International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (IJTSRD)

Volume 9 Issue 1, Jan-Feb 2025 Available Online: www.ijtsrd.com e-ISSN: 2456 – 6470

Blockchain in Architecture
Matthew N. O. Sadiku1, Paul A. Adekunte2, Janet O. Sadiku3
1
Roy G. Perry College of Engineering, Prairie View A&M University, Prairie View, TX, USA
2
International Institute of Professional Security, Lagos, Nigeria
3
Juliana King University, Houston, TX, USA

ABSTRACT How to cite this paper: Matthew N. O.

Blockchain is a decentralized system that uses a peer-to-peer network Sadiku | Paul A. Adekunte | Janet O.
to create a digital ledger of transactions. It is a decentralized ledger Sadiku "Blockchain in Architecture"
with a growing list of transaction records. It is a promising general- Published in
International
purpose technology that can affect an entire economy and transform
Journal of Trend in
both our everyday lives and the ways we do business. It can simplify Scientific Research
and secure transactions among parties and record keeping in general. and Development
Architects can utilize blockchain technology to enhance the (ijtsrd), ISSN:
transparency, security, and efficiency of their design and construction 2456-6470, IJTSRD73874
process by creating a decentralized and immutable record of project Volume-9 | Issue-1,
data. The aim of this paper is to explore the use of blockchain February 2025, pp.367-376, URL:
technology in architecture. www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd73874.pdf

KEYWORDS: blockchain, distributed digital ledger, architecture, Copyright © 2025 by author (s) and
architecture industry International Journal of Trend in
Scientific Research and Development
Journal. This is an
Open Access article
distributed under the
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Attribution License (CC BY 4.0)
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0)

INTRODUCTION
Blockchain is a technology that allows the recording appeared, promising to change the way people do
of information in a way that it is difficult or transactions, keep records, validate data, and much
practically impossible to alter, hack, or cheat. It is more. Blockchain is a new general-purpose
regarded as a promising general-purpose technology technology that can transform both our everyday lives
(GPT) in that it has the potential to affect an entire and the ways we do business [2].
economy, impacting economic growth and WHAT IS BLOCKCHAIN?
transforming both everyday life and the ways in
Blockchain, a type of distributed digital ledger
which we conduct business. Given its unique technology (DLT), is a relatively new and
characteristics, such as immutability, transparency, exciting way of recording transactions in the
decentralization, and distribution, blockchain is digital age. It is a decentralized and distributed
recognized by many as a new form of GPT. The digital ledger technology that securely records and
symbol of a blockchain is depicted in Figure 1 [1]. verifies transactions across multiple computers or
Construction is one of the largest industries in the nodes in a network. Basically, it is a chain of blocks
world, creating infrastructure which is the backbone in which each block contains a list of transactions.
of productivity and economic growth. The The blockchain technology was created as the
architecture, engineering, and construction (AEC) foundational basis for Bitcoin – a digital currency in
industry has entered a period of major disruption which secure peer-to-peer transactions occur over the
caused by a host of emerging digital technologies Internet. It is expected that the spending on
such as artificial intelligence (AI), the Internet of blockchain solutions worldwide would grow from 4.5
things (IoT), virtual reality (VR), augmented reality billion USD (2020) to an estimated value of 19 billion
(AR), building information modelling (BIM), 3D USD by 2024 [3].
printing, robotics, drones, big data, and others. Lately, Originally developed as the accounting method for
another innovative digital technology, blockchain, has
the virtual currency Bitcoin, Blockchains are

