Indian perspectives of Education, Upnayan samskar

(Page 1) Ancient Indian education, dating back thousands of years, is rooted

in the rich tradition of the Gurukula system and the Guru-Shishya
parampara (teacher-disciple tradition). While influenced by religion, its aim
was the holistic development of the student's personality. The core textual
sources were Vedic literature, comprising eight forms: the four Vedas,
six Vedangas, four Upavedas, four Brahmanas, one hundred and
eight Upanishads, six systems of Philosophy, the Bhagwad Gita, and
three Smritis. The Vedas are considered the first source of wisdom, covering
all branches of knowledge, arts, and sciences. Specialized fields
like Ayurveda (medicine) and Samaveda (music) existed alongside common
foundation courses. The curriculum was vast, encompassing up to 64 arts
(kalas) and crafts, including technical skills, medicine, economics, micro-
psychology, ecology, politics, judiciary, and astrology. The teacher held a
central position in this system.

(Page 2) The teacher (Guru) was more than an instructor; they were a
facilitator, exemplar, inspirer, philosopher, evaluator, and spiritual guide. The
Guru aimed to help students realize their potential for societal contribution.
Education was available for girls during the Vedic and Upanishad periods.
The entire system operated under the 'GURUKUL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION'.
Key objectives included fostering self-control, character development, social
awareness, integral personality development, propagating purity, and
preserving knowledge and culture. Education was both theoretical and
practical, incorporating meditation, seminars, and religious practices. The
ultimate purpose was to train and exercise the five layers of being – physical
(anna-maya), vital (prana-maya), mental (mano-maya), intellectual (vijnana-
maya), and spiritual (ananda-maya) – to lead a successful and meaningful
life.

(Page 3) The Sanskrit words equivalent to education offer nuanced

meanings: Shiksha (from root Shas) means 'to discipline' or 'to
control'; Vidya (from root Vid) means 'to know', 'to acquire', or 'to
reason'; Taleem combines ilm (knowledge) and tarbiyat (behavior), signifying
"to give practical shape to the acquired knowledge." Indian thought
distinguishes between Apara Vidya (lower or secondary knowledge)
encompassing textual knowledge like Vedas and Vedangas for
achieving abhyudaya (worldly prosperity), and Para Vidya (higher
knowledge) which leads to the realization of the imperishable ātman (Self),
the ultimate goal (nihśreyasa).
(Page 4) The concept of Vidya and Avidya is central. An Upanishadic verse
states that one who knows both Vidya (knowledge) and Avidya transcends
death through Avidya and attains immortality through Vidya. Vidya is
equated with Jnana (knowledge). Avidya means 'other than Vidya/Jnana',
often referring to action (karma) and worship (upasana), or, according
to Yogadarshan, it
represents Kleśa (affliction/ignorance). Avidya fundamentally means
mistaking one thing for another.

(Pages 5 & 6) Avidya is the first of the Pancha Kleshas (five afflictions or
misconceptions) mentioned in Yoga Sutra
2.3: Avidya (ignorance), Asmita (egoism), Rāga (attachment), Dveṣa (aversio
n), and Abhiniveśa (fear of death/clinging to life). These Kleshas are the
causes of misery. Avidya is the breeding ground for the other four. It has four
forms: 1. Mistaking the transient (Anitya) for the eternal (Nitya). 2. Mistaking
the impure (Aśuci) for the pure (Śuci). 3. Mistaking pain (Duḥkha) for
pleasure (Sukha). 4. Mistaking the non-self (Anātma) for the Self
(Ātma). Rāga (Yoga Sutra 2.7) is attachment based on past experiences of
pleasure. Dveṣa (Yoga Sutra 2.8) is aversion based on past experiences of
pain. Abhiniveśa (Yoga Sutra 2.9) is the innate, strong desire for life or fear of
death, present in both the ignorant and the wise.

(Page 7) The Upanayan Samskar is the ceremony marking the formal

initiation into education. Upanayan means 'to go near' the learned teacher
(acharya) or 'bringing close to knowledge'. Different ages were suggested for
Upanayan depending on the student's future aspirations (e.g., 5th year for
knowledge proficiency, 8th year for business success). This initiation is
compared to age-related ceremonies in other traditions like Kusti
(Zoroastrian) and Bismillah (Islamic).

