Style Guide for Community Translations into Arabic

Contents
1. Audience and scope ............................................................................................... 2
2. Background ........................................................................................................... 2
3. Translation approach ...................................................................................................... 3
4. Audience: Personas of community users........................................................................ 3
5. Language variety ............................................................................................................. 4
6. Coherence and cohesion ........................................................................................ 5
7. Readability............................................................................................................. 7
8. Idiomatic language .......................................................................................................... 8
9. Writing style and tone .................................................................................................... 9
10. Grammar ......................................................................................................................... 9
11. Gender, inclusiveness and political correctness ...........................................................14
12. Diacritics ........................................................................................................................15
13. Punctuation ...................................................................................................................15
14. Font size ........................................................................................................................16
15. Organisation names ......................................................................................................17
16. Acronyms .............................................................................................................17
17. Useful resources ....................................................................................................18

1
 1. Audience and scope

This style guide is intended for professional translators and translation checkers, and may also
be useful for copyeditors, community review panels, and machine translation post-editors.
The document sets the expectations for community translators in particular and outlines the
preferred style for translations into Arabic. The document is unable to cover all the relevant
translation, language and style issues, but focuses on aspects that have been judged
important based on a review of Arabic translations currently available in Australia. The style
guide was prepared with the understanding that translators undertaking translation work for
public services would have already received adequate training and/or NAATI certification.

2. Background

Both in Australia and worldwide, the COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the importance of
timely, accurate and effective translation – probably more than any other phenomenon or
crisis. Governments, community organisations and leaders, the media, and people in general
have had to deal with or hear about the need for translation to communicate public health
advice to all residents, regardless of their first language. Translation has been in the spotlight
– mostly because of its essential contribution to health literacy and public health, but
sometimes also because of translation or production errors.

Community translations play a key role in public messaging. They facilitate communication
between governmental and non-governmental services and end users who speak a language
other than English. Community translations allow departments, agencies and services to
reach out to CALD communities, and facilitate access to public information and instructions
that would be inaccessible due to language barriers. Community translations are also
effective communication tools with community members who have a functional command of
English but prefer to receive information in their LOTE. Public messaging through the target
audience’s first language or the language they emotionally identify with, is likely to have more
impact.

Community translations are part of the communication strategies of organisations that

publish content to inform and educate the Australian public, including in healthcare, legal,
social service, educational and other sectors. The value of translations therefore lies in the
extent to which they are communicatively effective and fit for purpose. Back in 2014, the
Australian Commission on Safety and Quality in Health Care noted: ‘There has been some
concern that translation of information about health and health care is not done consistently
and to a high standard.’ (Health literacy: Taking action to improve safety and quality). Such
concern is still current, at least in relation to some published translations. A translation may
be at the highest standard in terms of language correctness and accuracy, but it also needs to
communicate contents in a way that suits the target audience, helps them understand
information and act upon it.

As professional translators are well aware, translation does not consist of replacing words in
one language with ‘equivalent’ words in another, or mirroring phrases and sentences found

2
in the source text. It needs to convey the messages of the source text, keeping in mind the
type of text being translated and its communicative function. For public messaging, in
particular, translations also need to read and flow ‘naturally’, appear credible, and be suitable
for the target audience, so that they can use, understand and act upon the messaging.

3. Translation approach

There is wide agreement that a communicative or functionalist approach to translation is the

most appropriate, especially for community translations. In this approach the translator is
guided by the function of the text, rather than the words or sentences themselves.

Two broad categories of texts are translated for the benefit of CALD communities: regulatory
texts and informative/instructive texts.

Regulatory texts define procedures, rights, entitlements and obligations in a formal tone,
which makes them legal texts or close to legal texts. An example is the Australian Tax Office’s
document Registering for GST.

Informative and instructive texts aim to inform, raise awareness, educate, and encourage the
public to take action. These are the most typical texts translated as part of public messaging.
Examples are the COVID-related translations available on the website of the Department of
Health.

While translations of legal and regulatory texts require special attention to accuracy and
precision because of the legal implications involved, translations of informative and
instructive texts need to be accurate and precise too but have accessibility and impact as their
paramount aims. Governmental and non-governmental organisations produce such texts to
inform and get people to act. Community translations should also be written in a style that
can get the message across and get readers to respond.

4. Audience: Personas of community users

Every writer has an audience in mind; translators are no exception. The only difference is that
the translator’s audience is already determined in the instructions received from the
commissioning organisation or author (translation brief). To visualise the audience of a given
translation, the notion of ‘persona’ is extremely useful. ‘Personas’ are typical user profiles
within the target community which a translator can imagine or outline on paper (or an
electronic device) based on the translation brief and their knowledge of the relevant
community (in our case Arabic speakers in Australia, Arabic-speaking older people in NSW,
etc.).

For each translation task, the translator would need to have a few ‘personas’ in mind to
determine the most appropriate language (i.e. style, lexical choices, structural complexity,
etc.). These personas will need to cover as many backgrounds and sub-groups of the target
readership as possible (e.g. literacy levels, country of origin, age, etc.). For example, for the

3
vaccination advice available on the website of the Department of Health, we can create the
following personas:

Rana: Lebanese heritage; 65-year-old woman; has been living in Australia since 1980’s; able
to speak English in everyday situations, but more confident reading information in Arabic.
Completed university studies in Arabic back in the 1980’s; continues to read Arabic
newspapers online.

Ezzat: 35-year-old Egyptian male; migrated to Australia recently with a partner visa; left
school when he was 15; finds Arabic text relatively easy to understand, but too challenging
when the text contains complex structures or specialised terminology. Often asks his wife
to clarify concepts.

Shady: 50-year-old Syrian male; migrated as a refugee as a result of the current civil war in
Syria; highly literate in Arabic, but with a beginner level in English.

Eman: 30-year-old Sudanese woman; migrated to Australia recently with a partner visa;
spends most of her time at her family business and does not have time to read in English
or Arabic. Completed high school in Sudan. When looking for information, she prefers to
get brief, to-the-point instructions or information.