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appearing in a variety of commercial applications  Decentralization: No single entity controls a
today. Blockchain technology is a type of distributed majority of the nodes or dictates the rules. A
digital ledger that uses encryption to make entries consensus mechanism verifies and approves
permanent and tamper-proof and can be programmed transactions, eliminating the need for a central
to record financial transactions. It is used for secure intermediary to govern the network.
transfer of money, assets, and information via a
Bitcoin and its underlying blockchain technology
computer network such as the Internet without
increasingly impact all facets of society. Bitcoin’s
requiring a third-party intermediary. It is now being
status as digital gold is merely the tip of this
adopted across financial and non-financial sectors. As
technology. Figure 4 shows Bitcoin [8], while Figure
a catalyst for change, the Blockchain technology is
5 shows how blockchain works [9]. Although
going to change the business world and financial
blockchain technology will for all time be associated
matters in major ways.
with Bitcoin due to their common genesis, it has
The first Blockchain was conceived in 2008 by an broader applications. Cryptocurrency will
anonymous person or group known as Satoshi increasingly become a factor in family law issues as
Nakamoto, who published a white paper introducing well.
the concept of a peer-to-peer electronic cash system
A blockchain is a tamper-proof, distributed database
he called Bitcoin [4,5]. Bitcoin and Ethereum are the
that stores blocks of information for cryptographically
first two mainstream blockchains. Other modern
bound transactions via peer-to-peer networks. At the
blockchains include Namecoin, Peercoin, Ether, and
heart of blockchain’s functionality is cryptographic
Litecoin. Figure 2 shows different components of
hashing. Each block in a blockchain contains a
blockchain [6].
cryptographic hash of the previous block, creating an
Blockchain combines existing technologies such as immutable chain of blocks. If anyone attempts to
distributed digital ledgers, encryption, immutable tamper with the data in a block, it would alter the
records management, asset tokenization and block’s hash. This would disrupt the entire chain,
decentralized governance to capture and record making it virtually impossible to manipulate. The
information that participants in a network need to security feature ensures data integrity and prevents
interact and transact. As illustrated in Figure 3, a unauthorized changes [10].
complete blockchain incorporates all the following
In a nutshell, blockchain technology involves three
five elements [7]:
basic concepts [11]: (1) It is a system for recording a
 Distribution: Digital assets are distributed, not series of data items (such as transactions between
copied or transferred. A protocol establishes a set parties); (2) It uses cryptography to make it difficult
of rules in the form of distributed mathematical to tamper with past entries; (3) It has an agreed
computations that ensures the integrity of the data process for storing copies of the ledger and adding
exchanged among a large number of computing new entries (also called a consensus protocol).
devises without going though a trusted third
Blockchain is a novel decentralized infrastructure and
party. A centralized architecture presents several
distributed computing paradigm that uses a chained
issues including a single point of failure and
data structure for verification, storage, and distributed
problems of scalability.
consensus algorithms to generate and update data.
 Encryption: BC uses technologies such as public Decentralization is a key feature of blockchain
and private keys to record data securely and semi- technology, which refers to the distribution of power
anonymously. Completed transactions are and decision-making across a network of nodes or
cryptographically signed, time-stamped, and participants rather than being controlled by a central
sequentially added to the ledger. authority or system. It provides robustness while
 Immutability: The blockchain was designed so eliminating many-to-one traffic flows to avoid delays
these transactions are immutable, i.e. they cannot and single points of failure. Figure 6 shows the
be deleted. No entity can modify the transaction decentralized property of blockchain [9]. The
records. Thus, Blockchains are secure and advantages of decentralized property of blockchain
meddle-free by design. Data can be distributed, network include the following [9]:
but not copied.  The decentralized property of blockchain makes it
 Tokenization: Value is exchanged in the form of less prone to failure and more expensive for
tokens, which can represent a wide variety of hackers to attack the network.
asset types, including monetary assets, units of  There is no third-party involvement; therefore,
data or user identities. there is no added risk.