(Page 8) A key element of Upanayan is the bestowal of

the Yajñopavīta (sacred thread), consisting of three strings (yajña-sutra),
worn visibly over garments. After Upanayan, the child is called Dvija ('twice-
born'), signifying a transformation into a learned person (the second birth)
following the physical birth from parents (the first birth). The three threads
symbolize three fundamental obligations or debts (Rin): Rishi Rin (debt to
sages: to acquire and promote knowledge), Pitri Rin (debt to ancestors: to
continue the lineage and enter married life), and Dev Rin (debt to Gods: to
acknowledge the divine legacy).
Gurukul system

Okay, here is a summary of the text provided in the images, focusing on key
terms and mentioning page numbers where concepts are introduced:

Drawing upon traditions of Gurukuls and Monasteries

1. Gurukul System (Pages 1-4)

 (Page 1) The Indian education system places the Guru (teacher) at the
highest pedestal, as reflected in the couplet "Guru Brahma...". The
ancient Guru Shishya Parampara (teacher-disciple tradition) is central,
relying on knowledge transmission directly from the Guru's mouth
(Guru-mukh). Students lived with the Guru in a Gurukul, undergoing
stringent discipline and personalized, practical education based
primarily on Vedic literature (Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas). Learning
was experiential, focusing on character, competence, and commitment
through hard work and practice. Direct contact with the Guru was
indispensable for true knowledge acquisition. The system emphasized
living with the Guru, intense learning, obedience, and a close, familial
relationship, often tested before formal knowledge bestowal. Early
education focused more on practical/primary values than intellectual
theory.

 (Page 2) The Gurukul system was residential, with students living in

proximity to the Guru, irrespective of social standing initially. Temples
and community centers also served educational roles. Key subjects
included Vedic hymns, rituals, and detailed Sanskrit studies
encompassing pronunciation, phonology, metrics, grammar, and
etymology. Gurukuls were often situated near rivers or lakes. Education
was typically free and autonomous, without external interference.
Access depended on merit and need, not wealth, though students
often contributed through service. Historical evidence includes
Takshashila, a major center offering diverse subjects from arts and
sciences to military training and medicine, often following primary
education at home and secondary education in Ashrams. The
Mahabharata also mentions hermitages as learning centers.

 (Page 3) Ashrams could be highly organized centers with specialized

departments such as Agnisthana (fire/prayers), Brahma-sthana
(Vedas), Vishnusthana (governance/Niti), Maheshasthana (military),
Vivasvata-sthana (astronomy), Somasthana (botany), Garuda-sthana
(transport), and Kartikeya-sthana (military strategy). Famous
 hermitages like that of Kanva housed specialists in various fields
including Vedas, rituals (Kalpa-Sutras), grammar (Shabda), etymology
(Nirukta), interpretation (Mimamsa), logic (Tarka), physical sciences
(dravya guna), and zoology, functioning like universities. Other exles
include the hermitages of Rishi Bharadvaja and Vyasa.

 (Page 4) Renowned ancient universities included Nalanda, Takshashila,

Odantapuri, Vikramshila, Valabhi, Varanasi, and Kanchipuram. Merits of
the Gurukul system included the Guru's deep knowledge, perfect
knowledge transmission, fostering respect and discipline, character
building, and benefits of direct teaching. Demerits included potential
narrowness (one Guru), lack of fixed schedule, potential bias, and
students performing chores. The system declined under colonial rule
but saw revival efforts by figures like Dayananda Saraswati (Arya
Samaj) and Swami Shraddhanand (Gurukula Kangri Vishwavidyalaya),
leading to modern Gurukuls like the Swaminarayan Gurukul and others.

2. Monasterial System in Ancient India (Pages 5-7)

 (Page 5) Arising partly against the backdrop of social discrimination

(Varna system) and Brahmanical dominance, Buddhism introduced a
new philosophy and education system around 600 BC. Buddhist
education aimed to attain ultimate wisdom (Anuttara-Samyak-
Sambodhi) and foster holistic development (physical, mental, moral,
intellectual) to create individuals who were free, wise, moral, non-
violent, secular, humanist, logical, and free from superstition. Initially
limited to monks in monasteries (Viharas), it later opened to all,
irrespective of caste or creed, challenging the Vedic system's
exclusivity. Monasteries became chief learning centers, influencing the
populace through monks' interactions, though mass education wasn't
formally planned.