5. Language variety

Arabic speakers in Australia use different variants of Arabic: dialects such as Lebanese,
Egyptian or Sudanese. Translations of informative texts should aim to use language that is as
neutral as possible for written communication, a form of Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) that
is clear and understandable for the average user. As the audience of these messages are
Arabic speakers from different backgrounds, the translator needs to maximise readers’
chances of understanding and responding to the information and instructions provided.
Unless the target audience is a specific community, the translator should avoid regionalisms
and localisms in terms of lexical choices and idioms that may not be understood by the
majority of the target audience.

• Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) is the variant used for written communication in
Arabic; by default, it is the variant used in translations into Arabic.
• However, if you are aware that the written material is to be used as part of an
audiovisual communication strategy (e.g. video on COVID-19 restrictions), a colloquial
variant may be more appropriate. Advice to and consultation with the commissioner
or translation agency are key in this regard.
• If using MSA, please keep in mind that there are lexical and terminological differences
between Arabic-speaking countries even in this formal variant. Choose the most

4
 widely used options; where appropriate, you may also put alternative terms between
parentheses to ensure accessibility for as many people as possible.
• If using a regional dialect (for audiovisual dissemination), use a widely understood
regional dialect such as Lebanese or Egyptian. In this case, to make the translation as
inclusive as possible, extreme regionalisms (i.e. words and expressions only known in
a specific region) are to be avoided. If the information is aimed at a particular Arabic-
speaking community (e.g. Sudanese), use the relevant regional dialect, or decline the
assignment if unable to translate into that variant.

6. Coherence and cohesion

Texts – including translations – need to be coherent and cohesive to make sense to the
audience. Coherence is the semantic connectedness within a text and between the text and
its context.

6.1. Coherence

Coherence requires meaning connectedness (smooth flow of ideas), consistency and

relevance to the topic or context at hand. Sentences should make sense in their context, be
semantically related, and show conceptual and logical consistency (e.g. no contradiction).

In the following example, judging from the context and general knowledge, it is clear that TGA
has a list of all approved vaccines and whenever a new vaccine is approved, it is added to the
list. The way it is expressed in the English source text, however, suggests that a list of vaccines
is kept after TGA approves a vaccine. Such coherence issues should be reported to the
commissioning organisation. In terms of translation approach, this is not a legal text or a
personal official document (e.g. birth or marriage certificate) where the translator would use
[sic] to indicate errors or inconsistencies in the source text. Instead, the sentence should be
translated having in mind sense and coherence: “Once TGA approves a vaccine, it adds it to
the list of approved vaccines”.

Source text Less coherent translation More coherent translation

Once TGA approves a "‫بعد موافقة "إ دارة السلع العالجية‬ "‫بعد اعتماد "إ دارة السلع العالجية‬
vaccine, it keeps a list of all ‫ تحتفظ بقائمة تضم‬،‫ تضيفه إىل قائمة اللقاحات عىل لقاح ما‬،‫لقاحا ما‬
vaccinations it approved. .‫الت وافقت عليها‬
‫كل التطعيمات ي‬ .‫المعتمدة‬

In the following example, the coherence issue is also in the source text: the first sentence
refers to healthy body, physical activity and a healthy diet, but then the second one reads:
“We know that these factors account for at least 30 per cent of all cancers”. Readers will be
able to infer that what is meant is that failure to keep a healthy body, be active and enjoy a
healthy diet accounts for 30% of cancers. Rather than reproduce the logical inconsistency in
the source text, a community translator should make their LOTE version more coherent.

5
 Source text Less coherent translation More coherent translation
Physical activity and cancer ‫البدن والوقاية من‬
‫ي‬ ‫النشاط‬ ‫البدن وعالقته بالوقاية من‬
‫ي‬ ‫النشاط‬
prevention ‫الرسطان‬ ‫الرسطان‬
We know that by ‫نحن نعلم أنه من خالل ممارسة‬ ‫من المعروف أن ممارسة النشاط‬
maintaining a healthy body ‫النشاط البد ين كل يوم والتمتع بنظام‬ ‫البدن يوميا والحفاظ عىل نظام‬
‫ي‬
weight, being physically ‫صح والحفاظ عىل وزن‬ ‫ي‬ ‫غذان‬
‫ي‬ ‫عوامل‬ ، ‫معتدل‬ ‫وزن‬‫و‬ ‫صح‬
‫ي‬ ‫غذان‬
‫ي‬
active every day and ‫ يمكنك خفض خطر اإلصابة‬،‫صح‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ ومن‬.‫تقلل خطر اإلصابة بالرسطان‬
enjoying a healthy diet, you ‫ ونحن نعلم أن هذه‬.‫المعروف أيضا أن عدم االلتام بهذه بالرسطان‬
can lower your risk of ‫ يف‬30 ‫العوامل تشكل ما ال يقل عن‬ ‫النصائح يتسبب يف ما ال يقل عن‬
developing cancer. We .‫المائة من جميع حاالت الرسطان‬ .‫ يف المائة من حاالت الرسطان‬30
know that these factors
account for at least 30 per
cent of all cancers.

6.2. Cohesion

Cohesion is the grammatical and lexical linking between sentences and paragraphs,
which ensures that the resulting text hangs together and flows smoothly. Cohesion can be
based on linking words and syntactical consistency (e.g. use of pronouns or grammatical
tense). It can also be based on lexical reference (e.g. repetition of the same word, collocation,
use of a synonym or a word referring to a larger category).

Coherence and cohesion are related: coherence relates to conceptual and logical connections
within a text; cohesion relates to connectedness at a structural and referential levels.

Cohesive devices are essential to readability and comprehension, probably more so for
Arabic than English. Mirroring English language structures without due attention to linking
words often leads to Arabic translations that are difficult to follow and less coherent texts.
Translators need to make the necessary syntactical adjustments to ensure cohesion.

Arabic sentences are usually longer than English ones and are typically linked using
conjunctions or discourse connectives such as ‫ لذلك‬، ‫ إذ‬، ‫ حیث‬، ‫ ثم‬، ‫ و‬، ‫ ف‬and so on.