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 Every change made in the network is traceable characteristics of a facility. It is known as the
and concrete. cutting-edge technology for use in AEC practices.
 Users maintain full autonomy of their properties It is a crucial part of promoting the effectiveness
and are not dependent on third parties to maintain of project collaboration throughout the whole
and manage their assets. building lifecycle. Blockchain can be used to
provide live and trustworthy information for BIM,
 It provides enhanced security. by information sharing among present and future
BLOCKCHAIN IN ARCHITECTURE information owners. It can help enhance the
Blockchain technology can be used in architecture to benefits of BIM by allowing architects and
improve the design process, increase efficiency, and engineers to design on the same BIM model with
enhance transparency. It has the potential of clear ownership, while design and construction
addressing common problems of the AEC industry, decisions can be recorded on the blockchain for
while it can be adaptable to the future analysis and liability. With BIM-
construction/architecture industry structure and the blockchain integration, the AEC industry can
way it is practiced. Blockchain's immutability ensures avoid various issues and get several benefits.
that once data is recorded, it cannot be altered or Figure 7 shows BIM in the architecture industry
tampered with. This feature can be beneficial for [12].
maintaining a secure and unalterable record of design  Contract Management and Smart Contracts: A
iterations, decisions, and project milestones, smart contract is a computer program that works
providing a transparent audit trail throughout the based on an “if/then” principle. Smart contracts
design process. Blockchain technology can enhance are executed automatically reducing the necessity
the architectural design process by providing of intermediaries and as a result time and money
immutable records, smart contracts, improved supply can be saved. Blockchain can be used to create
chain management, and decentralized collaboration. It project-specific contracts that are restricted to
promotes transparency, efficiency, and better project certified contractors. A blockchain-based contract
outcomes. can be created for a project, restricted to certified
APPLICATIONS OF BLOCKCHAIN IN contractors, and voided if certain requirements are
ARCHITECTURE not met. Smart contracts on blockchain can
In this section we identify several key areas of the automate contract execution based on pre-defined
civil, architectural, and construction industry where conditions, simplifying complex agreements
blockchain can be applied. Blockchain technology between stakeholders and reducing administrative
has many uses in architecture, including data overhead. Decentralized smart contracts based on
management, collaboration, and contract creation. We blockchain can address some limitations in an
identify five relevant areas of benefit, namely: (1) effective way. Smart contracts are used in smart
supply chain management, (2) building information buildings for repairs and service. Figure 8 shows
modelling (BIM), (3) contract management, (4) smart contracts [13].
project management, (5) smart cities, (6) real estate.  Project Management: Construction project
These common applications are explained as follows management (CPM) can potentially benefit from
[2]: an agile and more decentralized approach based
 Supply Chain Management: The construction on blockchain, with high transparency.
industry is characterized by fragmentation in Blockchain has a credible potential in the
processes, operations, and services. One of its construction industry, due to its exponential
major problems is the disconnect between general use, the investments involved, and a
construction and design, due to the lack of number of start-up businesses contributing to
trustworthy and open information across the Industry 4.0. A blockchain-based CPM platform
supply chain. Blockchain has the potential to implementing smart contract technologies
adverse these issues using open and transparent facilitates the peer-to-peer collaboration between
transactions. It can improve payment settlements, parties in the construction industry, leading to
compliance management and material planning, improved information flow, cost, and time
while smart contracts can be implemented to reduction, and improvement in the quality of the
automatically purchase, track, and verify items in services.
the supply chain, in real-time.  Smart Cities: As urbanization is increasing
 Building Information Modelling: BIM is a digital rapidly, offering improved livability and a higher
representation of physical and functional standard of living, the concept of “smart cities” is

