors However, care needs to be taken, as many of these fallow/
non-crop applications will be in mixtures with a non-selective
(Group D) herbicide, particularly glyphosate. Interaction between
glyphosate, oil-based adjuvants and high rates of some
Group D herbicides disrupt the microtubule assembly in Group G herbicides is known to occur and can negatively
germinating seedlings. impact on the performance of glyphosate, particularly on
The main herbicides from this mode of action used in grain some summer germinating grass weeds.
production include the dinitroaniline (DNA) herbicides Some products have label claims for post-emergent
trifluralin and pendimethalin and the benzamide herbicide applications in certain crops. In these situations, the choice of
propyzamide. adjuvant should be carefully considered in order to ensure
crop acceptable crop selectivity:
Use of adjuvants with Group D Acifluorfen – oil-based adjuvants are not generally
Trifluralin, pendimethalin and propyzamide are pre-emergent recommended, as increased crop damage typically occurs.
herbicides, with no recommendation for adjuvants. Acifluorfen does have a specific recommendation for the
addition of Hasten® in mungbeans only, however, the
herbicide rate is reduced.
PDS inhibitors (Group F)
Carfentrazone products – where registered for in-crop
Group F herbicides inhibit carotenoid biosynthesis at application in cereals there is a label statement not to use
the phytoene desaturase step (PDS inhibitors), causing any adjuvants, due to increased crop damage. Labels include
characteristic bleaching and yellowing of leaf tissue. a warning to ensure booms are also clean of any adjuvants
The herbicides diflufenican and picolinafen are used in used for previous spray applications.
grain production systems, often in mixtures with other modes Pyraflufen products – where registered for in-crop use, oil-
of action. based adjuvants are generally not recommended. The use of
non-ionic surfactants varies by crop. Refer to the label.
Use of adjuvants with Group F
Diflufenican and picolinafen are lipophilic herbicides. Labels HPPD inhibitors (Group H)
recommend not to apply with an oil-based adjuvant (even
These herbicides work by inhibiting 4-hydroxyphenyl-
when tank mixing with partner herbicides that recommend an
pyruvate dioxygenase (HPPD) which is a critical step
oil-based adjuvant), due to the possibility of increased levels
in plastoquinone synthesis, leading to disruption of
of crop injury.
the photosynthetic and carotenoid pathways. Without
Some picolinafen labels also recommend avoiding adding carotenoids, cells are not protected from photooxidation,
any adjuvant when tank mixing with other products. If the and hence the typical bleaching symptoms associated with
partner product requires an adjuvant for efficacy, then the Group H herbicides are observed.

ADJUVANTS - OILS, SURFACTANTS AND OTHER ADDITIVES FOR FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION 17
Group H herbicides include the pyrazole sub-class should not be mixed with AMS, as reduced efficacy
(benzofenap and pyrasulfotole), triketones (bicyclopyrone) may result.
and isoxazoles (isoxaflutole). In Australian grain production,
Talinor® recommends not to mix urea ammonium nitrate (UAN),
post-emergent Group H herbicides are currently limited
as unacceptable crop injury can occur.
to bicyclopyrone, formulated in a mixture with bromoxynil
(e.g. Talinor®), and pyrasulfotole formulated in a mixture Non-ionic surfactants, including soyal-lipid based adjuvants
with bromoxynil (e.g. Velocity®) or with MCPA (e.g. Precept®). in the case of Talinor®, should generally not be used due to
Isoxaflutole products (e.g. Balance®) are primarily applied as reduced efficacy.
pre-emergent applications.
Isoxaflutole products are generally applied as a pre-emergent
application to weed-free soil, therefore do not benefit from the
Use of adjuvants with Group H addition of an adjuvant.
Pyrasulfotole and bicyclopyrone are somewhat hydrophilic
herbicides, suggesting they are likely to be enhanced by a
non-ionic surfactant type adjuvant. However, these herbicides
Synthetic auxins (Group I)
are formulated with lipophilic partners (bromoxynil or MCPA Group I herbicides include a wide range of products with
ester) which will also respond to an oil-based adjuvant. auxin like activity, including phenoxys (2,4–D, MCPA),
Therefore, an oil concentrate adjuvant with a high surfactant arylpicolinates (halauxifen), benzoic acids (dicamba) and
load is normally preferred. The recommended adjuvant for pyridines (aminopyralid, picloram, triclopyr, fluroxypyr,
Velocity® or Precept® is Hasten®, Supercharge® or Uptake®; clopyralid). These all act by the disruption of plant cell growth
while the Talinor® label recommends the use of Adigor® and division with accumulation in the growing points of the
or Hasten®. plant, leading to plant death.
Velocity® and Precept® provide specific recommendations
when tank mixing with grass selective herbicides. The Use of adjuvants with Group I
preferred adjuvant in these situations typically aligns with For selective in-crop applications, adjuvants are seldom
the recommendation for the partner product (refer to labels recommended (and often specifically excluded in label
for details). directions) chiefly because these herbicides are reasonably
For Precept® (pyrasulfotole + MCPA), the use of AMS instead efficient at entering the leaf without the need for additional
of a crop oil adjuvant is supported. Velocity® or Talinor® adjuvants and crop selectivity often is associated with

Table 3a: Specific adjuvant recommendations for Group I herbicides for broadacre grain uses.
2,4-D amine
Additional surfactant is generally not recommended, except in certain situations.
When used in conservation tillage situations:
• When mixing with glyphosate, follow adjuvant advice for the glyphosate partner.
• A soyal phospholipid acidifying adjuvant (e.g. LI-700®) can be used when tank mixing certain insecticides that are prone to
alkaline hydrolysis; when faster weed brownout is required or for assistance in droplet size management.
However, acidic spray water can be a significant contributing factor for incompatibility between certain 2,4-D amine and glyphosate formulations.
MCPA amine The addition of an acidifying adjuvant (e.g. Spraybuff®, LI-700®) is recommended when tank mixing certain insecticides that are prone to alkaline hydrolysis.
halauxifen Pixxaro® (halauxifen + fluroxypyr) is compatible with Uptake®, BS1000®, Chem-wett 1000 and Spreadwet 1000. Add Uptake® when using in winter cereals.
When mixing with glyphosate in fallow, follow the glyphosate adjuvant recommendations for grass weed control.
Paradigm (halauxifen + florasulam) – Uptake® is the preferred adjuvant, however, BS1000® or Chem-wett 1000 may also be used. Only use BS1000® or
Chem-wett 1000 if tank mixing with metsulfuron.
Rexade (halauxifen + pyroxsulam) – add BS1000® or Chem-wett 1000
dicamba For WG formulations – add a NIS when used alone or when mixing with metsulfuron. Add Uptake® or D-C-Tron® when mixing with metosulam.
aminopyralid Hotshot® (aminopyralid + fluroxypyr) is compatible with
• BS1000® or equivalent when mixed with metsulfuron
• Uptake® when mixed with clodinafop or pinoxaden
• Adigor® when mixed with pinoxaden
Stinger® (aminopyralid + metsulfuron) – Add BS1000® or alternative when used for post-emergent weed control in winter cereals.
clopyralid For WG formulations – add a NIS when used alone or follow the adjuvant recommendation for the partner herbicide.
Liquid and WG formulations are compatible with spray oils and NIS, where required for partner herbicides.
fluroxypyr Winter cereals – when used alone in winter cereals, add Uptake® or a NIS. When mixed with clodinafop, add Uptake®.
Winter fallow – when used alone add Uptake®. When mixed with metsulfuron add Uptake® or a NIS.
Summer fallow – When used alone for control of pigweed, Polymeria, Rhynchosia, marshmallow, thornapple, Sesbania, perennial ground cherry, silverleaf
nightshade or volunteer sunflowers add Uptake®. When mixing with glyphosate, follow the glyphosate adjuvant recommendations for grass weed control.
Sorghum, maize and sweet corn – When used post-emergent with atrazine, add a NIS but do not add an oil.
picloram A range of different formulations and mixtures exist, with different use patterns. Always follow individual labels.
In general, for broadacre uses, an adjuvant is generally not recommended.
• Where picloram products are tank mixed with metsulfuron, a NIS may be required.
• Where picloram products are tank mixed with atrazine, a crop oil or wetter may be recommended in maize, or a wetter only in sorghum.
Acidifying adjuvants should not be used as these may lead to the precipitation of picloram at low pH.
triclopyr The addition of a crop oil is recommended for control of melons in fallow. However, do not add a crop oil when mixing with glyphosate. Follow the glyphosate
label recommendations for grass weed control.
Do not add a spray oil when using in sorghum, as increased crop injury is likely.

18 ADJUVANTS - OILS, SURFACTANTS AND OTHER ADDITIVES FOR FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION
the speed of metabolism upon leaf entry. Adjuvants that Some high load paraquat formulations are now available that
significantly increase speed of leaf entry may result in the do not contain surfactants built into the formulation. These
possibility of increased phytotoxicity to the crop under certain formulations require a tank mixed surfactant.
situations.
While spray oils are unlikely to assist leaf entry of bipyridyl
There are some herbicides and situations where the herbicides, they may provide some advantage as an ‘anti-
addition of spray adjuvants is specifically recommended. evaporant’ under hot, dry conditions. This use appears to be
(see Table 3a above). supported by trial data, particularly for control of summer
broadleaf weeds such as white heliotrope.

Lipid synthesis inhibitors (Group J)

Group J herbicides have the inhibitor of fat synthesis mode
Glyphosate (Group M)
of action. Glyphosate is the only member of Group M. Glyphosate
works in the plant by inhibiting the 5-enolpyruvyl shikimate-3
The main herbicides from this mode of action used in grain
phosphate (EPSP) synthase enzyme in the shikimic acid
production include the thiocarbamate herbicides prosulfocarb
pathway, preventing the production of certain amino acids
and triallate.
essential for the production of proteins, and a range of other
products required for carbon fixation and other processes.
Use of adjuvants with Group J
Glyphosate is a highly polar molecule. It is hydrophilic,
Prosulfocarb and triallate are typically applied as pre- meaning that movement across the lipophilic leaf cuticle will
emergent herbicides, with no recommendation for adjuvants. be constrained. Activity relies upon getting the maximum
amount of herbicide into the leaf before the spray has dried.
VLCFA inhibitors (Group K) Under favourable conditions, some of the applied glyphosate
is rapidly absorbed by plant foliage immediately after
Group K herbicides inhibit very long chain fatty acid (VLCFA) application. Initial fast entry is followed by a longer phase
synthesis, preventing cell expansion in germinating seedlings. of slower uptake. Under fast droplet drying conditions (e.g.
Herbicides from this mode of action group used in grain summer applications under hot conditions with low humidity) it
production include the acetamide herbicide napropamide, is typical to apply higher rates of glyphosate. This will result in
chloroacetamides (dimethenamid-P, metazachlor and higher levels of glyphosate entering the plant in the first few
metolachlor/s-metolachlor) and the isoxazoline herbicide hours after application.
pyroxasulfone. Diffusion is the primary process for transport across the leaf
cuticle. Plant cuticles vary in their permeability to glyphosate.
Use of adjuvants with Group K The mode and extent of glyphosate uptake depends on
several factors, including:
These herbicides are typically applied as pre-emergent
herbicides, with no recommendation for adjuvants. ■ Properties of leaf cuticle;
■ Species;
PSI inhibitors (bipyridyls) (Group L) ■ Plant age;
Paraquat (e.g. Gramoxone®) and diquat (e.g. Reglone®) are ■ Moisture status of the plant;
bipyridyl herbicides that cause the inhibition of photosynthesis
at photosystem I. ■ Light;

These products are quickly absorbed by leaf tissue, causing ■ Temperature;

rapid destruction of plant cells adjacent to the point of ■ Concentration of glyphosate;
contact.
■ Adjuvants; and
Use of adjuvants with Group L ■ Method of application.
As the bipyridyl herbicides rely strongly on foliar contact,
good coverage of leaf surfaces is essential for optimum Use of adjuvants with glyphosate
performance. Bipyridyl herbicides are hydrophilic, and hence
Adjuvants that keep the glyphosate in a liquid phase on the
respond best to a hydrophilic adjuvant e.g. a non-ionic
leaf surface for longer may result in improved performance,
surfactant.
particularly for applications under hot/low humidity conditions.
Diquat formulations typically require a non-ionic surfactant.
Always check the product label. Effect of surfactants on absorption
Many formulated paraquat products include non-ionic At low concentrations (0.01 to 0.1% v/v), surfactants improve
surfactants to optimise droplet spread and leaf retention wetting and spreading. Leaf wetting can be very important
which is adequate for most situations. Additional NIS may be for some species, especially those leaf surfaces which are
recommended under certain situations, e.g. additional non- covered in hairs or trichomes. Increased spreading across the
ionic surfactant may be required when the herbicide dilution is leaf surface allows for a larger area of droplet contact and
less than 400mL product per 100L spray volume, or for some therefore more area for herbicide diffusion.
hard to wet weeds (for example the Spray.Seed® 250 label
However, where droplets are spread thinly, they evaporate
recommends additional BS1000®or Agral® when targeting
faster (especially for summer applications), resulting in less
silvergrass (Vulpia spp.).
time for the glyphosate to diffuse across the leaf cuticle.