 (Page 6) Buddhist education emphasized creating free individuals, with

teachers as guardians focusing on character development. Monastic
life (Sangha) was residential, fostering close teacher-student bonds
within a disciplined daily routine involving service. The core curriculum
revolved around Buddha's teachings (discipline, meditation, wisdom)
as compiled in the Tripitaka (Vinaya, Sutta, Abhidhamma pitakas),
emphasizing simple living, purity, and the Astang Marg (Eightfold Path,
e.g., Samma-Ditthi - Right View). The ultimate aim was salvation
(Nirvana) and attaining the Bodhisattva stage. Teaching methods
combined individual and classroom learning, heavily relying on Verbal
 Education (oral tradition, memorization due to scarce materials),
Discussion (Shastrartha for debate and impressing the public), and the
Prominence of Logic for resolving controversies.

 (Page 7) Other methods included Tours by Acharyas to propagate

Buddhism, regular Conferences within the Sangha for free discussion
(compulsory attendance), and Meditation in Solitude for advanced
monks. The teacher guided learning through lectures, questions, and
emphasis on behavior, developing dialogue and comparison methods
over time. The overall Contribution of Traditional Education (both
Gurukul and Monasterial) to the modern world is immense, impacting
global culture, philosophy, science, and societal advancement,
preserving invaluable knowledge, as noted by thinkers like Einstein and
Mark Twain.

Macauly minutes

Here is a summary of the text on Macaulay's Minute on Indian Education:

Context and Macaulay's Arrival (Page 1)

The text begins by defining Macaulay's idea of a "learned native" as one

familiar with Western knowledge (Milton, Locke, Newton), not just Indian
traditions. In the early 19th century, while Christian missionaries were
initially hindered by the East India Company from extensive proselytizing
through education, the Charter Act of 1813 formally introduced state
responsibility for Indian education. This act allocated one lakh rupees
annually for "the revival and improvement of literature and encouragement
of the learned natives of India, and for the introduction and promotion of
knowledge of the science among the inhabitants of the British territories in
India." This clause sparked the Orientalist-Anglicist controversy
regarding whether funds should support traditional Indian learning
(Orientalist view) or promote Western education through English (Anglicist
view). Lord Thomas Babington Macaulay arrived in India in June 1834
and was appointed President of the General Committee of Public Instruction
(GCPI). Faced with the deadlock, Governor-General Lord William Bentinck
tasked Macaulay with resolving the issue. Macaulay, unimpressed by India
upon arrival, wrote his decisive Minute on February 2nd, 1835. He
strongly favored the Anglicist position, dismissing Oriental learning and
advocating for the imposition of Western education.
Macaulay's Arguments and Bentinck's Decision (Page 2)

On March 7, 1835, Lord Bentinck officially accepted Macaulay's

recommendations. This, along with subsequent measures like the
Government Resolution of 1844 (making English the court language and
favouring English-educated Indians for posts), firmly established English
education in India. Macaulay famously argued that the aim should be to
"form a class of persons Indian in blood and colour but English in taste,
opinions in morals and in intellect." His key arguments for promoting
English over Arabic and Sanskrit were:

1. English is the key to modern, useful knowledge.

2. It's the language of the ruling class and commerce.

3. It could bring about a renaissance in India, similar to Greek/Latin in

Europe.

4. He believed natives desired English education.

5. It was feasible to educate Indians effectively in English.

6. It was impossible to educate the entire populace directly, so resources

should focus on creating an elite English-educated class through which
knowledge would eventually filter down (Downward Filtration
Theory).

Macaulay presented his case forcefully, even threatening resignation.

Bentinck, nearing the end of his term, was apparently keen to settle the
matter swiftly.

Bentinck's Resolution and Nuances (Page 3)

Bentinck's Resolution of 7 March 1835 formally declared that "the great

object of the British Government ought to be the promotion of European
literature and science among the natives of India, and that all the funds
appropriated for the purpose of education would best be employed on
English education alone". However, departing slightly from the
uncompromising tone of Macaulay's Minute, the Resolution explicitly stated
there was no intention to abolish any existing Native college or
school as long as the native population wished to attend them. It also
stipulated that existing native scholars receiving stipends would
continue to do so. These concessions were likely prompted by protests and
petitions from influential groups in Calcutta who opposed Macaulay's drastic
proposals. This suggests Bentinck may have allowed Macaulay's strong
rhetoric while implementing the policy with some modifications to mitigate
immediate backlash against established interests.