In English, the logical link between sentences does not need to be explicit; in Arabic, it often
does. Even when there is no logical connection between clauses or sentences, Arabic typically
uses the conjunction ‫ و‬to ensure continuity and cohesion. Linking devices in Arabic are used
for a variety of purposes. The following are just examples:
• To express contrast, differentiation or contradiction: ....‫ وإن كان‬،‫ إال أن‬،‫ عىل الرغم‬،‫لكن‬
• To express causality (cause-result relation): ....‫ بسبب‬،‫ لهذا‬،‫لذلك‬
َ ،‫ ل‬،‫بسبب‬
• To justify or explain: ....‫ فقد‬،‫ف‬
• To link events chronologically:....)‫ قبل (أن‬،‫ بعدما‬،)‫ بعد (أن‬،‫ حت‬،‫بينما‬
• To add: ....‫ باإلضافة إىل‬،‫إىل جانب‬

In translation, Arabic sentences do not always need to be longer than the sentences in the
source text. However, it is important to ensure cohesive ties between phrases, clauses and
sentences. Even in a list of items in the same sentence, the conjunction ‫ و‬is used instead of
commas.

6
 Source text Translation with poor More cohesive translation
cohesion (with other amendments)
There is support for people ‫هناك دعم لألشخاص المتضرين‬ ‫هناك دعم خاص باألشخاص‬
ٔ
adversely affected by a .
‫من امر الصحة العامة للوالية هذا‬ ‫المتضرين من أحد أوامر أو‬
state public health order. ‫إجراءات الصحة العامة الصادرة عن مبلغ يدفع مرة واحدة لمساعدة‬
This is a lump sum payment ‫غي القادرين عىل كسب‬ ‫األشخاص‬ ‫ ويتمثل هذا الدعم يف مبلغ‬.‫الوالية‬
ٔ ‫ر‬
to help people who are ‫الدخل بسبب امر الصحة العامة‬ ‫يدفع مرة واحدة لمساعدة‬
unable to earn income due ‫غي القادرين عىل الكسب للوالية المتعلق ب‬ ‫األشخاص ر‬
to a COVID-19 state public .19-COVID ‫بسبب أحد إجراءات الصحة العامة‬
ٔ
health order. This may ‫قد يشمل ذلك إ غالقا او منطقة‬ ‫ بما يف ذلك‬،١٩ ‫الخاصة بكوفيد‬
ٔ
involve a lockdown, hotspot .‫موبوءة او قيودا عىل الحركة‬ ‫إعالن منطقة ما منطقة موبوءة‬
or movement restrictions. .‫وفرض إغالق أو قيود عىل التنقل‬

Arabic has its own rhetorical tools that can be used to join sentences at times or to separate
meanings and start a new idea.

Some types of cohesive device can be found in both Arabic and English, but they may be used
differently. For example, ellipsis (omission of words because they have been mentioned
earlier or because they can be inferred from the context) works in the following English
example, but not in the Arabic one:

English:
Interview recordings will be transcribed in a way that individual participants cannot be
identified. Once transcribed, you will have the chance to review the recording before it is
deleted to ensure your confidentiality.

Arabic:
‫ وبعد نسخ التسجيالت‬.‫كي‬
‫سيتم نسخ تسجيالت المقابالت بطريقة ال يمكن من خاللها تحديد هوية المشار ر‬
.‫ستتاح لك الفرصة لمراجعتها قبل حذفها للحفاظ عىل خصوصيتك‬

7. Readability

A text that hangs together with the help of appropriate cohesive devices is likely to be more
readable, but there is more to readability than just cohesion. Readability is the extent to
which a written text can be understood by readers with different literacy levels. Many
elements can contribute to readability:

• Sentence length and complexity: shorter sentences with no subordinate clauses are
more readable than longer sentences with subordinate clauses;
• Word length and lexical complexity: a dosed frequency of specialised terms or
uncommon words makes texts more readable. When you have a choice, use the most
commonly used word or expression.

7
 • Correct language use (grammar, punctuation, and spelling);
• Presentation (e.g. font size, spacing, visual aids, etc.);
• Diacritics: In Arabic, diacritics (short vowel marks) improve readability significantly
(See Section 12 below).

Readability is key to accessibility of information in community translations. Improving

readability of translations (e.g. by adding and/or omitting lexical and/or syntactic elements
to ensure clarity) is not a translation error. As long as the meaning in the source text is not
altered and the addition/deletion is justified, that is not considered a mistranslation.

Source text Translation with a lower More readable version

readability score
Most workers have unpaid ‫غت‬ ‫معظم العمال لديهم إ جازة وبائية ر‬ ‫يحق لمعظم العمال أن يأخذوا‬
ٔ
pandemic leave. This means ‫يعت ان لديك الحق يف‬ ‫ي‬ ‫هذا‬ . ‫مدفوعة‬ ‫الحالة‬ ‫إ جازة بدون راتب بسبب‬
ٔ
that you have a right to not go ‫عدم الذهاب إ ىل العمل لمدة‬ ‫ويعت هذا انه بسبب‬
‫ي‬ .‫الوبائية‬
ٔ
to work for 2 weeks because ‫ تحتاج إ ىل‬.‫سبوعي بسبب اإلغالق‬‫ر‬ ‫ا‬ ‫اإلغالق لديك الحق يف عدم‬
ٔ
of the lock-down. You need to ‫إ خبار مديرك يف اقرب وقت ممكن‬ ‫الذهاب إ ىل العمل لمدة‬
ٔ ٔ ٔ
let your boss know as soon as ‫انك بحاجة إ ىل اخذ هذا الوقت من‬ ‫ ولكن عليك أن ر‬.‫سبوعي‬
‫تخي‬ ‫ر‬ ‫ا‬
ٔ
possible that you need to take ‫ ال يمكن لرئيسك طردك من‬.‫الراحة‬ ‫رئيسك يف العمل يف اقرب وقت‬
ٔ
this time off. Your boss can’t ‫العمل لخذك هذا الوقت بعيدا عن‬ ‫ممكن بانك بحاجة إ ىل هذه‬
fire you for taking this time .‫ وال يمكن لرئيسك طردك العمل‬.‫اإلجازة‬
away from work. .‫من العمل بسبب هذه العطلة‬

8. Idiomatic language

Idiomatic language refers to expressions, collocations and sentence structures that are typical
of a given language. Appropriate use of idiomatic language makes texts read naturally.
Unidiomatic language, on the other hand, is often a sign of a literal approach to translation.
When translating into Arabic, always ask yourself: What is the idea/message here? How
would I normally say this in Arabic? What would a text of these characteristics and content
‘sound’ like in a monolingual setting?