ADJUVANTS - OILS, SURFACTANTS AND OTHER ADDITIVES FOR FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION 19
For this reason, glyphosate tends to work best in summer addition of the oil may also assist a more lipophilic partner
conditions when applied as a large droplet (e.g. very coarse herbicide that may be tank-mixed for some broadleaf weeds.
or larger), with a high concentration of herbicide within the
In summer rainfall areas, responses to the addition of oils
droplet and the correct amount of surfactant to achieve
are inconsistent, sometimes leading to reduced performance
some, but not too much, droplet spread. This preferred
(particularly on summer grasses such as awnless barnyard
spray set up for summer applications of glyphosate (large
grass) and are often avoided where possible.
concentrated droplets, with not too much spreading) may also
be appropriate for other fully translocated herbicides such
Vegetable oil adjuvants
as 2,4-D, however, is less suitable for other potential tank mix
partners (i.e. herbicides from mode of action groups A, C, F, G) Vegetable oil products (including esterified canola oils
that require higher levels of leaf coverage for optimal results. such as Hasten® and Kwickin®) are used occasionally
with glyphosate.
It is common practice to add a non-ionic surfactant or a
LI-700® type product (which contains soyal phospholipid In some trials it would appear these products are comparable
surfactant) to many glyphosate formulations. Premium, ‘fully in their effectiveness to surfactants, though this has not been
loaded’ glyphosate formulations typically have adequate demonstrated in a wide range of situations.
surfactant built into the formulation, so additional tank mixed
wetters are not generally recommended in most situations Buffers and acidifiers
with ‘fully loaded’ formulations. An exception may be where
the glyphosate concentration is low (applied at low dose rates The pH of the environment surrounding cells within a leaf is
and/or high water volumes) and hence in-built surfactant load around pH 5 to 5.5. Glyphosate will be in its optimum state for
is also low, in which case topping up with additional adjuvant entry into the cell at this pH. This often leads to many spray
may be recommended. operators seeking to reduce the pH of the spray water by
adding an acidifying adjuvant.
At higher concentrations some surfactants may also aid
foliar entry: However, glyphosate is an acid herbicide that will significantly
reduce the pH of neutral and alkaline water, in the absence
■ The choice of in-built surfactant in the formulation can of acidifying adjuvants. Unless spray water is extremely
be important. Ethoxylated amine types are often alkaline to begin with, there is normally no need to add
considered better for glyphosate formulations. Higher acidifying adjuvants to the spray water. To understand if
levels of ethoxylation (more ethylene oxide) may provide spray water requires acidification check the pH of the spray
better efficacy. solution after adding the glyphosate (without the acidifying
■ Humectants, that keep the glyphosate in a semi-liquid adjuvant). Typically, the pH of the spray solution after
state for longer on the leaf surface, may be included in adding glyphosate will be in the range of 5 to 5.5, which is
some formulations. acceptable for glyphosate application.

■ Organosilicon surfactants provide very low surface Water that is highly alkaline is often ‘hard water’ – that is
tension which can potentially allow for increased stomatal water that contains high levels of ions such as calcium,
entry in some weed species, However, stomatal entry is magnesium and bicarbonate. Presence of these ions
generally not a primary entry pathway into the leaf of ARE antagonistic to the performance of glyphosate and
most cropping weeds. In addition, the use of organosilicon are usually the reason for reduced performance, not the
surfactants may result in thinly spread droplets which will associated high pH. Spray water containing high levels of
be subject to fast evaporation under hot conditions. Further, these cations should be conditioned before glyphosate is
organosilicons perform optimally at a neutral pH, whereas added to the spray tank (see ammonium sulphate below).
glyphosate in the spray mixture will create an acidic Some acids, such as hydrochloric (pool acid), nitric and
environment. For these reasons, organosilicon surfactants acetic acid, will reduce pH, however, they are not particularly
are only recommended in certain situations, i.e. some effective in overcoming the effects of calcium, magnesium
brushweed applications. and sodium bicarbonate. These cannot be expected to assist
Several different surfactant types are included in commercial in potential loss of performance of glyphosate where ‘hard
formulations. Early formulations, and many existing products, water’ is used.
include a tallow amine ethoxylate product (tertiary amine). Many of the commercially available ‘buffering agents’ are
Subsequently, a desire to use surfactants that have lower based on derivatives of phosphoric acid. While phosphoric
toxicity or improved environmental profile, along with the push acid will reduce pH, it may also have some usefulness in
toward higher glyphosate loadings, has led to the introduction assisting to sequester calcium and magnesium.
of alternate surfactants and blends. These include quaternary
amines (used in formulations with aquatic use approvals), Ammonium sulphate
betaines and polyglucosides.
Ammonium sulphate, or more correctly diammonium sulphate,
Petroleum oil adjuvants has a range of potential benefits when used as an adjuvant in
combination with glyphosate.
Petroleum spray oil adjuvants are not routinely used with
glyphosate. As glyphosate is hydrophilic it will not dissolve Ammonium sulphate can maintain the performance of
well in lipophilic surfactants such as oils. However, crop oil glyphosate in the presence of ‘hard water’ (water containing
concentrates (COCs) that contain high surfactant load (e.g. elevated levels of bicarbonates or cations such as calcium,
Uptake®) are sometimes used in mixtures with glyphosate. In magnesium and others). Glyphosate is formulated as a salt
this situation, the non-ionic surfactant in the COC may replace to improve solubility and leaf penetration. For example,
the need for a tank-mixed NIS, while the oil may reduce the isopropylamine (IPA) (often marketed as CT formulations),
evaporation of the spray droplet during application. The potassium (K) and monoammonium salts are commonly sold.

20 ADJUVANTS - OILS, SURFACTANTS AND OTHER ADDITIVES FOR FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION
Where the formulated glyphosate is added to ‘hard water’ ■ Foliar fertilisers – Several proprietary foliar fertilisers have
(without preconditioning with ammonium sulphate or a similar been marketed as useful adjuvants for combination with
water conditioning agent) the glyphosate salt formulation can glyphosate. Often these have an ammonium component.
disassociate (break apart) and recombine with the cations in Claimed improvements in performance, while possible,
the water. For example, ‘hard water’ often contains elevated have not been extensively investigated in all instances.
levels of calcium carbonate. When glyphosate is added to this Foliar fertilisers that provide available cations (e.g. calcium,
water, without pre-treating with ammonium sulphate, a calcium magnesium, sodium, iron) are likely to be antagonistic, with
salt of glyphosate will form. The calcium salt of glyphosate effects similar to using ‘hard water’.
has both poor solubility and poor leaf penetration abilities.
■ Drift control agents are designed to reduce droplet break-
Pretreating ‘hard water’ with ammonium sulphate, before the up on atomisation and therefore reduce the number of
glyphosate is added to the spray tank, results in formation ‘driftable’ fines produced during application (relative to
of sulphates of these available cations, rendering them glyphosate alone or with a non-ionic surfactant). The
unavailable. When glyphosate is then subsequently added specialist drift reduction adjuvant Dead Sure® may result in
to the tank, it remains as the formulated salt, maintaining its a significant reduction in driftable fine droplets with certain
solubility and leaf penetration properties. nozzle types.
In softer water (relatively free of antagonistic cations), the
addition of ammonium sulphate may also enhance uptake Glufosinate (Group N)
and control on a number of annual grasses (but not ryegrass
or barnyard grass), some broadleaf weeds (e.g. climbing The phosphinic acid herbicide glufosinate inhibits glutamine
buckwheat) and perennials such as couch and nutgrass. synthetase. Glufosinate is a non-selective, hydrophilic
The mechanism for this effect is unclear, though it has been herbicide that provides broad-spectrum, contact activity, being
suggested that ammonium sulphate modifies the permeability particularly strong on a range of broadleaf weeds.
of the leaf cuticle and cell membranes facilitating more Being hydrophilic, glufosinate is slow to penetrate the waxy
rapid and complete uptake of glyphosate. Additionally, free cuticle. Application conditions that result in slower droplet
ammonium present in the apoplast (intercellular spaces) can evaporation, i.e. warm (but not hot) conditions with high
assist with a process known as ion trapping which helps weak relative humidity, will allow for higher levels of herbicide entry
acid herbicides to enter the cells. into the leaf and will result in best control.
Ammonium sulphate is specifically recommended as a Glufosinate is a contact herbicide with rapid speed of activity
‘compatibility agent’ where glyphosate is combined with and minimal translocation once inside the leaf. Excellent leaf
triazine herbicides, in particular atrazine. The addition coverage is critical for high levels of weed control.
of ammonium sulphate does not completely restore
performance, particularly on perennial grasses, broadleaf
weeds and some annual grasses (including barnyard grass Use of adjuvants with Group N
and milk thistle). Commercially available glufosinate formulations normally
Combinations of certain glyphosate formulations and amine contain surfactant. In most situations, no additional adjuvants
salts of 2,4-D may result in physical incompatibility, causing are recommended. However, some product labels advise that
blocked spray systems. Incompatibility problems are likely to benefit may be obtained when a wetting agent is added for
be exacerbated where a combination of the following occur: the control of hard-to-wet plants.

■ Low volume of spray water, concentrating the herbicides;

Flamprop-m-methyl (Group Z)
■ Unmatched salts of glyphosate and 2,4-D amine (the
potassium (K) salt of glyphosate and the dimethylamine Group Z herbicides, under the Australian mode of action
(DMA) salt of 2,4-D can be particularly problematic); classification system, are reserved for those herbicides with
unknown or diverse sites of herbicidal activity.
■ Cold water;
Flamprop-m-methyl is the primary Group Z herbicide used in
■ Hard water; grain production.
■ pH below 5.
Fully dissolved ammonium sulphate can assist in reducing Use of adjuvants with Group Z
compatibility issues by addressing ‘hard water’, although Being applied as an ester, flamprop is somewhat lipophilic
should undissolved ammonium sulphate come into contact and would be expected to respond to oil-based adjuvants.
with glyphosate and 2,4-D amine mixtures, severe antagonism
can result. Always ensure AMS is fully dissolved before Labels recommend not to add any additional wetting agent
adding herbicide. when applied at earlier in-crop application timing targeting
vegetative wild oats (3 leaf to Z30 growth stages) at the
Others higher application rates. When used as a spray topping
application (up to Z40 crop growth stage and Z30 to Z40 wild
■ Urea ammonium nitrate (UAN) – As UAN does not contain oat growth stage) a lower herbicide rate is recommended,
a sulphate component it is not able to be used as a with the addition of Uptake® spraying oil.
replacement for ammonium sulphate to address ‘hard
water’ caused by high levels of cations. UAN can provide
a source of ammonium which may assist with glyphosate
cellular entry.

ADJUVANTS - OILS, SURFACTANTS AND OTHER ADDITIVES FOR FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION 21
4. ADJUVANTS FOR INSECTICIDES

Many insecticides do not require additional adjuvant. When typically recommended when applied using water as the
adjuvants are important for improved efficacy, they are often carrier. The pirimicarb label recommends the addition of a
built into the formulation. spray oil under low humidity situations in some crops.
Adding aggressive penetrating adjuvants, or some spraying
oils, may be potentially damaging to some crops. Petroleum- Organophosphates (Group 1B)
based spray oils in particular may be phytotoxic to plants
due to the effects of heat and UV radiation causing cell wall Organophosphate (OP) insecticides are also cholinesterase
damage. Their use is not recommended unless crop safety is inhibitors (similar mode of action to carbamates). As such, they
assured. Always follow label advice to minimise the chance of have rapid speed of activity following either ingestion or direct
phytotoxicity. contract.

When applying to difficult-to-wet surfaces (for example Organophosphates are a large family of insecticides. The
brassicas such as canola) some insecticides recommend a main OP insecticides used in grains include chlorpyrifos,
non-ionic surfactant (NIS) or a similar wetting agent. The use of dimethoate and omethoate. Chlorpyrifos-methyl and
non-ionic surfactants is more common with wettable granule fenitrothion are also used for protection of grain in storage.
(WG), wettable powder (WP) or dry flowable (DF) formulations.
In specific situations, a crop oil concentrate with a high
Use of adjuvants with Group 1B
surfactant load (e.g. Uptake® type products) may be Broadacre use patterns for organophosphates typically do
recommended. In these situations, the crop oil concentrate not require the addition of an adjuvant.
provides leaf wetting similar to a NIS, with the oil component
providing increased cuticle penetration for lipophilic Some organophosphates are known to undergo hydrolysis
insecticides. under alkaline conditions. For example, dimethoate in the
technical active ingredient form is subject to rapid hydrolysis
Some emulsifiable concentrate (EC) formulations can be at a pH of 9, though it is likely that the formulated product is
applied as ultra-low volume (ULV) applications at less than not hydrolysed to the same degree as the technical material.
5L/ha, using an oil as the spray carrier. High boiling point
petroleum spray oils or vegetable oils used as carriers On US product labels the addition of a buffering or acidifying
generally improve target retention of these low rate ULV agent is recommended, however this is not suggested on
sprays. Oils used for ULV application do not need emulsifiers product labels for dimethoate products marketed in Australia.
in the formulation, in contrast to those spray oils used as However, the use of acidifying agents such as LI-700® has
adjuvants where a water carrier is used. been widely adopted with dimethoate.