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one of the main focus areas of many governments BENEFITS
across the globe. Smart cities enable operational Blockchain technology can offer several benefits for
efficiency, maximize environmental sustainability the design process in architecture. Blockchain's
efforts, and create new citizen services. decentralized and transparent nature can help improve
Blockchain innovation can be utilized to make the efficiency and security of the design process and
smarter cities. Blockchain-based solutions can be can also help with collaboration and communication.
utilized to enhance our cities and provide for Blockchain technology has the potential to enhance
better economic development and livability, by various aspects of the design process for architects by
offering enhanced security, immutability, providing transparency, security, and efficiency. The
resilience and transparency. Blockchain and smart five greatest advantages of blockchain technology in
contracts can securely and flexibly manage industries are higher transparency, higher security,
building access privileges for both short-term higher traceability, higher efficiency and speed, and
visitors and long-term occupants, taking into lower costs. Other benefits of blockchain in
consideration the risk associated with accessing a architecture include the following [15,16]:
space in the building, in an efficient,
 Decentralization: Architects often deal with large
decentralized way. For example, the Smart Dubai
volumes of data, including design plans,
initiative aims to use blockchain technology to
specifications, and project documentation.
transform the city into a smart and sustainable
Blockchain's decentralized nature allows for
hub, by streamlining the processes and
secure storage and sharing of data without
transactions of various sectors, including
reliance on a central authority. Centralization can
architecture and construction. As another
undermine the technology’s purpose as a shared
example, cryptocurrency millionaire Jeffrey
ledger. Too much power can be placed in the
Berns has revealed plans to develop a large parcel
control of a single entity or a few special
of Nevada's desert into a smart city powered by
“players.” When a single entity takes too much
blockchain technology. He intends to use the
power then it may no longer operate for the
smart city as a new kind of business and
benefit of the society. Fully decentralized
residential community, with a decentralized
distributed systems can mitigate risk and prevent
blockchain infrastructure underlying all
attacks while centralized systems are more prone
interaction. Such a planned smart city powered by
to them.
blockchain is shown Figure 9 [14]. A potential
major advantage of this city model is greater  Increased Transparency: BC can enhance the
control of privacy of personal information. transparency and trust of the design process, as it
provides a secure and immutable record of the
 Real Estate: Real estate is known as one of the
project history, decisions, and changes. It can
most important sectors of the economy, playing a
increase the efficiency of processes within the
crucial role in the lives of people across the
construction industry and eliminate current issues
world. Real estate investments provide better
related to trust, verification and transparency. It
returns than the stock market without as much
can create a secure and immutable record of
volatility, providing also tax benefits in many
project history, decisions, and changes. All
cases. Real estate is still a “pen and pencil”
project data is readily accessible and verifiable by
business, relying on archaic methods for keeping
all parties involved, reducing the risk of fraud or
records and doing transactions. Figure 10 presents
manipulation.
the real estate ecosystem [2] today and depicts the
number of different parties involved and the  Enhanced Efficiency: BC can increase the
relevant interactions. This traditional model has efficiency and accuracy of data management, as it
several drawbacks and limitations. There are a lot eliminates the need for manual entry, duplication,
of intermediaries, that increase the cost and and reconciliation of information. Streamlined
reduce the transactions’ speed. Real estate is workflows and automated processes can
entering the blockchain era and it can benefit significantly reduce administrative burdens and
from the numerous advantages that the accelerate project timelines. The AEC industry
technology can offer. With Blockchain, all real needs to complete the task much faster than
estate ownership and transaction records can be possible with a single computer. It is essential to
stored securely as tamper-proof digital records on meet this need by adopting distributed ledger
the blockchain, in a decentralized way. technologies (DLT).