When revising your first draft, read it as if you were one of the ‘personas’ you created and
try to imagine their reactions to the idiomatic component of the translation.

Avoid the use of calques (translating phrases and structures word-for-word) as they often
result in unsuccessful renditions and unnatural language.

8
Examples of idiomaticity:

Source text Awkward/unidiomatic More natural/idiomatic

alternatives
َ
Keep up to date with the ‫ابق عىل معرفة باستجابة الحكومة‬ ‫لمواكبة إجراءات الحكومة األسيالية‬
Australian Government’s ‫األسيالية لـ‬ ... ‫الخاصة بجائحة كورونا‬
response to COVID-19 19-COVID
‫لالطالع عىل مستجدات إجراءات‬
‫الحكومة األسيالية لمكافحة جائحة‬
... ‫كورونا‬

Being active is one of the ‫ه واحدة‬ ‫ر‬

‫أن تكون أكت نشاطا ي‬ ‫البدن من أهم العوامل‬
‫ي‬ ‫النشاط‬
best things you can do. ‫الت يمكنك‬ ‫من أفضل الشياء ي‬ ‫للصحة الجيدة‬
For good health, put ‫القيام بها لنفسك‬
together at least 30 minutes ‫ ضع معا ماال‬،‫لصحة جيدة‬ ٣٠ ‫ خصص‬،‫للحفاظ عىل صحة جيدة‬
of moderate intensity ‫ دقيقة من النشاط‬٣٠ ‫يقل عن‬ ‫البدن‬
‫ي‬ ‫دقيقة عىل األقل يوميا للنشاط‬
physical activity on most, ‫البدن المعتدل الكثافة يف معظم‬
‫ي‬ ‫فف معظم‬
‫ وإن لم تستطع ي‬،‫المعتدل‬
preferably all, days of the .‫ ويفضل كل األيام‬،‫أيام األسبوع‬ .‫أيام األسبوع‬
week.

9. Writing style and tone

Translators are guided by the style and tone of the source document. The tone of the source
document normally conveys the author’s or the commissioning organisation’s relationship
with the readers and how they would like the target audience to respond to their messaging.
Translators are also guided by the norms and conventions of the target language (in this case
Arabic) and the expectations of the target community (See Personas in Section 4).

Unless instructed otherwise in the translation brief, community translators need to take
into consideration the crucial information conveyed in the source text and the constraints
of the target language and community and strike a balance between them.

10. Grammar

10.1 Syntactical structure and word order

As is well known, English has a subject-verb-object (SVO) structure, while Arabic basically
follows a verb-subject-object (VSO) order, with the SVO structure also possible for certain
functions and rhetorical purposes. Nominal structures (SVO) in Arabic are usually used to
provide definitions, to describe facts and scenes, or to highlight or emphasise the role of the
nominal group at the beginning of the sentence:

9
 English translation Arabic example
Vaccination is the most effective protection ‫ر‬
.‫األكي فعالية من مرض كورونا‬ ‫التطعيم هو الحماية‬
against COVID-19.
The situation here is better than before: the ‫ فعدد المرض أخذ‬،‫الحالة هنا أحسن مما كانت عليه‬
number of cases is going down and shops .‫يتناقص والمتاجر فتحت أبوابها من جديد‬
have reopened.
It is the cooperation of citizens and ‫والمقيمي هو الذي مكننا من‬
‫ر‬ ‫المواطني‬
‫ر‬ ‫إن تعاون‬
residents that has enabled us to achieve .‫تحقيق هذه األهداف‬
these goals.

Translation from English into Arabic requires adaptation to the norms of the target language,
including the use and function of VSO and SVO structures in Arabic. Mirroring the SVO
structure of English sentences often leads to unidiomatic and poorly connected translations.

Source text Literal word order More appropriate word

order
In the first five years of life, ،‫يف السنوات الخمس األوىل من الحياة‬ ‫يف السنوات الخمس األوىل من‬
experiences and ‫التجارب والعالقات تحفز نمو‬ ‫ تحفز التجارب والعالقات‬،‫الحياة‬
relationships stimulate ‫ماليي الروابط يف‬
‫ر‬ ‫ وتخلق‬،‫األطفال‬ ‫ماليي‬
‫ر‬ ‫ وتخلق‬،‫نمو األطفال‬
children’s development, ‫ أدمغة األطفال‬،‫ يف الواقع‬.‫أدمغتهم‬ ‫ ي‬.‫الروابط يف أدمغتهم‬
،‫وف الواقع‬
creating millions of ‫تطور اتصاالت أرسع يف السنوات‬ ‫بوتية‬
‫تطور أدمغة األطفال روابط ر‬
connections in their brains. ‫الخمس األوىل من أي وقت آخر يف‬ ‫أرسع يف السنوات الخمس األوىل‬
In fact, children’s brains .‫حياتهم‬ .‫من أي وقت آخر يف حياتهم‬
develop connections faster
in the first five years than at
any other time in their lives.