It is important to realise that some spray adjuvants,

particularly the phytobland oils and derivatives, have Phenylpyrazoles (Group 2B)
insecticidal activity in their own right. Insect control in this Group 2 insecticides are GABA-gated chlorine channel
instance relies on direct control of the insect pest, so spray blockers, which act on the nervous system of susceptible
coverage is critical with these products. Pests controlled by insects. Group 2A was assigned to the organochlorine
petroleum spray oils include scale insects, two-spotted mites, insecticides, which are no longer registered for any crop uses.
Helicoverpa spp., thrips, mirids and aphids in both horticultural
and field crop applications. Group 2B includes the insecticide fipronil. In broadacre crops,
fipronil is used as a foliar application in sorghum, cotton or as
a seed treatment.
Carbamates (Group 1A)
Carbamate insecticides used in grains include methomyl, Use of adjuvants with Group 2B
thiodicarb and pirimicarb. Group 1 insecticides are effective
No specific adjuvants are recommended for suspension
either by ingestion or by direct contact. After entering the
concentrate formulations used for foliar application in
insect pest, cholinesterase is inhibited leading to rapid
sorghum and cotton.
disruption of the nervous system.

Use of adjuvants with Group 1A

These insecticides are often used in crops with leaf surfaces
that are difficult to wet, and hence a non-ionic surfactant is

22 ADJUVANTS - OILS, SURFACTANTS AND OTHER ADDITIVES FOR FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION
Synthetic pyrethroids (Group 3A) Spinetoram (Success® Neo) is used for control of certain
caterpillar pests in canola, pulses and cotton, while spinosad
Synthetic pyrethroids are contact and ingestion toxins. (Conserve®) is used as a grain protectant.
They bind to the sodium channel protein in the nervous
system, resulting in continuous nerve stimulation and rapid Use of adjuvants with Group 5
insect death.
The addition of Uptake® or a non-ionic wetting agent is
Many pyrethroids are registered in Australia. The main recommended with Success® Neo for difficult to wet crops
insecticides used in grains include alpha-cypermethrin, such as canola.
bifenthrin, cypermethrin (mostly used as a seed treatment
to protect planting seed), gamma-cyhalothrin and lambda-
cyhalothrin. Avermectins (Group 6)
Avermectins act as chloride channel activators on susceptible
Use of adjuvants with Group 3A insects, in particular a range of mite pests and selected
Most product labels do not recommend specific adjuvants caterpillars. They are quickly absorbed, with translaminar
for use in broadacre crops when using water as a carrier, movement across the leaf, although they are not systemic
however, some labels do recommend the addition of a non- within the plant.
ionic surfactant for difficult to wet surfaces, such as brassica Emamectin is effective against diamondback moth in
vegetables. canola, selected caterpillar pests in pulses and cotton
Trojan® (gamma-cyhalothrin), lambda-cyhalothrin products and suppression of green mirid in cotton. Check labels, as
and some emulsifiable concentrate (EC) formulations of alpha- individual claims vary by product. Abamectin is primarily used
cypermethrin can also be applied as ultra-low volume (ULV) as a miticide, although some labels claim a registration for
applications diluted in a spray oil. Helicoverpa control in cotton or soybeans.

Use of adjuvants with Group 6

Neonicotinoids (Group 4A) A non-ionic wetter is normally recommended for emamectin
Neonicotinoids are systemic insecticides with contact and formulations. No adjuvants are typically recommended for
ingestion activity, acting on the central nervous system of use with abamectin products in cotton or broadacre grains.
susceptible insects by causing irreversible blockage of
acetylcholine receptors.
Imidacloprid or thiamethoxam-based seed treatments are
Pymetrozine (Group 9B)
an important mode of action used to prevent damage from Pymetrozine is a pyridine-azomethine insecticide with activity
many establishment pests in Australian grain crops. Foliar against sucking pests such as aphids and whitefly. Soon
applications are made in cotton. after ingestion, aphids withdraw their stylet and stop feeding,
however, resulting death via starvation may take many days.
Use of adjuvants with Group 4A Pymetrozine has good translaminar and xylem mobility, with
useful levels of systemic translocation.
Adjuvants are not required when applied as seed treatments
in Australian grain crops. Registered uses in broadacre crops are limited to aphid and
whitefly control in cotton. Although permits exist for aphid
Where used as a foliar application in cotton, an organosilicon control in faba beans (PER 85363, expires 31/8/2021) and
surfactant is generally recommended. lupins (PER85365, expires 31/12/2023).

Sulfoximines (Group 4C) Use of adjuvants with Group 9B

Sulfoxaflor is the only currently available insecticide from the Pymetrozine products are available as WG or WP
novel sulfoximine class of insecticides, which acts through the formulations. Permits for pulse crops recommend the addition
interaction with the nicotinic acetycholine receptors in insects. of a suitable wetting agent at recommended rates. When
Sulfoxaflor has translaminar, contact and ingestion activity to used in cotton, an organosilicon surfactant is normally
give knockdown control of several piercing and sucking pests recommended, while a non-ionic surfactant is typically
in a range of crops. recommended for use in horticultural crops.

Use of adjuvants with Group 4C Biological insecticides

An adjuvant that enhances leaf wetting is recommended for
application of Transform® (sulfoxaflor) for control of pests in
(Group 11A & 11B)
canola or when applied under less than ideal application Group 11 insecticides are microbial disrupters of the
conditions. Suitable products recommended are Uptake®, insect mid-gut membrane and include various Bt (Bacillus
Agral®, Spreadwet 1000 or Chem-wett 1000. thuringiensis) products. Activity is limited to certain caterpillar
pests only, and hence they are well suited to integrated pest
management (IPM) programs that seek to maintain beneficial
Spinosyns (Group 5) predators and parasitoids within the crop.
Group 5 insecticides have a unique mode of action that Bt insecticides must be ingested by the caterpillar pests,
affects nicotinic acetylcholine receptors on target insects, and hence may take days before full mortality is achieved.
although at a different location to Group 4 insecticides. These insecticides are more effective on very small instars,
Spinosyns are particularly effective on a range of caterpillar so application is best timed just after hatching. As larval size
pests along with some beetle and thrips species. increases, generally insecticide performance declines.

ADJUVANTS - OILS, SURFACTANTS AND OTHER ADDITIVES FOR FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION 23
Bt insecticides are not systemic within the leaf and hence
good spray coverage is required. Any new growth will not
Oxadiazines (Group 22A)
be protected. They are subject to wash off following rainfall Group 22 insecticides are disruptors of the insect nervous
and are also subject to moderately fast UV degradation on system, blocking the voltage-dependent sodium channel.
the leaf surface, which often results in only short periods of
Certain indoxacarb (Group 22A) products are registered for
residual control for foliar applications.
use in cotton and pulse crops for control of Helicoverpa and
mirids, along with soybean looper in soybean.
Use of adjuvants with Group 11s
Indoxacarb rapidly enters the leaf, although is not systemic
A non-ionic surfactant is often recommended when treating within the plant. Insect control comes from direct contact or
crops which are difficult to wet, especially for WG or DF ingestion of treated leaf material.
formulations.
Some labels recommend adding a buffer to reduce the pH Use of adjuvants with Group 22A
of alkaline water, or to avoid mixing with highly alkaline tank
mix partners. EC and WG formulations of indoxacarb are available. Different
formulations contain different crop use patterns and different
Common practice often sees UV protected petroleum adjuvant recommendations. Always follow specific advice
spray oils used in mixtures to provide some protection of from the individual product label.
conventional Bt products from degradation by UV light, and
so increase their efficacy (Table 4a). Typically, EC formulations are preferred for pulse crops and
cotton, with no requirement for additional adjuvants. The label
also advises not to apply EC formulations via ULV application.
Table 4a: Mortality of Helicoverpa larvae with
Bt alone and in mixtures with petroleum spray When targeting mirids, labels typically advise to add salt
oil (Caltex) near Gunnedah 1999–2000 to the spray mix. Salt increases mirid feeding, resulting in
increased efficacy.
(Source: Mensah et al., 2002).

Treatment
Percent mortality1
Diamides (Group 28)
Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4
The diamide insecticides affect nerve and muscle action of
Bt 50.0 12.5 3.0 0.0
insect pests via unregulated activation of ryanodine receptor
Bt + PSO 5399 61.1 42.9 21.4 4.4 channels which impairs regulation of muscle contraction,
NPV 41.7 14.3 4.4 0.0 ultimately resulting in lethargy and muscle paralysis in insects
and eventual death.
NPV + PSO 5399 58.2 32.0 21.1 4.4
This group is highly effective on many caterpillar pests,
¹Treatments applied to cotton plants. Leaves collected were fed to neonate larvae
for 24 hours which were then removed and placed on artificial diets. Percent especially Helicoverpa, with activity coming from either direct
mortality was measured for four days following placement on artificial diets. contact or ingestion of treated plant material.
Cyantraniliprole has translaminar movement and some local
Disruptors of ATP formation translocation within the leaf, with insecticide moving from
the point of leaf entry towards the leaf tip (DuPont 2015). As
(Group 12A) a result, cyantraniliprole also has activity on certain sucking
Group 12 contains a number of products that are primarily pests such as aphid and whitefly in cotton.
miticides. Most insecticides from this mode of action group
have been used in horticultural or cotton applications Use of adjuvants with Group 28
in Australia.
In pulses and cotton, the WG formulation of chlorantraniliprole
In addition to mite control, diafenthiuron (Pegasus®) also (Altacor®) requires the addition of a non-ionic surfactant
provides useful levels of insecticide activity against sucking unless in mixtures with a product that already contains a
pests such as aphids and whitefly in cotton and has recently surfactant, or recommends against use of surfactant, or
been registered for control of redlegged earth mite and where liquid fertilisers are mixed. It is not compatible with
suppression of lucerne flea in canola. ULV formulations.
Diafenthiuron rapidly penetrates the cuticle of treated plants, The oil-in-water cyantraniliprole cotton insecticide (Exirel®)
however, is not a systemic insecticide, so good coverage is recommends using an ethylated seed oil (e.g. Hasten®) except
essential and new growth after application is unlikely to be where a surfactant is already contained in a companion
protected. It is not effective as an application to bare earth. product, where the companion product advises against
additional adjuvant, or where a liquid fertiliser is added. If the
Insecticidal activity comes from feeding on treated leaves or
spray solution remains above pH 8 after all products have
via direct contact of the insect pest. Diafenthiuron is a pro-
been added, it is recommended to add a buffering agent to
insecticide, becoming insecticidally active after metabolism
lower the pH to below 8.
within the pest, therefore it often takes a few days before
mortality is observed. Under warm temperatures, and after
row closure, vapour movement within the canopy can be
important for insecticide distribution in cotton, but this will not
occur during early winter applications in canola.

Use of adjuvants with Group 12A

No adjuvants are recommended for use with diafenthiuron.

24 ADJUVANTS - OILS, SURFACTANTS AND OTHER ADDITIVES FOR FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION
Nuclear polyhedrosis virus
(not grouped)
Nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV) is a commercial preparation
of virus from Helicoverpa, and as such is not an insecticide so
is not given an insecticide mode of action group.
Gemstar® and Vivus® Max are registered for a range of
cereals, pulses, oilseeds, sorghum and cotton for the control
of Helicoverpa. After application, the virus infests larvae
and will continue to spread under suitable environmental
conditions. Speed of control depends on environmental
conditions and may be relatively slow compared to many
conventional insecticides.
For ULV application, add Canopy®, D-C-Tron® or equivalent at
recommended label rates.
Feeding attractants are useful additives when using NPV. Milk
powder is recommended for Gemstar® treatments applied
in chickpea, while Optimol® is recommended for Vivus® Max
use in sorghum, cotton and pulses. The Vivus® Max label
recommends the addition of a pH buffer or acidifier if the
spray tank pH is above 8.

