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Respiration is the oxidation of nutrients in the living cells to coelenterates, flatworms etc).
release energy for biological work. • Skin or moist cuticle (cutaneous respiration): E.g.
Breathing is the exchange of O2 from the atmosphere with earthworms, leech, amphibians etc.
CO2 produced by the cells. • Tracheal tubes: E.g. insects, centipede, millipede, spider.
RESPIRATORY ORGANS • Gills (Branchial respiration): E.g. fishes, tadpoles, prawn.
• General body surface: E.g. lower invertebrates (sponges, • Lungs (Pulmonary respiration): E.g. most vertebrates.

HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

It consists of a pair of air passages (air tract) and lungs. - A cartilaginous Larynx (sound box or voice box) helps in
sound production.
- During swallowing, epiglottis (a thin elastic cartilaginous
flap) closes glottis to prevent entry of food into larynx.
- Trachea, all bronchi and initial bronchioles are supported
by incomplete cartilaginous half rings.
2. Lungs
- Lungs situate in thoracic chamber and rest on diaphragm.
- Right lung has 3 lobes and left lung has 2 lobes.
- Lungs are covered by double-layered pleura (outer
parietal pleura and inner visceral pleura).
- The pleural fluid present in between these 2 layers
lubricates the surface of the lungs and prevents friction
1. Air passages between the membranes.
- Lungs= Bronchi + bronchioles + alveoli.
- Conducting part which transports the atmospheric air into
- Alveoli and their ducts form the respiratory or exchange
the alveoli, clears it from foreign particles, humidifies and
brings the air to body temperature. part of the respiratory system.
External nostrils → nasal passage → nasal chamber - Alveoli are the structural and functional units of lungs.
(cavity) → pharynx → glottis → larynx → trachea → Steps of respiration
primary bronchi → secondary bronchi → tertiary bronchi 1. Pulmonary ventilation (breathing).
→ bronchioles → terminal bronchioles → respiratory 2. Gas exchange between lung alveoli & blood.
bronchiole → alveolar duct. 3. Gas transport (O2 transport & CO2 transport).
- Each terminal bronchiole gives rise to many very thin and 4. Gas exchange between blood & tissues.
vascularised alveoli (in lungs). 5. Cellular or tissue respiration.

MECHANISM OF BREATHING (INSPIRATION & EXPIRATION)

a. Inspiration b. Expiration
- Active intake of air from atmosphere into lungs. - Passive expelling of air from the lungs.
- During this, the diaphragm contracts (flattens) causing an - During this, intercostal muscles & diaphragm relax
increase in vertical thoracic volume (antero-posterior axis). causing a decrease in thoracic volume and thereby
- Contraction of external intercostal muscles (muscles pulmonary volume. So, air moves out.
found between ribs) lifts up the ribs and sternum causing - During forceful expiration, abdominal muscles and
an increase in thoracic volume in the dorso-ventral axis. internal inter-costal muscles contract.
- Increase in thoracic volume reduces thoracic pressure. So, Respiratory volumes and capacities
lungs expand. Thus, pulmonary volume increases resulting • Tidal volume (TV): Volume of air inspired or expired
in decrease of intra-pulmonary pressure to less than the during a normal respiration. It is about 500 ml. i.e., 6000-
atmospheric pressure. So, air moves into lungs. 8000 ml per minute.
• Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) or complemental air:
Additional volume of air that can inspire by forceful
inspiration. It is 2500-3000 ml.
• Expiratory reserve volume (ERV) or supplemental air:
Additional volume of air that can expire by a forceful
expiration. It is 1000-1100 ml.
• Residual volume (RV): Volume of air remaining in lungs
after a forcible expiration. It is 1100-1200 ml.
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• Inspiratory capacity (IC): Total volume of air inspired It is 3500-4500 ml.

after a normal expiration (TV + IRV). It is 3000-3500 ml. • Total lung capacity (TLC): Total volume of air in the
• Expiratory capacity (EC): Total volume of air expired lungs after a maximum inspiration. (RV + ERV + TV +
after a normal inspiration (TV + ERV). It is 1500-1600 ml. IRV or VC + RV). It is 5000-6000 ml.
• Functional residual capacity (FRC): Volume of air • Part of respiratory tract (from nostrils to terminal bronchi)
remaining in the lungs after a normal expiration (ERV + not involved in gaseous exchange is called dead space.
RV). It is 2100-2300 ml. Dead air volume is about 150 ml.
• Vital capacity (VC): Volume of air that can breathe in - Respiratory cycle= an inspiration + an expiration
after a forced expiration or Volume of air that can breathe - Normal respiratory (breathing) rate: 12-16 times/min
out after a forced inspiration (ERV + TV + IRV). - Spirometer (respirometer): To measure respiratory rate.

GAS EXCHANGE
Gas exchange occurs between • Thickness of membranes: The diffusion membrane is
1. Alveoli and blood 2. Blood and tissues made up of 3 layers:
Alveoli are the primary sites of gas exchange. a) Squamous epithelium of alveoli.
O2 & CO2 are exchanged by simple diffusion. It depends upon b) Endothelium of alveolar capillaries.
the following factors: c) Basement substance between them.
• Pressure/ concentration gradient: The Partial pressures Its total thickness is only 0.5 µm. It enables easy gas exchange.
(individual pressure of a gas in a gas mixture) of O2 and • Surface area: Presence of alveoli increases the surface
CO2 (pO2 and pCO2) are given below. area of lungs. It increases the gas exchange.
Respiratory gas pO2 (in mm Hg) pCO2 (in mm Hg)
Atmospheric air 159 0.3
Alveoli 104 40
Deoxygenated blood 40 45
Oxygenated blood 95 40
Tissues 40 45
pO2 in alveoli is more (104 mm Hg) than that in blood
capillaries (40 mm Hg). So O2 diffuses into capillary
blood. pCO2 in deoxygenated blood is more (45 mm Hg)
than that in alveoli (40 mm Hg). So, CO2 diffuses to alveoli.
• Solubility of gases: Solubility of CO2 is 20-25 times higher
than that of O2. So, the amount of CO2 that can diffuse
through the diffusion membrane per unit difference in
partial pressure is higher than that of O2.