10.2 Active/passive voice

Active- and passive-voice structures are syntactical options available in both English and
Arabic; however, the functions and frequency of passive voice in Arabic are not the same as
in English. The fact that we have a passive construction in an English source text does not
mean that we must always use a similar structure in Arabic. One main difference, for
instance, is that the passive voice is used in Arabic when the agent is unknown or
undisclosable for one reason or another. In English, on the other hand, agentive passive
constructions (i.e. with the agent mentioned) are quite common. Subject to other textual
considerations, the following English sentence would normally be translated as follows:

English Arabic
New measures were announced by the ‫واليت فكتوريا وجنوب أسياليا عن‬
‫ي‬ ‫أعلنت حكومتا‬
governments of Victoria and South Australia. .‫إجراءات جديدة‬

10
 10.3 Multi-word noun phrases

Noun phrases with several pre-modifiers and/or post-modifiers can often lead to
mistranslation or ambiguous renditions. In the following examples, the highlighted words are
clearly the heads in their respective phrases (the main item we refer to), while the other
words provide additional information:
• Pre-clinical trial (‫)تجربة ما قبل الرسيرية‬
• Medicare funded services ("‫"ميديكي‬ ‫ر‬ ‫)خدمات تمولها‬
• Australian Technical Advisory Group on Immunisation ( ‫المجموعة االستشارية‬
‫بالتحصي‬
‫ر‬ ‫ المجموعة األسيالية لالستشارات التقنية الخاصة‬/‫حصي‬
‫ر‬ ‫)التقنية األسيالية الخاصة بالت‬
ُ
• Behaviours observed over a long period of time ( ‫الت لوحظت خالل فية طويلة‬ ‫)السلوكيات ي‬

It is important to read such phrases carefully in context, identify the main referent (the head)
and translate accordingly. Often the order in English is pre-modifier + pre-modifier, etc. +
head, which is translated into Arabic in the opposite order (head + modifier + modifier, etc.).
However, this is not always the case, as the last example above shows (noun + post-modifiers).

Whether the English phrase includes pre-modifiers, post-modifiers or both, the Arabic
translation of the phrase will usually follow the structure head noun + modifiers or head
noun + relative clause/verbal clause, as in the examples above.

10.4 Common grammatical errors

Frequent grammatical errors undermine translation quality and impact on the community’s
trust in translated public messaging.

The following example shows different types of grammatical errors in the same translation
(verb inflection, prepositions, case marking, gender agreement, etc.):

Source text Translation with Translation without

grammatical errors grammatical errors (but still
improvable)
It comes as no surprise ‫ترغبی‬
‫ر‬ ‫لیس من المستغرب إذن أن‬ ‫ترغت‬
‫ي‬ ‫لیس من المستغرب إذن أن‬
then, that like some ‫يف الوالدة يف راحة وخصوصیة ميلك‬ ‫يف الوالدة يف راحة وخصوصیة‬
women, you may wish to ‫ تصف‬.‫مثل بعض النساء األخریات‬ .‫ميلك كبعض النساء األخريات‬
give birth in the comfort ‫اللوان ولدن يف الميل بأن كان‬
‫ي‬ ‫النساء‬ ‫اللوان ولدن يف‬
‫ي‬ ‫تصف النساء‬
and privacy of your own ‫المصي‬
‫ر‬ ‫أكي بتقریر‬
‫لدیھم شعورا ر‬ ‫الميل تجربتهن بأنها منحتهن‬
home. Women who have ‫ر‬
‫والشعور بأنھن یتحكمن أكي يف‬ ‫المصي والتحكم‬ ‫أكي بتقریر‬
‫ر‬ ‫شعورا ر‬
had a home birth(s) ‫وف بیئتھم الخالیة من‬ ‫ر‬
‫عملیة الوالدة ي‬ ‫وف بیئتھن‬ ‫ي‬ ‫الوالدة‬ ‫عملیة‬ ‫أكي يف‬
describe a greater sense of ‫الت تصحب يف‬ ‫الضغط والقیود ي‬ ‫الت‬
‫الخالیة من الضغط والقیود ي‬
self -determination and a .‫بعض األحیان الوالدة يف المستشف‬ ‫تصاحب الوالدة يف المستشف يف‬
feeling of being more in .‫بعض األحیان‬
control of the birth process
and their environment, free
from the pressure and
restraints sometimes felt
with birth in hospital.

11
Common grammatical errors in translation into Arabic include, but are not limited to:

• Use of incorrect verb or incorrect conjugation

Source text Translation with Proposed translation

grammatical errors without grammatical errors
Everything you need to ‫فيوس‬ ‫ر‬
‫كل ما تحتاج إىل معرفته عن كورونا اعت عىل معلومات حول ر‬
know about COVID-19 in .)١٩-‫كورونا (كوفيد‬ .‫) يف فيكتوريا‬١٩-‫(كوفيد‬
Victoria
ً
wear a mask if your state or ‫ارتدي كمامة إذا نصحت واليتك أو‬ ‫ارتد كمامة وفقا لتعليمات الوالية أو‬
territory advises you to do .‫إقليمك أنك بحاجة لذلك‬ .‫اإلقليم الذي تقيم فيه‬
so.
Don’t forget to allow time ‫ال تنىس إتاحة الوقت ألطفالك‬ ‫ال تنس إتاحة الوقت ألطفالك‬
for your children to be silly, ،‫ليتضفوا ببساطة وعفوية‬ ‫ليتضفوا ببساطة وعفوية ويضحكوا‬
giggle, laugh and play! !‫يضحكون ويلعبون‬ !‫ويلعبوا‬
…based on two broad ‫المفهومي أن‬
‫ر‬ ‫من شأن هذين‬ ‫المفهومي أن‬
‫ر‬ ‫من شأن هذين‬
concepts that can help ‫يساعدانك عىل المحافظة عىل نمط‬ ‫يساعداك عىل المحافظة عىل نمط‬
support a balanced lifestyle .‫حياة متوازن ألرستك‬ .‫حياة متوازن ألرستك‬
for your family.