ADJUVANTS - OILS, SURFACTANTS AND OTHER ADDITIVES FOR FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION 25
5. ADJUVANTS FOR FUNGICIDES

Activity of contact ‘protectant’ fungicides is strongly Similarly, procymidone formulations should not be mixed
influenced by coverage of the active ingredient on the leaf with alkaline water. A non-ionic surfactant is normally
and stem surface. These protectant fungicides provide a recommended for foliar applications of procymidone.
barrier to the establishment of the fungal pathogen on the
host plant, hence adjuvants that provide improved wetting,
spreading and adhesion are likely to play an important role Demethylation inhibitors (Group 3)
in improved performance. Demethylation inhibitors (DMIs) are a large, diverse group
The activity of ‘systemic’ foliar fungicides may also be of fungicides that are widely used in many crops. Most DMI
improved by the correct choice of adjuvants. Several studies fungicides have foliar activity with protective, curative and/or
have shown that improvements can result from changes eradicant action.
to factors such as droplet formation, surface contact and Many fungicides developed for grain crop use in Australia
behaviour of spray deposit, penetration into the leaf, transport are based on fungicides from the triazole sub-class of DMIs.
within the plant and interaction within the fungal cell itself. These are available as either a stand-alone fungicide, or
However, adjuvants that increase penetration may increase commonly pre-formulated with other triazoles or different
the risk of crop damage under some circumstances with fungicide modes of action (Table 5a). Triazole mixtures can
some fungicides. broaden the spectrum of activity, while mixtures with other

For these reasons, the careful selection of adjuvants and

adherence to label directions is very important.
Table 5a: Common foliar applied triazole
fungicides (and mixtures) used in Australian
Benzimidazoles (Group 1) grain production.
Group 1 fungicides (benzimidazoles) are systemic fungicides Mixtures with a
with curative and protectant action. Carbendazim is registered Combination Straight strobilurin Mixtures with a
for the control of chocolate spot and grey mould in chickpeas, triazoles
triazoles (Group 11) SDHI (Group 7)
faba beans, lentils and vetch.
Cyproconazole Cyproconazole +
Cyproconazole + e.g. Alto® azoxystrobin
Use of adjuvants with Group 1 propiconazole e.g. Amistar® Xtra
e.g. Tilt® Xtra
The addition of a non-ionic surfactant is recommended in Propiconazole
certain situations to improve spray coverage on difficult to e.g. Tilt®
Propiconazole +
wet surfaces. tebuconazole
e.g. Cogito® Tebuconazole +
Tebuconazole
Dicarboximides (Group 2)

various azoxystrobin
e.g. Veritas®
Tebuconazole +
Dicarboxamide fungicides include iprodione and procymidone priothioconazole Priothioconazole +
that provide both protective and curative control for a range e.g. Prosaro® Priothioconazole bixafen
of fungal pathogens in various crops. e.g. Brumby® e.g. Aviator® Xpro

In grain crops, iprodione is registered for use in soybeans and Epoxiconazole +
peanuts, with some formulations also registered for use in azoxystrobin
canola. e.g. Radial®

Procymidone foliar applications in grain crops includes uses Epoxiconazole +

in navy beans, faba beans, with some labels also supporting Epoxiconazole pyraclostrobin
e.g. Opus® e.g. Opera®
use in canola and lentils or as a seed treatment.
Epoxiconazole +
tebuconazole +
Use of adjuvants with Group 2 azoxystrobin
Iprodione requires good coverage for effective control. Most e.g. AC Triaxe
labels do not support mixtures with surfactants, spray oils Flutriafol
or foliar fertilisers, as increased crop damage may ensue.
Some triazole fungicides, e.g. difenoconazole, fluquinconazole, flutriafol, ipconazole,
Alkaline spray water should be buffered to below pH 7 to prothioconazole, triticonazole also have applications as seed dressings.
increase spray tank stability.

26 ADJUVANTS - OILS, SURFACTANTS AND OTHER ADDITIVES FOR FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION
modes of action may broaden the spectrum of activity
and/or provide an additional mode of action for
Spiroxamine (Group 5)
resistance management. Spiroxamine (Prosper®) is a unique powdery mildew fungicide,
registered for use in barley and grapes.
Use of adjuvants with Group 3 There is no recommendation for additional tank mix adjuvants
with the EC formulation of Prosper.
Triazole fungicides are somewhat lipophilic and the inclusion
of an oil-based surfactant is likely to increase leaf entry.
Although this may not always be desirable, as it may lead to Succinate dehydrogenase inhibitors
increased phytotoxicity in some situations. Many foliar applied
triazole fungicides, in particular EC formulations, do not (Group 7)
recommend additional adjuvants when used in grain crops. Succinate dehydrogenase inhibitors (SDHIs) are fungicides
Suspension concentrate (SC) formulations of tebuconazole effective against a range of diseases. There are several
require the addition of Agridex® spray oil/surfactant in peanuts fungicide sub-classes within this mode of action.
and recommend that a mineral spray oil may improve Foliar fungicides used in grains include fungicide mixtures
performance in wheat. based on bixafen (Aviator® Xpro) which is registered for
Labels for epoxiconazole, epoxiconazole + azoxystrobin use in barley, wheat, canola and certain pulses and the
and epoxiconazole + pyraclostrobin fungicides differ with pydiflumetofen fungicide (Miravis®) used in canola.
regard to their adjuvant recommendations. Always follow the Carboxin (Vitaflo®), sedaxane (Vibrance®), penflufen (Evergol®)
label advice on individual drums. Some formulations do not and fluxapyroxad (Systiva®) based products are used as seed
recommend any additional adjuvant, others suggest that a treatments in cereals. Certain mixtures containing penflufen
non-ionic surfactant may assist in providing better coverage (Evergol® Xtend) can be used as a seed treatment in canola.
under certain environmental conditions or when using Vibrance® CST, containing sedaxane, is a seed treatment
lower total application volumes, while some other labels for cotton.
recommend the addition of a non-ionic surfactant in
all situations. Use of adjuvants with Group 7
Tazer® Xpert® (epoxiconazole + azoxystrobin) recommends Aviator® Pro is an emulsifiable concentrate formulation which
the addition of Banjo® (methoxylated canola oil + non-ionic may cause temporary leaf damage to broadleaf crops. No
surfactant blend) for use in cereals. additional adjuvants are recommended. When a tank mix
partner requires the addition of an adjuvant significant crop
Cyproconazole + azoxystrobin is often formulated as a SC.
effects can occur, hence these mixtures should be avoided.
The addition of Adigor® spray adjuvant is recommended to
Don’t mix with foliar fertilisers in canola.
improve disease control in barley.
Pydiflumetofen (Miravis®) is a suspension concentrate
Detailed adjuvant instructions are provided on the
formulation, with no requirement for additional adjuvant when
prothioconazole + tebuconazole label. The choice of no
used in canola.
adjuvant, a non-ionic surfactant or a crop oil concentrate
depends upon the crop, disease being targeted and Adjuvants are not required for seed treatment uses.
application rate. See label for details.
When applied as a foliar application, flutriafol SC formulations Strobilurins (Group 11)
recommend the addition of a non-ionic surfactant.
Strobilurins are highly effective protective fungicides, with little
Table 5b shows the improved control of leaf disease in wheat curative activity once an infection is established.
when the surfactant/acidifier LI-700® was added to flutriafol.
Strobilurins are often co-formulated with another fungicide
from a different mode of action that may have some early
curative activity (e.g. commonly Group 3 fungicides). Mixing
Table 5b: Effect of surfactant addition on
with a curative fungicide is especially important when using in
activity of foliar application of flutriafol crops where a single application is only likely to be applied
(250 g/L) against septoria leaf spot in wheat and some infection may have already occurred before
(Source: Nufarm). application.

% control Most strobilurins are somewhat lipophilic, which assists

Flutriafol rate/ha in partitioning fungicide in the cuticle and prevents spore
No adjuvant + LI-700® @ 0.5 %v/v
germination. There is generally minimal movement away from
200 mL 10 26 the site of application. For this reason, thorough coverage
400 mL 30 41 of all foliage is critical. Azoxystrobin has the best chemical
properties within this class for translocation and may provide
700 mL 41 70
some acropetal (upwards/outwards) movement in the xylem.
1000 mL 62 78
Azoxystrobin (co-formulated with either cyproconazole,
1500 mL 66 81
tebuconazole or epoxiconazole) and pyraclostrobin (co-
2000 mL 79 88 formulated with epoxiconazole) are the main strobilurins used
for foliar applications in cereals in Australia.
% v/v = Percent of adjuvant, in terms of volume (e.g. ml/L), in the final spray mix.
Veritas® (azoxystrobin + tebuconazole) is registered for
use in certain pulses and peanuts. Some azoxystrobin +
cyproconazole products are also registered for peanuts.
Azoxystrobin is also a component in several seed treatments.

ADJUVANTS - OILS, SURFACTANTS AND OTHER ADDITIVES FOR FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION 27
Use of adjuvants with Group 11 injury. Spraying oils should not be tank mixed, and spray oils
should only be used 10 days before, or after, chlorothalonil
Most azoxystrobin + epoxiconazole labels do not recommend applications. Other oil-based pesticides should not be mixed.
additional adjuvant use, however Tazer® Xpert® (azoxystrobin
+ epoxiconazole) recommends the addition of Banjo®
(methoxylated canola oil + non-ionic surfactant blend) for use
in cereals.
Azoxystrobin + cyproconazole products are often formulated
as a suspension concentrate. The addition of Adigor® spray
adjuvant is recommended to improve disease control in
barley.
Pyraclostrobin + epoxiconazole formulations are typically
suspo-emulsions (SE) and state that the addition of a non-ionic
surfactant may provide better coverage of treated surfaces.
Adjuvants are not required for seed treatment uses.

Quinoxyfen (Group 13)

Aza-napthalenes are a small group of fungicides that provide
protection from certain species of powdery mildew.
In broadacre situations, quinoxyfen (Legend®) is registered
against powdery mildew in barley. It provides protection from
new infections and will not provide curative activity of existing
infections.

Use of adjuvants with Group 13

Fungicides from this mode of action group are lipophilic and
will partition into the waxy cuticle. Legend® (quinoxyfen) is
rapidly absorbed into the cuticle, being rainfast within one
hour of application. No specific adjuvant recommendations
are made on the label.

Multi-site fungicides (Group M)

Group M fungicides are classified as a group having multiple
sites of activity. These comprise a wide range of chemical
groupings including inorganics (M1, M2), dithiocarbamate
(M3), phthalimide (M4), chloronitriles (M5), sulfamides (M6),
guanidine (M7) and quinones (M9). This group represents
predominantly protectant fungicides with contact activity.
The main multi-site fungicides that are foliar applied in grain
cropping include the M3 fungicides mancozeb (pulses,
peanuts, soybeans) and metiram (pulses) and the M5
fungicide chlorothalonil (faba beans and peanuts, while some
labels also include use in chickpea, lentils and field peas).
Thiram (M3) can also be used as a seed treatment in
chickpeas, lupins and sorghum.

Use of adjuvants with Group M fungicides

When applied as a foliar application, these fungicides do not
penetrate the leaf, remaining on the treated surface – hence
they can be subject to wash off after rainfall. Some mancozeb
and chlorothalonil products contain stickers in the formulation
which helps to reduce wash off after rainfall.
Mancozeb and metiram labels recommend including a
surfactant for improved coverage when used in pulses.
Some mancozeb labels recommend a sticker/wetter e.g.
Bond® adjuvant.
Chlorothalonil labels specifically recommend not to add any
additional adjuvants. Surfactants have been shown not to
assist performance, and in some situations may cause crop

28 ADJUVANTS - OILS, SURFACTANTS AND OTHER ADDITIVES FOR FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION
6. ADJUVANTS FOR DEFOLIANTS
AND GROWTH REGULATORS

Defoliants Plant growth regulators

Herbicides such as glyphosate, diquat, paraquat or In broadacre grains, the main growth regulators include
saflufenacil are used to defoliate certain grain crops in chlormequat chloride (e.g. Cycocel®) and trinexapac-ethyl
preparation for harvest. Ensure the use pattern is covered (Moddus®), while ethephon (Prep®) and mepiquat chloride
on the label of the product you are intending to use. Using (Reward®) are regularly used in cotton.
unregistered herbicides for defoliation may either damage the
marketable produce and/or result in crop residues exceeding Use of adjuvants with growth regulators
established maximum residues levels. GRDC has produced a
fact sheet addressing pre-harvest application of herbicides. Non-ionic surfactants are recommended with the plant growth
https://grdc.com.au/GRDC-FS-PreHarvestHerbicide regulator chlormequat chloride and for some uses with
ethephon. No adjuvant is required with mepiquat chloride or
trinexapac-ethyl.

In cotton, defoliation is undertaken by products which have

either a growth regulator mode of action e.g. thidiazuron
(Dropp®) or desiccant activity (e.g. sodium chlorate,
carfentrazone-ethyl, pyraflufen-ethyl).

Use of adjuvants with defoliants

Thidiazuron-based cotton defoliants are applied with
petroleum spray oils (e.g. D-C-Tron® Cotton).
Refer to Chapter 3 for adjuvant advice for herbicides used
as defoliants.