Education & society

Here is a summary of the text on Education and Society, with key terms and
page references:

Society (Page 1)

 Definition: Society is defined as a complex system of usages,

procedures, authority, mutual aid, groupings, control of behavior, and
liberties (MacIver and Page). Alternatively, it's a network of
interconnected major groups sharing a common culture (J.H. Fichter). It
encompasses community, neighbours, and family and concerns the
relationships between people.

 Characteristics of Society:

o 1. Society is abstract: It's a web of social relationships, not a

tangible entity. We perceive people and their actions, but society
itself is an invisible process of associating.

o 2. Likeness and difference: Society requires both. Likeness

(shared attitudes, values, "consciousness of kind" - Giddings)
provides a basis for understanding and unity. Difference is
necessary for complexity, division of labour, and societal
advancement. Likeness is generally predominant.

(Page 2)

 Characteristics (cont.):

o 3. Cooperation and conflict: Both are inherent. Society relies

on cooperation, but internal conflict and disagreement also
exist and can sometimes prevent stagnation, though must be
managed.

o 4. Society is a process, not a product: It is dynamic and

constantly evolving, not a static entity. What endures are cultural
remnants, but society itself is in continuous formation.

o 5. Society as a system of stratification: It involves ranking

individuals into statuses and classes within a social structure.
  Function of Education in Society: Education holds significant social
importance, particularly in modern, complex societies. Key functions
include:

o 1. To complete the socialization process: Education

supplements the family's role in integrating the child into society,
teaching values like honesty, fair play, cooperation, citizenship,
and patriotism through curriculum and activities.

(Page 3)

 Functions (cont.):

o 2. To transmit the central heritage: Education is the primary

mechanism for passing down a society's culture (beliefs, skills,
arts, philosophy, religion, etc.) across generations, as culture is
learned, not inherited.

o 3. For the formation of social personality: Education shapes

individuals' personalities to align with cultural norms,
contributing to societal integration, survival, and reproduction.

o 4. Reformation of Attitudes: Education aims to correct

negative attitudes, prejudices, disloyalties, and illogical beliefs
children may absorb, fostering more reasoned perspectives
(though schools have limitations).

o 5. Education for occupational placement: It serves as a

practical instrument for livelihood, preparing youth for future jobs
and roles in society, often with an emphasis on vocational
training.

o 6. Conferring of Status: Education level is a major factor

determining an individual's position within the social
stratification system (class, income, lifestyle). Higher education
typically correlates with higher status.

(Page 4)

 Functions (cont.):

o (Implied 7) Screening/Selecting: The education system acts as

a sorting mechanism based on performance.

o 8. Education encourages the spirit of competition: While

teaching cooperation, schools also foster competition through
 marks, rankings, and praise/blame, preparing students for
societal competition.

o 9. Education Trains in skills required by the Economy: It

supplies the necessary trained workforce (engineers, doctors,
technicians, etc.) for the economy, often based on planned
needs.

o 10. Fosters Participant Democracy: Literacy, imparted by

education, is crucial for participation in democracy. Schools also
instill democratic values like cooperation, fairness, and
obedience through various activities.

o 11. Education acts as an integrative force: By

communicating common knowledge, skills, and values, education
helps unite different segments of society and integrate
individuals into the broader social fabric.

 Impact of Society on Education: Society profoundly influences

education through its: Structure, Geographical Condition, Culture,
Religions, Political Aspect, Economic Aspect, and Social Change.

(Page 5)

 Society's Influence (Elaboration): Society's values, morals, and

principles shape the education system, both positively and negatively.
Social groups can influence teaching. Negative societal influences
include: inequalities reflected in education (e.g., denying women's
rights, gender discrimination in fields of study), forcing children into
labour thus denying schooling, and social status dictating the quality
and accessibility of education due to costs. Overcoming these negative
societal impacts on education is a significant challenge requiring
conscious effort to correct inequalities and foster a society that
supports positive educational development for all.