• Lack of subject-verb or pronoun-verb agreement

Source text Translation with Proposed translation

grammatical errors without grammatical errors
Once TGA approves a TGA ‫ فإن‬،‫بعد موافقة "إ دارة السلع العالجية" بعد الموافقة عىل اللقاح‬
vaccine, it keeps a list of all ‫الت‬
‫تحتفظ بقائمة التطعيمات ي‬ ‫ تحتفظ بقائمة تضم‬،‫عىل لقاح ما‬
vaccinations it approved. .‫يوافقون عليها‬ .‫الت وافقت عليها‬
‫كل التطعيمات ي‬

"‫بعد اعتماد "إ دارة السلع العالجية‬

‫ تضيفه إىل قائمة اللقاحات‬،‫لقاحا ما‬
.‫المعتمدة‬
Although pets can spread ‫ر‬
‫يمكن للحيوانات األليفة أن تنرس‬ ‫ر‬
‫يمكن للحيوانات األليفة أن تنرس‬
infections, they play an ‫ إال أنهم يلعبون دورا مهما‬،‫ إال أنها تلعب دورا مهما يف العدوى‬،‫العدوى‬
important role in patient .‫تعاف المرض‬
‫يف ي‬ .‫تعاف المرض‬ ‫ي‬
healing.

• Lack of gender and number agreement

One important difference between English and Arabic is the fact that grammatical gender and
number in Arabic affect word inflections (verbs, nouns, adjectives). Sometimes, translators
focus on short translation units. As a result, they are not aware that the gender/number of a
certain word in the next unit is linked to a previous one, where it is explicit. Machine
translation aids tend to assign a masculine class to unknown or ambiguous words. To avoid
this kind of mistake, it is crucial to reread the translation paying special attention to gender
and number inflections.

12
 Source text Inconsistent gender/number correct gender/number
Pfizer is safe. ‫لقاح "فايزر" آمنة‬ ‫لقاح "فايزر" آمن‬
Vaccines are medicines that ‫ه أدوية تحميك من‬ ‫اللقاحات ي‬ ‫ه أدوية تحميك من‬ ‫اللقاحات ي‬
protect you against specific ‫ إنهم يدربون جهاز‬.‫أمراض معينة‬ ‫ إنها تدرب جهاز‬.‫أمراض معينة‬
diseases. They train your .‫المناعة عىل تذكر الجراثيم ومكافحتها‬ ‫المناعة عىل تذكر الجراثيم‬
immune system to remember .‫ومكافحتها‬
and fight the germ.
‫تحم من أمراض‬
‫ي‬ ‫اللقاحات أدوية‬
‫فه تدرب جهاز المناعة‬ ‫ ي‬،‫معينة‬
.‫عىل تذكر الجراثيم ومكافحتها‬

• Incorrect case marking (e.g. direct object), especially when the noun is plural

Source text Translation with Proposed translation

grammatical errors without grammatical errors
Authorities have announced ‫أعلنت السلطات أرقام لالتصال يف‬ ‫أعلنت السلطات أرقاما لالتصال يف‬
emergency contact ‫الحاالت المستعجلة‬ ‫الحاالت المستعجلة‬
numbers
The Minister of Health ‫دعا وزير الصحة الممرضون‬ ‫دعا وزير الصحة الممرض ری‬
called on nurses to put an ‫والممرضات إليقاف إضابهم‬ ‫والممرضات إليقاف إضابهم‬
end to their strike

• Incorrect use of prepositions

Prepositions are an area where errors are common in Arabic writing. Part of their complexity
lies in the diversity of functions associated with the same preposition and differences
between Classical and Modern Standard Arabic. Below you can find a couple of examples. For
more information, see, for instance, Ammar (1998) or Husni and Zaher (2020), listed under
Useful Resources below.

Source text Incorrect preposition Correction

As parents, we need to be ‫كآباء علينا أن نشارك يف األنشطة‬ ‫باعتبارنا آباء علينا أن نشارك يف‬
involved in school activities ‫المدرسية‬ ‫األنشطة المدرسية‬
Family members care for ‫يعتت أفراد العائلة ببعضهم البعض‬
‫ي‬ ‫ببعض‬ ‫بعضهم‬ ‫يعتت أفراد العائلة‬
‫ي‬
one another
They are addicted to ‫يدمنون عىل استعمال الشاشات‬ ‫يدمنون استعمال الشاشات‬
screens
The vaccine shipment was ‫تمت إعادة شحنة اللقاح إىل الم َورد تمت إعادة شحنة اللقاح للم َورد‬
returned to the supplier

13
 • Incorrect relative pronouns and structure of relative clauses

Source text Incorrect/ambiguous use of Proposed translation

relative pronoun without grammatical errors
This brochure explains what ّ
‫الكتيب معلومات‬ ‫يعطيك هذا‬ ّ
‫الكتيب فحص عنق‬ ‫ي ررسح هذا‬
the cervical screening test is ‫لمساعدتك عىل ُفهم نتائج فحص‬ .‫الرحم وما تعنيه نتائجك‬
and what your test results ‫عنق الرحم الذي أجري لك بشكل‬
mean. .‫أفضل‬

• Articles

Definite and indefinite articles are also a problematic area in translation between English and
Arabic. There are considerable differences, for example, in the use of articles with abstract
nouns (e.g. medicine vs. ‫ )الطب‬and with nouns referring to a non-specific group of people or
objects (e.g. medical practitioners vs. ‫)األطباء‬. It is a good idea to go back to a good grammar
book from time to time.