ADJUVANTS - OILS, SURFACTANTS AND OTHER ADDITIVES FOR FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION 29
7. ADJUVANTS FOR FOLIAR
NUTRIENTS

The application of foliar nutrients is becoming regular practice

in some broadacre crops and regions. Table 7a: Effect of foliar nutrient and adjuvant
on wheat (Janz) yield – Naracoorte SA 1999
Nutrients that may be applied as foliar sprays include
manganese, zinc, potassium, iron, nitrogen, sulfur, calcium, (Source: Nufarm 2000).
boron and copper. The use of foliar nutrients allows farmers to Treatment Rate Yield – t/ha
supplement the use of soil-applied nutrients on an ‘as needs’
Manganese Sulphate 2.5 kg/ha 1.30
basis, as well as to respond to deficiencies later in the crop.
Manganese Sulphate + LI-700® 2.5 kg/ha + 0.3% v/v 2.01
Foliar nutrients need to pass through the cuticle and enter the
plant to be effective. Spray adjuvants therefore have potential Zinc Sulphate + Manganese Sulphate 1.5 + 2.5 kg/ha 1.49
to enhance spread and uptake of foliar nutrients. Zinc Sulphate + Manganese Sulphate 1.5 + 2.5 kg/ha +
+ LI-700® 0.3% v/v 1.89
Formulations of foliar fertilisers vary greatly. Some
manufacturers include surfactants in the formulation % v/v = Per cent of adjuvant, in terms of volume (e.g. ml/L), in the final spray mix.
while sometimes the addition of a non-ionic surfactant is
recommended to improve uptake, particularly on hard-to-wet
leaf surfaces.
Caution: When added to the spray tank, foliar nutrient Table 7b: Effect of foliar nutrient and adjuvant
products that contain available cations (e.g. calcium, on wheat (Hartog) yield – Pittsworth Qld 1999
magnesium, iron in particular) may increase the
(Source: Nufarm 2000).
‘hardness’ of the water. These available cations are likely
to contribute to disassociation of herbicides such as Treatment Rate Yield – t/ha
glyphosate and other amine formulations which is likely to Nil – 3.16
result in reduced herbicide performance.
Zinctrac + Super N-32 350 mL/ha + 2% v/v 3.30
Incitec has produced an excellent summary of foliar fertilisers,
Zinctrac + Super N-32 + LI-700® 350 mL/ha + 2% v/v + 0.2% v/v 3.48
including their physical and biological interactions with
other products. (Incitec. 2016. Foliar Fertilisers.) https://www. % v/v = Per cent of adjuvant, in terms of volume (e.g. ml/L), in the final spray mix.
incitecpivotfertilisers.com.au/~/media/Files/IPF/Documents/
Agritopics/52%20Foliar%20Fertilisers%20Agritopic.pdf

Use of adjuvants with foliar nutrients

Trials in the UK, US and Australia have indicated that
buffering surfactants (such as LI-700® and others) may
improve uptake of foliar-applied nutrients and this often
leads to improvements in yield and quality. Trials have been
conducted on a range of crops including wheat (see Tables 7a
and 7b), cotton, soybeans and certain other crops. Responses
to adjuvants have been most marked with foliar manganese,
zinc, nitrogen, potassium and calcium.
Some foliar fertilisers can be phytotoxic (damaging plants) if
the solution becomes alkaline (e.g. potassium nitrate). The
addition of an acidifying or buffering adjuvant may reduce the
potential for phytotoxic effects on foliage.

30 ADJUVANTS - OILS, SURFACTANTS AND OTHER ADDITIVES FOR FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION
8. MORE INFORMATION – SPRAYING
AND MIXING

Pesticide application
GRDC has developed an extensive Spray Application
resource which provides more information on aspects of
spray application and sprayer set-up. It can be accessed at
https://grdc.com.au/spray-application-manual

Maximising spray efficiency

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qc-
j8ZpuA2Ww&list=PL2PndQdkNRHHKINyS-
3v04o46SA1g0V2ND&index=6

Best practice spray drift

management
Growers who use best practice spray application are keeping
themselves, their farms and their neighbours as safe as
possible. Practices such as not spraying during inversion
conditions, not spraying when the wind is blowing towards
sensitive areas or when the wind speed is too low or too
excessive will minimise impacts on the environment outside
the target crop.
Correct nozzle selection and application set-up is important to
maximise product efficacy, while also minimising the amount
of driftable fine droplets produced. The choice of adjuvants
can also have a positive or negative effect on the composition
of the spray and fines that are created (see Chapter 1).
The GRDC has been supporting new spray-drift reduction
research through the National Working Party on Pesticide
Applications, to improve knowledge of drift-reduction
technologies for growers.
Additional information on managing spray drift can be found
at https://grdc.com.au/spray-drift

ADJUVANTS - OILS, SURFACTANTS AND OTHER ADDITIVES FOR FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION 31
 SPRAY WATER QUALITY

FACT SHEET NATIONAL

UPDATED JULY 2019

Water Quality for Spraying Operations

SOURCE: HACH.COM

KEY POINTS
n Poor water quality can adversely
affect many products. Always
consult product labels and
the manufacturer’s technical
information about water quality
requirements.
n Water testing should be done on
a regular basis when using bore
water, water from streams and
rivers, reticulated (piped) water
sourced from ground water, and
water stored in unlined dams or
concrete tanks.
n Water tests should analyse the
following to be useful: pH, total
hardness (including a measure
of bi-carbonate levels) and total
Water quality test strips can dissolved salts (TDS) or salinity
be used to assess pH and (electrical conductivity).
water hardness in the field.

Why test water quality? What should tests measure? the strips. The strips can then be used
The quality of the water used for Water tests for spraying to assess if significant changes in water
spraying operations can be critical operations should include: quality have occurred and when another
to ensuring the best spray results for n pH; laboratory test may be required.
many farm chemicals. Many products n total hardness; Commonly available water test
can be affected by poor water quality. n bicarbonate levels; and strips include those supplied by Hach
When considering if the water n either total dissolved salts (TDS) or Pty Ltd (ranging from simple pool test
quality is suitable for a particular salinity (EC or electrical conductivity). strips to more accurate individual test
product, you need to have accurate While pH levels and total hardness strips and titration kits) or individual
information about what may be can be assessed in the field using pH and hardness test strips supplied
present in the water that could affect water test strips or simple titrations by Rowe Scientific Pty Ltd.
the products you intend using. (jar tests), other measurements will Typically, these will be able to
The starting point should always typically require laboratory analysis. measure hardness or pH at varying levels
be an accurate water test from a If using test strips it may be useful to of precision depending on the type of
reputable laboratory and a thorough compare laboratory results to test strip strips purchased. It is worth researching
check of the product label and technical results by setting aside water collected which may best suit your situation after
information from the manufacturer. for analysis to check the accuracy of receiving results from a laboratory.

32 ADJUVANTS - OILS, SURFACTANTS AND OTHER ADDITIVES FOR FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION
P Level 4, 4 National Circuit, Barton ACT 2600 | PO Box 5367, Kingston ACT 2604
grdc.com.au 1
T +61 2 6166 4500 F +61 2 6166 4599 E [email protected]
 Collecting water samples above eight) can cause several Water hardness
for testing problems. These include alkaline Total hardness is a measure of the
Use a clean container of at least hydrolysis and increased dissociation amount of cations (positive ions) such
500mL size. Rinse the bottle a minimum (breakdown of the product), poor as calcium, magnesium, sodium,
of four times with the sample water droplet contact with the target and iron and bicarbonates in the water,
(emptying it away from the sample site). reduced performance or stability from usually expressed in parts per
Collect the water (see Table 1). some formulations and adjuvants. million (ppm) or mg/L as calcium
Fill the bottle to the top, leaving little If considering reducing the pH carbonate equivalents (e.g. CaCO3
or no air space, and seal tightly. of water to be used for spraying, a mg/L). See Table 2 for examples of
Label the bottle accurately with buffering agent or buffering surfactant products affected by water quality.
where the sample was taken, the will generally be simpler to use than Cations such as calcium and
date and intended use. Wrap the straight acid. A buffering agent will magnesium in the water can bind
sample in aluminium foil to prevent reduce pH to a set point and hold it with negatively charged products
UV light from degrading the sample. there, whereas straight acids tend to such as the weak acid herbicides
continue to reduce pH as you add more. (e.g. glyphosate), so that they lose
Water pH Commercial adjuvants such as LI700 can their activity in the target plant.
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion reduce pH and have buffering capacity. Typically, water hardness above
concentration ( H+), which indicates how Acidic water (pH values typically 250ppm (CaCO3 equivalents) should be
acidic or alkaline the water may be on a below 5) can affect tank mix stability treated before using seveal herbicides,
1 to 14 scale, where seven is considered and lead to gelling of some salt- particularly where pH is above seven.
neutral. Values below seven are acidic, based products such as 2,4-D amines, Bicarbonates can also affect
values above seven are alkaline. particularly in tank mixes with some some products. Bicarbonate levels
Alkaline water (pH values typically other salt-based and flowable products. as low as 175ppm (mg/L) have been

TABLE 1 Sample timing and location TABLE 2 Herbicide tolerances to water qualities
Water quality
A new bore or well
Sample after pumping for several Active constituent Alkaline Acidic
(example product) Muddy Saline Hard (> pH 8) (< pH 5)
hours
Carfentrazone-Ethyl (Affinity®)    X NR
An operating bore Chlorsulfuron (Lusta®)    Marginal X
Sample after running the pump Clopyralid (Lontrel™)   X X
for 30 minutes, collect as close as
Dicamba   NR NR
possible to the head of
the bore. Diclofop-methyl (Rhino®)    NR 
Diflufenican (Brodal®)   X
A stream Diquat + Paraquat (Spray.Seed®) X    
Sample main stream flow Diuron  Test  
Diuron + 2,4–D amine  Test X NR
A dam or lake
Diuron + MCPA amine  Test X NR
Sample away from the edge and
near the suction inlet to the pump. Fluazifop-P (Fusilade®)    NR X
Ensure water is well mixed and Glyphosate X  X 
filtered, or sample various depths. Haloxyfop (Verdict®)    NR 
Metsulfuron-methyl (Ally®)    Marginal X
Quizalofop-p-ethyl (Leopard®)     
Sethoxydim (Sertin®)     
Simazine  X  NR
Diflufenican + MCPA ester (Tigrex®)  X X NR
Triasulfuron (Logran®)    Marginal X
Trifluralin    
2,4–DB X NR
2,4–D or MCPA amine   X NR
2,4–D or MCPA ester  Test Test  
Key:  = OK; X = Do not use; NR = Not recommended but use quickly if there is no alternative;
Test = Mix herbicides and water in proportion and observe any instability; Marginal = Not ideal,
but acceptable
SOURCE: WEED CONTROL IN WINTER CROPS, 2011 – NSW DPI

2 grdc.com.au

ADJUVANTS - OILS, SURFACTANTS AND OTHER ADDITIVES FOR FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION 33
reported to reduce the efficacy of some TABLE 4 Examples of products affected by water quality
Group A herbicides and 2,4-D amine.
Active/products Hardness Bicarbonates Salinity Muddiness Alkalinity
Often it is useful to have the level of
bicarbonates identified as a separate Alpha Cypermethrin
LI-700
(Fastac® Duo)
measurement in a water quality test.
Ammonium sulfate (known as Atrazine WG Liase®
AMS) can assist with water hardness. Chlorsulfuron (Lusta®) Liase® Avoid
Ammonium sulfate-based products Clethodim (Sequence®) Liase®
(such as Liase® and Liquid Boost) that Clopyralid (Archer®) Liase® LI-700
are registered as adjuvants may be
Chlorpyrifos EC LI-700
used with a number of products to
Cypermethrin EC LI-700
reduce the impact of water hardness.
Ammonium sulfate is most useful Dicamba Amine
Liase® LI-700
(Kamba® M)
when supplied as a formulated liquid
(typically around 417grams/L) or in a Diclofop-methyl (Rhino®) LI-700
soluble crystalline form (typically around Diflufenican LI-700
980gram/kg). These are often preferred Diflufenican/MCPA
Liase®
LI-700
by growers for their ease of mixing than (Nugrex®)
the granular form. Dimethoate LI-700
Ammonium sulfate can assist in Diquat/Paraquat
Avoid
dealing with cations that may be (Revolver®)
present in the water, but by itself will Diuron Liase® Avoid LI-700
not significantly change the pH, which Diuron + 2,4-D amine Liase® Avoid LI-700
Diuron + MCPA amine
Liase® Avoid LI-700
(Agritone® 750 amine)
TABLE 3 Water hardness levels Glyphosate
(WHL)and recommended treatment Liase® Avoid LI-700
(Roundup® DST)
with AMS to alleviate the effects of Glyphosate
hard water Liase® Avoid
(Roundup™ Attack)
Imazamox/Imazapyr
Liquid
(Intervix®)
Water Boost
Water hardness (AMS) Imazamox (Raptor®) Liase®
hardness level Water recom- MCPA ester
level Ca++ CaCO3 hardness mend Liase® LI 700
(Agritone® LVE)
ppm ppm level mL/100L
MCPA amine
Liase® Avoid
80 200 0.69 250 (Agritone® 750 amine)
120 300 0.89 375 Simazine 900 DF Liase® Avoid
160 400 1.18 500 Tralkoxydim (Achieve®) Liase®
200 500 1.48 625 2,4–D ester
240 600 1.78 750 Liase® Avoid
(Estercide Xtra® 680)
280 700 2.07 875 2,4–D amine
Liase® Avoid LI 700
320 800 2.37 1000 (Surpass® 475)
360 900 2.66 1125 Chart legend: Managing water quality – recommendations depend on the severity of problem
400 1000 2.96 1250 Can be managed with Liase Liase® Generally no problem
500 1250 3.70 1565 Can be managed with LI 700 LI 700 Water should be avoided Avoid
750 1875 5.55 2345
SOURCE: NUFARM NOZZLE CHARTS 2012 AND NUFARM SPRAYWISE SPRAY LOG
1000 2500 7.40 3125
1 WHL =
Calcium 342 parts
Calcium
carbonate per million
(ppm)*
* testing kits are available in measurements of may also need to be addressed at Salinity (dissolved salts)
342ppm or 1000ppm
the same time to minimise issues such Salinity is usually measured as the
SOURCE: SYNGENTA TECHNOTES TN08-379 NON-SELECTIVE
HERBICIDES AND ADJUVANTS as alkaline hydrolysis and stability. electrical conductivity (EC) of the water.
The amount of ammonium sulfate High levels of salinity (above
required can be calculated if a 1000ppm sodium chloride or ECs
suitable water test is available. As above 500 microsiemens/cm) can
a guide to appropriate amounts result in some chemicals precipitating
of ammonium sulfate to add out of the solution and others being
to hard water, see Table 3. inactivated. It can also make it