GAS TRANSPORT (O2 TRANSPORT & CO2 TRANSPORT)

It is the transport of respiratory gases (O2 & CO2) from - In tissues, low pO2, high pCO2, high H+ ions and high
alveoli to the systemic tissues and vice versa. temperature exist. So Hb4O8 dissociates to release O2.
- Every 100 ml of oxygenated blood can deliver around 5 ml
1. O2 TRANSPORT
of O2 to the tissues under normal physiological conditions.
It is the transport of O2 from lungs to various tissues.
It occurs in 2 ways: Oxygen-haemoglobin dissociation curve
a. In physical solution (blood plasma): About 3% of O2 is It is a sigmoid curve
carried in a dissolved state through plasma. obtained when percentage
b. As oxyhaemoglobin: About 97% of O2 is transported by saturation of Hb with O2
haemoglobin (red coloured iron containing pigment) on is plotted against the pO2.
RBC. O2 binds with haemoglobin (Hb) to form It is used to study the
oxyhaemoglobin. This is called oxygenation. Hb has 4 effect of factors like
haem units. So, each Hb molecule can carry 4 oxygen pCO2, H+ concentration
molecules. Binding of O2 depends upon pO2, pCO2, H+ ion etc., on binding of O2
concentration (pH) and temperature. with Hb.
2. CO2 TRANSPORT
It is the transport of CO2 from tissues to lungs.
+ In tissues, pCO2 is high due to catabolism and pO2 is low. In
- In the alveoli, high pO2, low pCO2, lesser H ion
concentration and lower temperature exist. These factors lungs, pCO2 is low and pO2 is high. This favours CO2
are favourable for the formation of oxyhaemoglobin. transport from tissues to lungs. It occurs in 3 ways:

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a. As carbonic acid: In tissues, 7% of CO2 is dissolved in At tissue site, it facilitates the following reactions:
plasma water to form carbonic acid and carried to lungs.
b. As carbamino-haemoglobin: In tissues, 20-25% of CO2
binds to Hb to form carbamino-haemoglobin. In alveoli,
In alveoli, the above reaction proceeds in opposite direction
CO2 dissociates from carbamino-haemoglobin.
leading to the formation of CO2 and H2O.
c. As bicarbonates: 70% of CO2 transported by this
method. RBCs contain an enzyme, carbonic anhydrase. Every 100 ml of deoxygenated blood delivers about 4 ml of
(It is slightly present in plasma too). CO2 to the alveoli.

REGULATION OF RESPIRATION
In brain, there are the following Respiratory centres: • Chemosensitive area: Seen adjacent to the rhythm centre.
• Respiratory rhythm centre (Inspiratory & Expiratory Increase in the concentration of CO2 and H+ activates this
centres): In medulla oblongata. It regulates respiratory centre, which in turn signals rhythm centre. Receptors in
rhythms. aortic arch & carotid artery also recognize changes in
• Pneumotaxic centre: In Pons. It moderates functions of CO2 & H+ concentration and send signals to rhythm centre.
respiratory rhythm centre. Impulse from this centre reduces Role of oxygen in the regulation of respiratory rhythm is
the duration of inspiration and thereby alter respiratory rate. quite insignificant.

DISORDERS OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

1. Asthma: Difficulty in breathing causing wheezing due to inflammation of bronchi and bronchioles.
2. Emphysema: Damage of alveolar walls. It decreases respiratory surface. Major cause is cigarette smoking.
3. Occupational respiratory disorders: Certain industries produce so much dust. So, the defense mechanism of the
body cannot cope with the situation. Long exposure causes inflammation leading to fibrosis (proliferation of fibrous
tissues). It results in lung damage. Workers in such industries should wear protective masks.

MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Draw a flowchart showing the different parts of the air tract.
2. Match the following
A B C
IC TV + ERV 3500-4500 ml
EC ERV + TV + IRV 2100-2300 ml
FRC TV + IRV 3000-3500 ml
VC ERV + RV 1500-1600 ml
3. Note the relationship between first two words and fill up the fourth place.
a. TV: 500 ml IRV:……………… b. Atmospheric air: 159 mm Hg Alveoli: .......................
4. The given diagram shows the exchange of gases between alveolus and alveolar capillary.

a. Identify X and Y.
b. Name the Physical Process involved in gas exchange.
c. Mention the factors that favour this process.

5. The given graph shows oxygen-haemoglobin dissociation curve.

a. What is the nature of curve?

b. Find out the pressure at which Haemoglobin is 50%
saturated with O2?
c. What are the factors which influence it?

6. Identify the two true statements from the statements given below and rewrite the two false statements correctly.
a. Pneumonia is a chronic disorder due to cigarette smoking.
b. Carbon dioxide combines with haemoglobin to form carbamino haemoglobin.
c. Respiratory rhythm is maintained by the respiratory centre in the heart.
d. Alveoli are the primary sites of exchange of gases.