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 Smart Contracts: Smart contracts, self-executing of responsibility in construction. Everyone
contracts with the terms of the agreement directly involved gets access to the same unchangeable
written into code, can automate and enforce data, ensuring each party is held accountable for
various aspects of project management. This their actions. It leads to a more honest and
includes automatically triggering payments, responsible way of implementing construction
managing project milestones, and ensuring that projects.
contractual obligations are met, streamlining
 Tracking Design Changes: Recording every
administrative processes.
design modification on the blockchain ensures a
 Collaboration: Blockchain technology can complete, verifiable history of project evolution,
enhance the architectural design process by eliminating discrepancies and facilitating easier
providing immutable records, smart contracts, conflict resolution.
improved supply chain management, and
 Material Traceability: By recording the origin
decentralized collaboration. Blockchain can
and provenance of building materials on the
facilitate the collaboration and communication of
blockchain, architects can verify sustainability
the design team, as it enables real-time sharing
claims and ensure materials meet quality
and verification of data, documents, and
standards.
contracts. It allows design teams to share and
verify data, documents, and contracts in real time.  Reduced Costs: By minimizing errors and
A shared blockchain platform can enable real- disputes, blockchain can potentially lead to cost
time data sharing between architects, engineers, savings throughout the construction process
contractors, and clients, fostering better CHALLENGES
communication and coordination. Blockchain technology poses some challenges for the
 Secure Storage: Conventional cloud storage and design process in architecture. Like the Internet in its
computing in building information modeling first years, blockchain is difficult to predict or even
(BIM) are ineffective in providing trusted understand well. Information exchange in BIM is
networks. Nowadays, the need for distributed critical yet complex due to the multi-party
storage and computing has been highlighted by collaboration nature of a construction project. Other
the AEC industry. Blockchain's decentralized challenges include the following [15,16]:
nature allows for secure storage of large amounts  Resistance to Change: The construction industry
of data, such as design plans and specifications. has traditionally been very reluctant to change
Traditional cloud computing environment has a and rather slow in adopting new digitization
data center that contains many computers. One technologies. It can be difficult to persuade
major issue in such centralized storage and stakeholders to invest in this technology,
computing concerns the risk of operating failure. particularly if they are used to conventional
Trusted networks are urgently needed for data approaches. It is essential to show the long-term
storage and computing. Applying distributed advantages and return on investment in order to
storage and computing can essentially reduce the get over change resistance.
risk of failure and provide trusted networks.
 Data Privacy and Security: In a world where
 Clash detection: Digital tools based on BIM massive data is generated daily, data privacy has
provide automatic quantity take-off and clash become a major concern. Blockchain goes a long
detection. Such BIM technology has been widely way in addressing this issue. Given that the
applied in clash management that includes clash construction business deals with sensitive
detection and resolution during design information and intellectual property, data privacy
coordination of buildings and infrastructures. and security are major issues. Sensitive data is
Generally, BIM coordinators conduct clash used in construction projects, such as confidential
detection by merging architectural, structural, and financial information and private designs.
mechanical, electrical, and plumbing (MEP) Blockchain technology enhances security through
models in an integrated BIM platform, launching encryption and decentralization, but businesses
automatic clash detection algorithms, and then must still take into account the privacy
generating clash detection reports. implications and make sure they are in
 Improved Accountability: Each stakeholder's compliance with all applicable laws.
actions and decisions are clearly recorded on the  Standardization: For best practices to be
blockchain, enhancing accountability and established across the sector and to encourage
responsibility. Blockchain introduces a new level

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wider adoption, collaboration, and standardization degree to which it will affect the economy, our lives
efforts are essential. Standardization promotes and every single sector including architecture, most
widespread usage of blockchain technology in the experts agree that it has the potential to play a
construction industry and facilitates frictionless significant role in the future. More information on the
data interchange while increasing transparency. integration of blockchain technology into the
To create industry-wide standards, protocols, and architecture industry is available from the books in
governance models, coordination is required [17-21] and in the following related journals:
between architectural businesses, technology
 IEEE Blockchain
providers, and regulatory organizations.
 Journal of Building Engineering
 Scalability: One of the main challenges is the
scalability and performance of the system, as it  Journal of Construction Engineering and
requires a large amount of computing power and Management
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Figure 1 The symbol of blockchain [1].

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Figure 2 Different components of blockchain [6].

Figure 3 Five key elements of Blockchain [7].

Figure 4 Bitcoin [8].

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Figure 5 How blockchain works [9].

Figure 6 The decentralized property of blockchain [9].

Figure 7 BIM in the architecture industry [12].

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Figure 8 Smart contracts [13].

Figure 9 A planned smart city powered by blockchain [14].

Figure 10 The real estate ecosystem [2].

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