grdc.com.au 3

34 ADJUVANTS - OILS, SURFACTANTS AND OTHER ADDITIVES FOR FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION
 difficult to adjust pH using buffers. Filtering water and settling it in a products when the water quality is
Often the only solution with holding tank prior to use can help not suitable.
highly saline water is not to use it for to reduce turbidity. If using a settling Low-temperature water can lead
spraying, or to greatly dilute it with agent, such as alum, only very small to solubility problems and gelling
clean rain water when it is available. quantities should be used in accordance in the tank (even in clean water).
with the manufacturer’s guidelines.
Dirty water (suspended Often too much alum is added to Summary
solids) dam water, which can result in high Poor water quality can adversely
Dirty or turbid water can adversely levels of aluminum in solution. This affect many spray jobs, particularly
affect products such as Spray.Seed® increases hardness and creates more where products remain in the tank for
and glyphosate due to the clay problems for several products than extended periods, where high water
colloids suspended in the water. As a the untreated dirty water may have. rates are used, or where low
general rule, if a 10 cent coin cannot rates of product are used.
be seen in the bottom of a bucket of Temperature Know what your water quality
water it is too dirty for use with products Increased water temperatures can is and how to treat it when
affected by dirty water (see Table 4). accelerate the breakdown of some using different products.

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS RESOURCES

Where can I get my water tested? ‘Adjuvants: Oils, surfactants and

Check with your local department of agriculture or primary other additives for farm chemicals’,
industries, or talk to your local chemical reseller about suitable GRDC
laboratories in your state. Some chemical and adjuvant manufacturers www.grdc.com.au/GRDC-Booklet-
also offer water testing through the reseller networks. Adjuvants

T. Burfitt, S. Hardy and T. Somers,

Where can I buy test strips? “Weed Control in Winter Crops,
Some of the basic test strips for pH and hardness are available 2011” with extracts from Spray Sense
in hardware stores or through stores that supply pool equipment. Bulletin No.12, NSW DPI, 1996.
For more accurate test strips visit the manufacturer’s websites Gerard Bardell, “Water quality and
to locate a local distributor (Hach.com or Rowe.com.au) spraying issues for 2007”, BCG Crop
and Pasture Production Manual 2006-
How often should I test my water? 2007.
If using bore water or water sourced from the ground, obtain a full laboratory John Moore, Vanessa Stewart &
test annually. If extending the interval between tests to two years, use test Jessica Johns, “Water quality for
strips to check water quality in between. If a significant change in pH or spraying”, Department of Agriculture,
hardness is noticed on the test strips get the water retested by a laboratory. Western Australia, e-weed, Edition 8,
5 June 2003.
What should I do before mixing a spray load if I am not sure Ground Cover Direct
about the water quality? Free Phone: 1800 11 00 44
Conduct a jar test to ensure the tank mix will be stable. For susceptible [email protected]
products use a robust rate of product and utilise an acidifying
buffer/adjuvant and ammonium sulfate where appropriate.
MORE INFORMATION

Former spray specialist Bill Gordon

0429 976 565
[email protected]

Acknowledgements: Bill Gordon, Graham Betts.

DISCLAIMER
Any recommendations, suggestions or opinions contained in this publication do not necessarily represent the policy or views of the Grains Research and Development
Corporation. No person should act on the basis of the contents of this publication without first obtaining specific, independent, professional advice. The Corporation and
contributors to this Fact Sheet may identify products by proprietary or trade names to help readers identify particular types of products. We do not endorse or recommend
the products of any manufacturer referred to. Other products may perform as well as or better than those specifically referred to. GRDC will not be liable for any loss,
damage, cost or expense incurred or arising by reason of any person using or relying on the information in this publication.

CAUTION: RESEARCH ON UNREGISTERED AGRICULTURAL CHEMICAL USE

Any research with unregistered agricultural chemicals or of unregistered products reported in this document does not constitute a recommendation for that particular use by
the authors or the authors’ organisations.
All agricultural chemical applications must accord with the currently registered label for that particular agricultural chemical, crop, pest and region.
Copyright © All material published in this Fact Sheet is copyright protected and may not be reproduced in any form without written permission from GRDC.

4 grdc.com.au Produced by www.coretext.com.au

ADJUVANTS - OILS, SURFACTANTS AND OTHER ADDITIVES FOR FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION 35
 SPRAY MIXING REQUIREMENTS

FACT SHEET
SPRAY MIXING REQUIREMENTS

FACT SHEET NATIONAL

UPDATED JULY 2019
NATIONAL
UPDATED JULY 2019

Mixing requirements for

Mixing requirements
spraying operations for
spraying operations
BETTS BETTS
PHOTO: GRAHAM
PHOTO: GRAHAM

Jar tests can be done in the paddock prior to mixing the chemicals. Chemicals can be measured using
syringes, by substituting mL for L/ha and mixing in the same ratio and order as the actual tank mix.
Jar tests can be done in the paddock prior to mixing the chemicals. Chemicals can be measured using
Importance
syringes, of mL
by substituting correct
for L/ha and mixing in the same ratio and order as the actual tank mix.
mixing order
Importance of correct
Correct mixing order reduces the will usually result in undesirable KEY POINTS
mixing order
risk of products interacting in a way interactions between products.
Correct willApplicators
usually result in understand
undesirable
n Understand
KEY POINTS what the formulation
that maymixing
reduce order
theirreduces
efficacythe or must type is for each product and
risk of products interacting
affect the stability of the tank mix.in a way interactions between
what the formulation and products. n Understand what the formulation
thatThe
may reduce their efficacy or Applicators must understand
adjuvant being used.
addition of multiple products adjuvant type is for each of the type is for each product and
affect
to the the
spraystability of thetake
tank must tankplace
mix. what the formulation
products they intend andmixing. Never bring
n adjuvant concentrated
being used.
The addition of multiple
in a specific order to ensure they products adjuvant
Information is
type for each
about of the mixing
the correct products into contact with each
to the spray tank must take place products they intend mixing. n Never bring concentrated
other through mixing equipment
can be adequately mixed through order can often be found on the
Information about the forcorrect products into contact
or in low tank volumes.with each
in
thea solution,
specific order to ensure
according to theirthey product label. However, somemixing
tank
can be adequately mixed through order can often be found on the other through mixing equipment
solubility and formulation type. mix combinations, further information Know
n or thetank
in low correct mixing order
volumes.
theBringing
solution,most
according
products to their
into contact product label. However,
may be required from theformanufacturer
some tank for every tank mix you use.
solubility and formulation type.
with each other in a concentrated form mix combinations, further information
through tech notes or product guides. n Know the correct mixing order
Bringing most products into contact may be required from the manufacturer for every tank mix you use.
with each
P Level 4, 4other in a
National concentrated
Circuit, Barton ACTform through
2600 | PO tech
Box 5367, notes ACT
Kingston or product
2604 guides.
grdc.com.au 1
T
36+61ADJUVANTS
2 6166 4500- OILS,
F +61SURFACTANTS
2 6166 4599 [email protected]
OTHER ADDITIVES FOR FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION
P Level 4, 4 National Circuit, Barton ACT 2600 | PO Box 5367, Kingston ACT 2604
grdc.com.au 1
T +61 2 6166 4500 F +61 2 6166 4599 E [email protected]
 TABLE 1 Formulation types and products. TABLE 3 Basic chemical mixing order.
Formulation type Code Example of products Mixing
Water dispersible order Water – chemical – additives Example of product
WDG Spinnaker 700 WDG
granules, water-soluble
granules and dry WDG Simazine 900 WG 1 Water conditioners, acidifiers, etc. Liase®, LI 700®
flowables
DF Penncozeb 750 DF
Suspension SC Regent® 200SC
2 Wettable, dispersible granules Lusta®, Nugran®, Associate®
concentrates
SC Mancoflo 420 SC
3 Dry, flowable (DF) Diuron (WG), Simazine (DF)
Emulsifiable EC Broadside®
concentrates
EC Bromicide® 200 4 Flowables (suspension concentrates) Regent® 200SC
EC Triclopyr 600

EC TriflurX®
5 Wetter if using ECs*1 Activator®, BS 1000®
EC Fastac® Duo Triflur® X™, Avadex® Xtra,
6 Emulsifiable concentrate (EC)
Soluble liquids (which SL Amicide Advance® 700
Estercide Xtra 680®
include soluble
Amicide Advance 700®,
concentrates and SL Kamba® M 7 Water soluble concentrates
aqueous concentrates) Gladiator CT
SL Spray.Seed®
Soluble liquid SL Weedmaster® Argo
8 Adjuvants Oils*2, LI 700®*3, BS 1000®
(containing glyphosate)
SL Roundup® Ultramax
9 Liquid UAN Easy N
SL Gladiator CT
*1
Wetter to be added at stage 5 if using ECs
*2
Oils must be added last to all mixes
*3
If added at stage 1, do not add at stage 5 or 8
When adding water conditioner, fill spray tank as full as practical while adding water conditioner.
TABLE 2 Adjuvant types and products. Add water conditioners before adding any chemicals.
Adjuvant There are some exceptions to these basic guidelines:
Types of products Examples
type • Glyphosate and some 2,4-D products. See mixing instructions for isopropylamine forms of 2,4-D:
Surfactants Wetter 1000 products BS 1000® 1. Clean water 5. Fill the tank to around 95%
2. Add water conditioners 6. Add glyphosate
Organosilicones Pulse® 3. Add other herbicides, insecticides, etc. 7. Add other adjuvants
Stickers Bond® Mix thoroughly 8. Add remaining water
Oils 4. Add 2,4-D product
Petroleum-based oils Uptake®
• Glyphosate and Starane™ Advanced Herbicide. Refer to the Starane™ Advanced label.
Vegetable oils Hasten® Glyphosate is put in the spray tank before Starane™ Advanced.
Acidifiers Acidifier/buffer LI 700® or Collide® SOURCE: NUFARM AND ASK GB
and buffers
Buffer Primabuff ®

FIGURE 1 A simple jar test

Fertiliser Ammonium sulfate Liase®
adjuvants based A guide to the suitability of water for spray applications can be quickly
Boost® obtained using the following procedure:

1
Free Flow Ammo® Mix at least 500mL of correctly diluted spray in a clear glass sealed
container according to the manufacturer’s instructions.

2 Mix thoroughly and allow to stand

for up to 30 minutes.

3 If creaming (where suspended droplets of product appear to remain

in a layer at the top of the jar), sedimentation or separation into
layers occurs, the water may be unsuitable for mixing sprays.

4 If suspected of being unsuitable, a sample of this water should be

chemically analysed for salt and hardness levels.
Three possible outcomes of the jar test: Left – layers forming,
middle – sediment produced, right – well mixed.
PHOTO: NUFARM LTD
5 Different brands of the same chemical may react differently
because of different additives in each formulation.