Ashtanga Yoga: The Eight-Limbed Yoga (Page 1)

 Introduction: Ashta means eight and anga means limb. Ashtanga

Yoga refers to the eight limbs or steps that constitute the path. While
they are limbs belonging to the same body of teachings, they also
represent steps in a logical order of practice.

 The Eight Limbs:

 1. Yama: Five ethical restraints or "don'ts" (Ahimsa, Satya,
Brahmacharya, Asteya, Aparigraha).

2. Niyama: Five observances or "do's" (Saucha, Santosha, Tapas,

Swadhyaya, Ishwara Pranidhana).

3. Asana: Steady posture.

4. Pranayama: Control of prana (life force) or breath.

5. Pratyahara: Withdrawal of the senses.

6. Dharana: Concentration.

7. Dhyana: Meditation.

8. Samadhi: Super-conscious state or absorption.

The Foundation (Page 2 - Top)

 The moral and ethical practices of Yama and Niyama form the
essential foundation for the spiritual path of Raja Yoga. Significant
progress in advanced practices like meditation cannot occur until these
ten principles are tangibly established.

1. The Five Yamas (Pages 2-3)

 These should be practiced in thought, word, and deed, often requiring

careful discernment (dharma).

o Ahimsa: Non-violence or non-injury. More than just not killing,

it's "entire abstinence from causing any pain or harm whatsoever
to any living creature, either by thought, word or deed." It implies
positive cosmic love.

o Satya: Truthfulness in thought, word, and action, aligning with

one's conscience. Lying creates mental disturbances detrimental
to yoga.

o Brahmacharya: Control of the senses (indriyas), often referring

specifically to celibacy or conserving sexual energy. This builds
the vital energy (prana) needed for higher limbs like Dharana
and Dhyana.

o Asteya: Non-stealing, including subtle forms of

misappropriation. Requires self-analysis.
 o Aparigraha: Non-covetousness, non-possessiveness, and non-
acceptance of unnecessary gifts. Being content with what is
needed.

2. The Five Niyamas (Page 3)

 These relate to self-purification and discipline.

o Saucha: Purity or cleanliness, both external (body, environment)

and internal (thoughts, feelings). Includes practices like kriyas.
Essential for the sattvic (pure) state needed for meditation.

o Santosha: Contentment. Recognizing and accepting life

situations while striving to do one's best.

o Tapas: Austerity or discipline. Practices (like fasting or focused

effort) that strengthen body and mind, counteracting excessive
comfort. Often involves meditation on the divine.

o Swadhyaya: Self-study. Includes study of scriptures

(Upanishads, Gita, etc.) and japa (mantra repetition) to
understand the Self.

o Ishwara Pranidhana: Surrender to God's will or devotion.

Cultivating faith and dedicating actions to a higher power. (Page
4 top)

3. Asana (Page 4)

 A steady, comfortable posture. Essential for Raja Yoga's aim of calming

the mind, as body and mind are linked. A stable posture allows for
prolonged meditation without physical agitation. Hatha yoga asanas
help achieve this mastery.

4. Pranayama (Page 4)

 Control of prana (life force), primarily through breath control. Prana

animates the mind (vrittis - mental fluctuations). Calming the breath
helps calm the mind. Practitioners should aim for calm, shallow
breathing.

5. Pratyahara (Page 4)

 Withdrawal of the senses from their objects in the external world.

Pulling the mind inward, away from distractions, creating a peaceful
inner space. Analogy: the tortoise withdrawing its limbs.
6. Dharana (Page 4)

 Concentration. Fixing the mind's attention onto a single point or object.

Maintaining this focus steadily, like a flame in a windless room. Leads
to Dhyana.

7. Dhyana (Page 5)

 Meditation. An uninterrupted, natural, and effortless flow of

consciousness towards the object of meditation. Compared to the flow
of oil. Duality (sense of separation between meditator and object) still
exists. Leads to Samadhi.

8. Samadhi (Page 5)

 Super-conscious state or absorption. Described as experiencing

"Absoluteness," Oneness, all-knowledge, and joy. The mind merges
with the object of meditation; meditator, meditation, and object
become one. It is the culmination of the Ashtanga Yoga path, requiring
dedicated practice of all eight limbs.