Source text Incorrect use of articles Correct use of articles

Diet is key to good health ‫ر‬
‫الغذان هو رس صحة جيدة‬ ‫نظام‬ ‫النظام الغذان هو ر‬
‫رس الصحة‬
‫ي‬ ‫ي‬
.‫الجيدة‬
All pharmacists have been ‫تمت دعوة جميع صيادلة للمشاركة‬ ‫تمت دعوة جميع الصيادلة‬
invited to participate in the ‫يف الحملة‬ ‫للمشاركة يف الحملة‬
campaign
All the pharmacists in the ‫تمت دعوة جميع الصيادلة‬ ‫تمت دعوة جميع صيادلة‬
area have been invited to ‫المنطقة للمشاركة يف الحملة‬ ‫المنطقة للمشاركة يف الحملة‬
participate in the campaign
Family members care for ‫يعتت أفراد العائلة ببعضهم البعض‬
‫ي‬ ‫يعتت أفراد العائلة بعضهم ببعض‬
‫ي‬
one another

11. Gender, inclusiveness and political correctness

Unlike English, Arabic is a grammatically gendered language, i.e. verbs, nouns, adjectives and
demonstrative pronouns are assigned a masculine or feminine case, depending on the
referent. This means that as soon as a gender-neutral sentence referring to people is
translated from English into Arabic, a decision needs to be made as to whether to use the
masculine or feminine form. Thus a ‘nurse’ becomes either ‘‫( ’ممرض‬male nurse) or ‘‫’ممرضة‬
(female nurse). In Arabic writing, the masculine form (both singular and plural) is usually used
as the standard form, with feminine forms used when reference is made specifically to
women. Writers, translators included, may attempt to be inclusive by using both masculine
and feminine forms (e.g. ‫)الممرضون والممرضات‬, but it is impractical to maintain dual reference
throughout the text, especially in relation to affixed pronouns. While the English pronouns
‘he/she’, ‘him/her’ are independent words, which can easily be used (although the generic
pronoun ‘they/them’ offers a more practical alternative), many Arabic pronouns are suffixes,
which makes it difficult to attach two pronouns every time a pronoun is needed (e.g.
‫هن الصحية‬/‫)حاالتهم‬.

14
As a rule, use masculine forms as a default form, but whenever possible, use both feminine
and masculine lexical items to ensure gender inclusiveness. Also avoid using feminine forms
specifically when such language use may be perceived as sexist, such as when the text
provides information or instructions about a topic that might be culturally associated with
women. It is safe to use feminine forms when the source text is addressed to women only
(e.g. pregnancy tips), but not when it deals, for example, with childcare, home schooling,
or cooking.

When the source text includes sensitive content (e.g. domestic violence or sexual abuse), it
is good practice to check with the translation commissioner whether the translation should
use a gender-neutral or a gender-specific approach.

12. Diacritics

Diacritics in Arabic play an important role in differentiating sounds, meaning and grammar:
َ َ
• ‫ لك‬for you (masculine) vs. ‫( لك‬for you, masculine)
ْ َ
• ‫( مدرج‬listed, included) vs. ‫( مد َّرج‬amphitheatre)
َ َ َ
• ‫( م ْست ْهلك‬consumed, exhausted) vs. ‫( م ْست ْهلك‬consumer)

Strategic use of diacritics (e.g. different words with similar spelling) can reduce cognitive load,
facilitate understanding and avoid ambiguity. You do not need to use diacritics for every word
and every letter (unless you are translating for children or readers with low literacy), but
strategic use of diacritics (e.g. different words with similar spelling) can reduce cognitive
load, facilitate understanding and avoid ambiguity.

13. Punctuation

Although Modern Standard Arabic uses the same punctuation marks as English (e.g. full stop,
comma, colon, question mark, etc.), punctuation is less systematic in Arabic. Where an English
source text consists of a series of short sentences separated by full stops, it may be more
appropriate in Arabic translation to join the sentences with conjunctions and linking words.
Commas are also common instead of full stops in such cases.

Some punctuation marks such as the colon and the semicolon have specific conventional
functions in English, but not clearly so in Arabic. These differences can be problematic in
translation if the translator is not aware of the function of the punctuation mark and
therefore fails to convey it in their translation.

• Semicolon

Among other functions, the semicolon is used in English to mark contrast between two
clauses. In Arabic, this is better expressed using a conjunctive such as “‫ ”أما‬or “‫”بينما‬.

15
 Source text Incorrect punctuation Correction
Conventional vaccines can ‫قد يستغرق إنتاج اللقاحات‬ ‫قد يستغرق إنتاج اللقاحات التقليدية‬
take months to ً
‫التقليدية شهورا؛ يمكن بناء‬ ً
‫ بينما يمكن إنتاج لقاحات‬،‫شهورا‬
produce; RNA vaccines can ‫الريت‬
‫ري‬ ‫لقاحات الحمض النووي‬ .‫الريت بشكل أرسع‬
‫الحمض النووي ر ي‬
be constructed faster. .‫بشكل أرسع‬

• Colon

Among other purposes, the colon is used in English to provide more information, explanation
or examples. When translating into Arabic, the function needs to be determined and a link
needs to be provided such as “‫”ف‬, “‫”إذ إن‬, “‫”حيث إن‬, “‫ ”فعىل سبيل المثال‬or “‫”فمن ربي هذه‬. The
following is an example.

Source text Incorrect punctuation Correction

Many experts consider ‫الخياء أن النظام‬
‫يعتي العديد من ر‬ ‫ر‬ ‫الخياء أن النظام‬
‫يعتي العديد من ر‬‫ر‬
Australia's electoral system ‫اىل من أفضل‬‫االنتخان األسي ي‬
‫ري‬ ‫اىل من أفضل األنظمة‬‫االنتخان األسي ي‬
‫ري‬
to be one of the finest in the ‫ يبدو أن غالبية‬.‫األنظمة يف العالم‬ ‫اليي‬
‫ر‬ ‫األسي‬ ‫غالبية‬ ‫أن‬ ‫ويبدو‬ .‫العالم‬ ‫يف‬
world. The majority of :‫اليي يشاركون هذا الرأي‬ ‫األسي ر‬ ‫ منهم‬٪٧٠ ‫ إذ يوافق‬،‫يرون هذا الرأي‬
Australians apparently share ‫ يوافقون عىل التصويت‬٪٧٠ .‫عىل التصويت اإلجباري‬
this view: 70% approve of .‫اإلجباري‬
compulsory voting.