2 grdc.com.au

ADJUVANTS - OILS, SURFACTANTS AND OTHER ADDITIVES FOR FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION 37
 FIGURE 2 Mixing instructions for Jar test – product rates Possible results of the jar test
isopropylamine forms of 2,4-D Product rates for the jar test should also n The jar contains a homogenous
use the field rate divided by 100 (see solution. This is where the whole
Ensure the spray tank is free of Table 4). For example: a rate of 2L/ha, mixture appears consistent in
any residue of previous spray or 2000 millilitres per hectare (mL/ha) appearance. This is the best result
materials. becomes 20mL per test, a rate of 800mL/ a jar test can produce. The mixed

1 Fill the spray tank with clean

water to the recommended
amount before introducing the
ha becomes 8mL per test, and so on.
Adjuvants can be a little trickier
because they are mixed at a rate per 100L.
solution seems to be stable and
suggests that the planned tank mix is
physically compatible and products
products. Often this requires the For example, 2000mL per 100L of water will be able to be mixed in the tank.
tank to be around 70 per cent full with a liquid AMS becomes 20mL per litre. n The jar contains thick layers or
before starting the agitation. For a tank mix to be applied at 70L/ha, the banding in the profile. This indicates
Do NOT use mechanical agitators total jar test volume would be 0.7L, not a that the solution is not stable without
as these may cause excessive whole litre. The amount of liquid AMS to agitation. If some shakes of the jar can
foaming when herbicides are add to the total jar volume of 0.7L would make the solution homogenous again,
added. be 14mL (20mL per litre x 0.7L = 14mL). and it stays this way for two minutes

2
It is useful to have some syringes to before layers start to form slowly
Add water conditioners at measure small volumes. They are easily again, it can be assumed that agitation
the required rate. obtained from pharmacies or medical should overcome the problem.

3 Add recommended herbicide

additive/insecticide to the
spray tank and mix thoroughly.
supply shops and come in various sizes;
3mL and 20mL should provide sufficient
volume variation. Dry products require
However, if the banding returns
within about 30 seconds, it is a
strong indication that there will

4
scales: a portable scale (electronic be a problem with the tank mix
Add isopropylamine form of balance) should provide reasonable that even good agitation may
2,4-D and mix thoroughly. accuracy in the 10–20 gram range. not be able to overcome.

5 Top up tank to 95 per cent

of desired capacity then
add the glyphosate product and
Conducting the jar test
The mixing order should be the same
n There is sediment or precipitate on
the bottom of the jar. This indicates
strongly that the mix is not physically
remaining water. as that used in the field. Shaking the jar compatible or the mixing procedure

6
after mixing will simulate agitation. When was not right, e.g. adding 2,4-D before
When surfactant is used,
dry products are used they should be allowing sufficient time for crystalline
add near the end of the
fully dissolved before the next product is ammonium sulfate to dissolve.
filling process to minimise
introduced (this may require a separate
foaming.
container to dissolve dry products, if that

7 Always maintain adequate

agitation during application
and use the tank mix promptly.
is what you do in the field). Waiting for
products to fully dissolve may take some
time, (for example, when using crystalline
Adapted from a Nufarm label for a product ammonium sulfate), but this is also what
that is no longer registered. will be required for the actual tank mix.
After the mixing is finished the jar
should be left to stand for for at least
5 minutes, ideally up to 30 minutes.
Jar test – water volume
The easiest way to simulate actual
tank-mix ratios is to divide everything
TABLE 4 An example of field rates and the rates to be used for a jar test.
by 100. For example, 70 litres per Example of volumes in a jar test (one-hundredths of a hectare rate or volume)
hectare (L/ha) becomes a 0.7L volume Field rates Jar volume or amount
in the jar. It is a good idea to use the
Total application volume 70L/ha 70 ÷ 100 = Final jar volume 0.7L
same water source that is going to
be used to spray with. If the initial Initial mix – starting Initial jar water volume
60% tank capacity 0.7 x 0.6 = or 0.7 x 60%
mixing takes place with 60 per cent water volume 0.42L
tank capacity of water, this should be
Liquid AMS 2000mL per 100L 2000 ÷ 100 x 0.7 = 14mL
reflected in the jar test as well. For
example, 60 per cent of 0.7L would 2,4-D 800mL per ha 800 ÷ 100 = 8mL
amount to 0.42L (0.7 x 0.6 = 0.42) for
the initial volume of water in the jar. Glyphosate 2000mL per ha 2000 ÷ 100 = 20mL

SOURCE: GRDC GROWNOTES, SPRAY APPLICATION MANUAL FOR GRAIN GROWERS

grdc.com.au 3

38 ADJUVANTS - OILS, SURFACTANTS AND OTHER ADDITIVES FOR FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION
 Knowledge of formulation Adjuvant types Mixing order
types is essential for mixing The type of adjuvant is also Table 3 and Figure 2 include
Formulation type is sometimes important for determining the the suggested mixing orders
indicated on the product label if it correct point during the mixing for a range of situations.
is incorporated into the name of the process that it should be added.
product (for example, Simazine 900DF The addition of adjuvant to the Jar tests to assess physical
for dry flowable, or Chlorpyrifos 500 tank mix can change depending compatibility
EC for emulsifiable concentrate), on the formulation of the products If you are unsure about the ability to mix
but this is not always the case. actually being mixed. certain products it is always a good idea
Examples of formulation types Examples of adjuvant types and to contact the manufacturers for further
and products are shown in Table 1. products are shown in Table 2. information, and to conduct a jar test
to confirm physical compatibility (see
Figure 2). A jar test can only tell you if the
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS products are physically compatible (able
to be mixed). It will not tell you if there are
When should I add adjuvants? problems with biological compatibility,
That will depend on the adjuvant type. Water conditioners such as ammonium where one product may interfere with
sulfate should be added to the recommended amount of water before other the biological activity of another.
products are introduced into the tank. Surfactants such as Wetter 1000
products are introduced at the end, unless liquid UAN is used which would go Summary
in after the wetter. If one of the products is an EC formulation the wetter would Mixing order is critical to ensure that tank
be added after the dry products, so always check the mixing order chart. mixed products perform to their potential.
Understanding formulation type and
Why do I get excessive foaming when I am mixing some products? adjuvant type are an important part of
Often foaming results when using the Venturi system to fill the spray tank. getting the mixing order right. If in doubt
Sometimes foaming can be reduced by having more water in the tank before about the compatibility of products in a
introducing products or by using anti-foaming agents. Where these strategies tank mix, contact the manufacturers and
do not work, it might require that filling be done using an external pump. conduct a jar test to ensure they will mix.

How can I tell if products I have not used before can

be mixed together?
Often there will be information about compatibility on the product labels.
RESOURCES
If specific information about the products you want to mix is not on the
label, It is best to contact the manufacturer of the product before mixing Graham Betts, ‘Water Quality and Your
Spray Product’ in Adjuvants: Oils,
takes place. If you are still in doubt conduct a jar test, which will let you
surfactants and other additives for
know if they are physically compatible. Remember that even if they can
farm chemicals, revised 2014 edition.
be mixed, this will not tell you if they are biologically compatible.
https://grdc.com.au/AdjuvantsBooklet
Why do some products ‘gel’ when mixed together?
Often this can result from a couple of factors interacting, which are water
quality, mixing order and water temperature. Sometimes gelling can be
accelerated if water is at a high temperature and water quality is not
suitable. Other times gelling can occur with some products at low water MORE INFORMATION
temperatures. It is essential that water quality is considered as a part of
the solution, and when using water conditioners that they be added to Former spray specialist Bill Gordon
the water and sufficient time is allowed for them to dissolve before other 0429 976 565
products are added. Then make sure the correct mixing order is followed. [email protected]

Acknowledgements: Bill Gordon, Graham Betts.

DISCLAIMER
Any recommendations, suggestions or opinions contained in this publication do not necessarily represent the policy or views of the Grains Research and Development
Corporation. No person should act on the basis of the contents of this publication without first obtaining specific, independent, professional advice. The Corporation and
contributors to this Fact Sheet may identify products by proprietary or trade names to help readers identify particular types of products. We do not endorse or recommend
the products of any manufacturer referred to. Other products may perform as well as or better than those specifically referred to. GRDC will not be liable for any loss,
damage, cost or expense incurred or arising by reason of any person using or relying on the information in this publication.

CAUTION: RESEARCH ON UNREGISTERED AGRICULTURAL CHEMICAL USE

Any research with unregistered agricultural chemicals or of unregistered products reported in this document does not constitute a recommendation for that particular use by
the authors or the authors’ organisations.
All agricultural chemical applications must accord with the currently registered label for that particular agricultural chemical, crop, pest and region.
Copyright © All material published in this Fact Sheet is copyright protected and may not be reproduced in any form without written permission from GRDC.

4 grdc.com.au Produced by www.coretext.com.au

ADJUVANTS - OILS, SURFACTANTS AND OTHER ADDITIVES FOR FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION 39
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS

Q: Legally, can I use a spray adjuvant that is not approved Q: Are all oils the same?
for use with a pesticide?
No. Oils may be either petroleum or plant-based. Within these
Any product that makes a claim in relation to controlling a groups, spraying oils also vary according to the type and
pest population must be approved for use by the Australian quantity of emulsifiers (surfactants) used in the formulation. In
Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority (APVMA) before addition, certain plant-based oils are ‘esterified’ (combined
it can be sold or used. This includes spray adjuvants that with an alcohol to form a fatty acid ester).
modify the performance of other pesticides.
Within the petroleum spray oil group, performance may
Where a pesticide label recommends the use of an adjuvant vary according to the properties of the base oil from
without nominating a specific tradename (e.g., ‘wetting agent’ which they are refined, the degree of refinement and the
or ‘non-ionic surfactant’), the user is free to choose any presence or absence of other additives, e.g. UV stabilisers or
product that conforms to this description. specialised surfactants.
The situation is less clear where a specific product is
Q: When should I not use a surfactant?
recommended for use and several other alternative or
equivalent products exist. In this instance, using a different Certain selective herbicide labels specifically recommend
brand of adjuvant may place the user in a difficult situation not to add surfactants or crop oils. This is mostly seen
should a product performance issue arises. Some labels go with pesticides used in-crop as the addition of the
as far as stating that non-specified brands are not supported. surfactant may reduce the selectivity of the product.
These recommendations should be heeded, even where
When an adjuvant type (e.g. buffering agent) is not specifically
the addition of a spray adjuvant apparently enhances
recommended with a particular pesticide but is widely
control of the weed, pest or disease.
used (e.g. with certain insecticides and herbicides such as
glyphosate), the absence of a reciprocal registration on a Where no specific adjuvant advice is given on the pesticide
pesticide label may also place the user in a difficult situation label it is likely that the formulation already contains
should a product performance issue arise. adequate adjuvant. In these cases, adding extra adjuvant
may add unnecessary cost, may lead to excessive foaming,
If in doubt about the use of a particular spray adjuvant,
produce more small droplets that can be subject to drift or
refer to the respective product labels first and then the
change the droplet produced, especially when using air-
manufacturer of the pesticide or their representative.
induction nozzles. In some situations, it has been shown that
excessive rates of surfactant may actually reduce retention
Q: Are all surfactants the same?
on the leaf, should the extra surfactant cause droplets to run
No. Surfactants vary widely in their chemical structure and off the surface before drying. Crop damage is also a potential
function. They all have some water loving ‘hydrophilic’ and outcome of too much or the wrong type of adjuvant.
fat loving ‘lipophilic’ components, however, the composition
Some surfactants and spray adjuvants may be antagonistic.
varies widely.
For example, organosilicone surfactants such as Pulse® may
Surfactants assist dispersion in the spray tank and coverage reduce weed control of many annual grasses when added
of the leaf surface. They can be broadly classified according to glyphosate. A similar effect may be observed with the
to their structural type, on the basis of whether they carry addition of petroleum spray oil to glyphosate, leading to
a net positive (cationic), negative (anionic), amphoteric reduced control of some summer grasses, such as awnless
or neutral (non-ionic) electrical charge. There are many barnyard grass.
surfactants/wetting agents commercially available. In
addition, most other types of commercial adjuvants (spray oils, Q: If spray adjuvants are so important, why don’t the
buffering agents, stickers etc.) often also contain a surfactant chemical manufacturers always include them within their
in their formulation. products?
If a specific surfactant brand product is specified on a Pesticide products are generally formulated in order to allow
pesticide label it is important to heed this, as it is possible the consistent and effective application of one or more active
that an alternative product may not give the desired effect ingredients to the pest or weed target. Many formulations
or reduce the effectiveness of the product or lead to contain components such as emulsifiers (surfactants) and
unacceptable levels of crop damage. Where surfactant use other agents that enable the product to ‘hold together’
rates are provided on the pesticide label this is likely to be in storage and be dispersed effectively in a water carrier
based on the surfactant type and loading. when mixed in preparation for spraying. This is particularly
important for active ingredients that are not readily soluble
in water.

40 ADJUVANTS - OILS, SURFACTANTS AND OTHER ADDITIVES FOR FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION
Some formulations may also contain adjuvants specifically Q: I seem to have too many surfactant products in the
to facilitate the spread of spray droplets and uptake of chemical shed. Can we rationalise our use of products?
active ingredient. Unfortunately, it is very difficult to optimise
While there will always be some need for specialised
this for the widest possible range of situations, varying as
spray adjuvant products, it is possible to rationalise the use
it does with the rate of product being used, the volume of
of surfactants.
spray carrier and the nature of the spray target. For some
products it would be physically very difficult to incorporate Many pesticide products simply call for the addition of a
some adjuvants into a formulation, while maintaining a non-ionic surfactant (nearly all agricultural surfactants are
sufficiently high concentration of active ingredient to make it non-ionic) or a spreader or wetter (all surfactants perform this
cost effective. A glyphosate formulation containing ammonium function to a greater or lesser extent).
sulphate, for example, may have to have a third to a half of
Of the base line surfactants, the choice often comes down
the concentration of active ingredient, compared to a regular
to either an alkoxylated alcohol (e.g. BS1000®) or an
formulation containing surfactant only. The relative cost and
alkyl phenol ethoxylate (e.g. Agral®). Many alkoxylated
effectiveness of a ‘fully loaded’ product may affect its market
alcohols are 1000g/L formulations, while many alkyl phenol
acceptability, even if it were to be a superior product in
ethoxylates are 600g/L formulations, so there will often be a
respect of its performance.
difference in required use rate.
Q: What effect do spray adjuvants have on Many pH buffering adjuvants, organosilicons and spray oil
nozzle performance? products also contain a non-ionic surfactant or other similar
wetter, so normally an additional surfactant/wetter is not
Relative to water, many conventional surfactant products (in
required when using these products. Always check the
particular non-ionic surfactants) will increase the proportion
adjuvant label, as the level of surfactant varies considerably
of small droplets produced by a hydraulic nozzle (i.e. they
between different adjuvants.
reduce average droplet size and create more ‘driftable fines’).
This is because the reduction in surface tension produced by pH reducing buffers are widely used in Australia. However,
the addition of a surfactant leads to greater disintegration of a there are limited situations where benefit is achieved purely
spray sheet as it emerges from a spray nozzle. But there can from reducing spray tank pH. It is usually more important to
be big differences in this effect depending on the type and address the underlying reason for high pH, which is often
concentration of surfactant, the pesticide it is being mixed with associated with ‘hard water’. Most buffers contain an acid
and the type of nozzle. (to reduce pH) and a surfactant. Often the benefit achieved
from the addition of the ‘buffer’ is coming largely from the
The addition of an oil may increase the average droplet
surfactant component, so in these situations pre-conditioning
size, however, many commercial spray oil formulations also
the water and replacing the buffer with a simple surfactant
contain a significant concentration of surfactant that may
may be appropriate.
negate this effect.
Where the source of spray water is ‘hard’ (> 250 ppm CaCo3
Adding oils at high rates (around 20 per cent or more of
equivalent), pre-treatment with ammonium sulphate (or a
the sprayable volume) may lead to reduced evaporation of
surfactant blend containing ammonium sulphate) will be
droplets, following release from the nozzle.
beneficial when using glyphosate and many other amine/salt
herbicides.
Q: How toxic are surfactants?
Some products specifically recommend the use of a
Relative to the active constituents of some pesticide
petroleum spray oil (e.g. Cropshield), petroleum spray
formulations, toxicity of surfactants is not particularly high.
oil concentrate (e.g. Uptake®), vegetable oil (Codacide®)
This is not surprising considering the universal application
or an esterified vegetable oil (e.g. Hasten®). Pesticides
of surfactant technology to many household items including
recommending these oil-based adjuvants will typically be
cleaning agents, foods, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals.
more lipophilic. Oils generally do not assist in penetration with
By their nature, surfactants reduce surface tension of water hydrophilic pesticides.
and may lead to skin or eye irritation.
Beyond this there are a range of more specialised adjuvants
Surfactant products are regulated in the same way as that should only be used where they are specifically
pesticides and data must be submitted as to the acute effects recommended on specific product labels.
of surfactants, either as components of a spray formulation or
as products for use as spray adjuvants.
Long-term effects of many surfactants is not as well known
and this has led to some concern that certain surfactants
may be detrimental to the environment e.g. in waste streams
from urban and industrial areas. However, surfactants do
not generally persist in the environment and, in normal
agricultural applications, are rarely present in sufficient
concentration to be detrimental.

ADJUVANTS - OILS, SURFACTANTS AND OTHER ADDITIVES FOR FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION 41
GLOSSARY OF TERMS

To help understand the terms used in describing the types Crop oil concentrate: An emulsifiable petroleum-based
and functions of spray adjuvants, a glossary of terms and phytobland oil containing 15 to 20% w/w (or more) surfactant.
definitions is included here, based on standard terminology
Crop oil: An emulsifiable petroleum-oil based product
relating to agricultural tank mix adjuvants developed by the
containing up to 5% w/w surfactant and the remainder being a
American Society for Testing of Materials (Berger et. al. 1993).
phytobland oil.
Acidifier: An acid that can be added to spray mixtures to
Dissociation constant (pKa): pKa is a measurement of the
lower the pH. Strong acids (e.g. sulphuric, nitric or hydrochloric
strength of an acid. A lower pKa value indicates a stronger
acids) will continue to reduce solution pH progressively as
acid. Acids with lower pKa values will dissociate more fully
concentration of acid continues to increase. Weak acids
(give off H+) when in water.
(e.g. citric or propionic acids) will acidify the water where
the pH is above the acids pKa value, however the acidifying Extender: A material that increases the effective life of a
effect reduces as the pH falls to around the pKa value of the pesticide after application. This is a claimed function for the
acid (see buffering agents below). A number of pH reducing product di-1-p-menthene (e.g. Nu-Film®-17).
adjuvant blends are also available (e.g. LI-700® type products
Humectant: A material that reduces the drying time of an
or products sold as ‘buffers’) which also have other adjuvant
aqueous spray deposit.
functions in addition to simply lowering pH.
Hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB): A measure of
Activator: A term to include any substance that increases the
the relative contribution of the hydrophilic and lipophilic
biological effectiveness of a pesticide. These may include
component of an adjuvant. Both the type and size of the
a variety of substances including surfactants, spray oils and
hydrophilic (water soluble) and lipophilic (oil soluble)
fertilisers such as ammonium sulphate.
properties of a surfactant may influence droplet spread,
Alkaline hydrolysis: Degradation of a pesticide when in an droplet bounce, evaporation and pesticide absorption.
alkaline environment.
Modified vegetable oil: Oil extracted from oilseeds that have
Anionic surfactant: A surface active agent (surfactant) in been chemically modified (for example, ethylated).
which the active portion of the molecule containing the
Non-ionic surfactant: A surface active agent that has no
hydrophilic (‘water loving’) segment forms a negative ion
ionisable polar end-groups but is made up of hydrophilic
(anion) when in solution with water.
(‘water loving’) and lipophilic (‘fat loving’) segments.
Antifoaming agent: A material used to inhibit or prevent the
Penetrant: A material that enhances the ability of a pesticide
formation of foam. Foaming characteristics of adjuvants may
to penetrate the surface (cuticle) of a plant.
be modified by the incorporation of a small quantity of an
anti-foaming agent in the formulation. Pesticide: Pesticide is a broad term that comprises all
chemical substances used to control insects, diseases, weeds,
Attractant: A material that attracts specific pests. These may
fungi and other ‘pests’ on plants, fruits, vegetables, animals
include substances such as pheromones or feeding stimulants
and in buildings. Fungicides, herbicides, sanitisers, growth
(e.g. salt, milk powder or molasses-based products may be
regulators, rodenticides, soil fumigants and insecticides fall
used for certain pests).
under the category of pesticides or crop protection chemicals.
Buffering agent: A compound or mixture that, when
Petroleum oil: Oil derived from petroleum that contains
contained in solution, causes the pH of the solution to move to
a mixture of hydrocarbons broadly classified as paraffins,
a particular level and then hold around this level, even when
napthenes, aromatics or other unsaturates.
more buffering agent is added. Most buffering agents used in
agriculture typically contain a weak acid. For example, Buff-it® Phytobland oil: A highly refined paraffinic material with a
or LI-700® type products contain propionic acid. Propionic minimum unsulphonated residue of 92% v/v.
acid has a pKa value of 4.87, When added to neutral or
alkaline water, the propionic acid will reduce the pH. As the Surface active agent (surfactant): A material that, when
pH reaches the pKa value, additional propionic acid will not added to a liquid, modifies the properties of the liquid – such
continue to reduce the pH. as spray droplets – at the leaf surface.

Cationic surfactant: A surface active agent (surfactant) Spreader: A material that increases the area that a droplet of
in which the active portion of the molecule containing the a given volume of spray mixture will cover on a target.
hydrophilic (‘water loving’) segment forms a positive ion Sticker: A material that assists a spray deposit to adhere or
(cation) when in solution with water. stick to a target and resist removal by wind, water, mechanical
or chemical action.

42 ADJUVANTS - OILS, SURFACTANTS AND OTHER ADDITIVES FOR FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION
Vegetable oil: Oil extracted from oilseeds, including canola,
corn, cotton, soybean or sunflower.
Vegetable oil concentrate: An emulsifiable vegetable oil
product containing 5 to 20% w/w surfactant and a minimum of
80% w/w vegetable oil.
% v/v (% Volume per Volume): Percent of volume of adjuvant,
in terms of volume of the final spray mix.
Wetting agent: See spreader.

ADJUVANTS - OILS, SURFACTANTS AND OTHER ADDITIVES FOR FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION 43
REFERENCES

Ashton, F.M. and Crafts, A.S. (1973) Mode of action of Links to associated information:
herbicides – John Wyley & Sons, Inc. New York (pp 34–61).
http://www.hcpsl.com/wp/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/
Berger, P.D.; Devisetty B.N. and Hall, F.R. Eds., (1993) Pesticide Nufarm-Tank-Mixing-Guide-1.pdf
formulations and application systems. 13th Volume. American
Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA, (pp. https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/broadacre-crops/
173–190). guides/publications/weed-control-winter-crops

Devine, M.; Duke, S.O. and Fedke, C. (1993) Physiology of http://www.pestgenie.com.au

herbicide action – Prentice Hall, New York. (pp 441). http://portal.apvma.gov.au
DuPont (2015) Protection at the start pays off in the end. https://grdc.com.au/understanding-post-emergent-
http://www.dupont.com.au/content/dam/dupont/products- herbicide-weed-control
and-services/crop-protection/documents/en_au/15_1350_
AGRIMC_DuPont%20Au%20Benevia%208PP_EDIT_ https://grdc.com.au/GRDC-FS-PreHarvestHerbicide
PROOF2%20(1).pdf
Hall, L.; Beckie, H. and Wolf, T.M. (1999) How herbicides work –
Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural Development (Canada)
Hess, F.D. (1999) Surfactants and additives – Proceedings of
the California Weed Science Society (vol 51).
Incitec (2016) Foliar fertilisers. – https://www.
incitecpivotfertilisers.com.au/~/media/Files/IPF/Documents/
Agritopics/52%20Foliar%20Fertilisers%20Agritopic.pdf
McMullan, P.M. (1994) Effect of sodium bicarbonate on
clethodim or quizalofop efficacy and the role of ultra violet
light – Weed Technology Vol 8, No 3, (pp 572–575).
Mensah, R.K.; Liung, W. and Singleton, A. (2002) Improving
the efficacy of nuclear polyhedron virus (NPV) and Bacillus
thuringiensis (Bt) against Helicoverpa spp. on cotton with
petroleum spray oil – Proceeding of 11th Australian Cotton
Conference (pp 279–288).
Nufarm Australia Limited (2000) – Unpublished report.
Rochecouste, J. (2004) – Personal Communication.
Sipcam Pacific Australia Pty Ltd (2007) – Unpublished report.
Wikipedia (2019) Hydrophilic-lipophilic balance. – https://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrophilic-lipophilic_balance
Zhu, H.R.; Dexter, R.W.; Fox, R.D.; Reichard, D.L.; Brazee, R.D.
and Ozkan, H.E. (1997). Effects of polymer composition and
viscosity on droplet size of recirculated spray solutions –
Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research, vol. 67, no 1
(35–45).

44 ADJUVANTS - OILS, SURFACTANTS AND OTHER ADDITIVES FOR FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION
NOTES

ADJUVANTS - OILS, SURFACTANTS AND OTHER ADDITIVES FOR FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION 45
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ADJUVANTS - OILS, SURFACTANTS AND OTHER ADDITIVES FOR FARM CHEMICALS USED IN GRAIN PRODUCTION 47
P Level 4 | 4 National Circuit, Barton ACT 2600 | PO Box 5367, Kingston ACT 2604
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