• Commas in a list

Another difference in punctuation between English and Arabic is the use of commas in lists
(i.e. sequence of items in the same sentence). In English, a comma is used to separate items
in a list, and the conjunction “and” or “or” is used at the end. In Arabic, it is more appropriate
to add “‫ ”و‬or “‫ ”أو‬between each two items, as follows:

Source text Incorrect punctuation Correction

Vitamin D supplements are ‫الفيتامي د‬
‫ر‬ ‫تتوافر إ ضافات‬ ‫الفيتامي د كأقراص أو‬
‫ٔر‬ ‫تتوافر إ ضافات‬
ٔ ٔ
available as tablets, ‫ قطرات او‬،‫ كبسوالت‬،‫كاقراص‬ .‫كبسوالت أو قطرات او سائل‬
capsules, drops or liquid. .‫سائل‬
With further correction:

‫الفيتامي د عىل شكل‬

‫ر‬ ‫تباع مكمالت‬
ٔ ٔ
.‫اقراص أو كبسوالت أو قطرات او سائل‬

14. Font and font size

Depending on the font type you choose, the Arabic text might look smaller than the English
one. Normally, 12 point Arial, Calibri, or Times New Roman is the standard font size, while
font types such as Al Bayan or Arabic Typesetting would require a minimum of 14 points. In
some cases, such as translations specifically aimed at older readers, it is recommended that
a larger font size is used (e.g. 16 points). The font size will also vary depending on client
specifications and publication type.

16
 15. Organisation names

Unless explicitly required by the client, organisation names need to be translated into Arabic.
Organisation names can also be introduced with Arabic words such as “‫”منظمة‬, “‫ ”هيئة‬or “‫”دائرة‬
even if such words are not in the source text. These are justified additions. For organisation
names that are widely known and have a commonly used translation in Arabic, this translation
should be used consistently. For less known organisations and committees, a functional
translation of the name can be used. For names that do not have a semantic meaning (e.g.
Centrelink), transliteration should be used (‫)سنيلنك‬.

In general, organisation names may be included between parentheses (in English)

immediately after the Arabic translation of the name. This improves understanding, as the
audience would normally know these organisations. However, they should not be used at the
beginning of a sentence.

Excessive use of English names of institutions, programs and services may impact the
readability of Arabic translations. To ensure a balanced approach, the English name can be
inserted between parentheses once (the first time it appears) and subsequently translated
or transliterated. When the English name is hyperlinked, it makes sense to leave it in English.

16. Acronyms

Acronyms need to be spelled out and translated into Arabic. In some cases, when an acronym
is placed between parentheses immediately after the name of an organisation, the same
acronym (in English letters) may be used in the Arabic text too, especially if it is commonly
used in the community. However, English acronyms should not be used as part of an Arabic
sentence (e.g. as subject or object).

Like excessive use of English institutional names, frequent use of English acronyms (e.g. LGA,
TGA, COVID-19, etc.) may affect the readability of Arabic translations. An English acronym
may be used between parentheses once and translated in subsequent occurrences.

In the following example, both the use of a number after the definite article “‫ ”ال‬and the use
of English acronyms affect the presentation and readability of the translation:

Source text Existing translation Proposed translation

Why are these 8 LGAs ٨ ‫لماذا تم إعطاء الولوية لهذه المناطق لماذا تم إعطاء هذه الـ‬
being given priority? LGAs ‫الثمان؟‬
There are a high number of ‫الولوية؟‬
cases of COVID-19 in the ‫ يف هذه يوجد عدد مرتفع من حاالت‬١٩ ‫ألن عدد اإلصابات بكوفيد‬
LGAs of concern. ‫اإلصابة ب‬ .‫المناطق مرتفع‬
LGAs 8‫ يف ال‬COVID-19
.‫تعتي مثار قلق‬
‫الت ر‬‫ي‬ ‫بفيوس كورونا‬
‫ألن عدد اإلصابات ر‬
.‫فيها مرتفع‬

17
 17. Useful resources

17.1 Translation and language references

Alkhuli, Muhammad Ali (1999). Comparative Linguistics: English and Arabic. Amman: Alfalah.

Ammar, Mahmoud Ismail (1998) ‫األخطاء الشائعة يف استعماالت حروف الجر‬. Riyadh: Dar Alam Al-
Kutub.

Badawi, Elsaid, Carter, Michael, and Gully, Adrian (2016). Modern Written Arabic: A
Comprehensive Grammar (revised edition). London and New York: Routledge.

Baker, Mona (2018). In other words: A coursebook on translation. London; New York:
Routledge.

Dickins, James, Sándor, Hervey and Higgins, Ian (2017). Thinking Arabic Translation: A Course
in Translation Method: Arabic to English. London and New York: Routledge.

El-Haj, Mahmoud and Rayson, Paul (2016) “OSMAN: A Novel Arabic Readability Metric” in
Proceedings of the Language Resources and Evaluation Conference 2016, N. Calzolari, K.
Choukri, T. Declerck, M. Grobelnik, B. Maegaard, J. Mariani, . . . S. Piperidis (eds.), 250-255.
https://www.lancaster.ac.uk/staff/elhaj/docs/elhajlrec2016Arabic.pdf

Husni, Ronak and Zaher, Aziza (2020). Working with Arabic Prepositions: Structures and
Functions. London and New York: Routledge.

Lahlali, El Mustapha and Abu Hatab, Wafa (2022). Advanced English-Arabic Translation: A
Practical Guide. Edinbrugh University Press.

Taibi, Mustapha and Ozolins, Uldis (2016). Community Translation. London: Bloomsbury.

17.2 Dictionaries and glossaries

• Al-Hafiz, Al-Tahir (2004). Al-Hafiz Arabic collocations dictionary: Arabic-English. Beirut:

Librairie du Liban.
• Almaany. https://www.almaany.com
• Glossary of Medical Terminology for Immnunisation and Vaccine Development
(English-Arabic).
• Hitti, Yusuf K. and Al-Khatib, Ahmad (2004). Hitti’s New Medical Dictionary (English-
Arabic). Beirut: Librairie du Liban
• World Health Organization (2006). The unified medical dictionary: English-Arabic.
Regional Office for the Eastern Mediterranean & Librairie du Liban Publishers.
https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/119845

17.3 Other resources

Australian Government. Style Manual. https://www.stylemanual.gov.au

18