CVS 327 Class Notes I Highway Materials 2024/2025

Course content
Introduction to Highway materials
Natural Soils & Aggregates
Bitumen & Tar
Bituminous mixes
Soil Stabilization
Quality control of highway materials
Laboratory Practicals
Tests on Natural Soils
Tests on aggregates
Tests on bitumen and bituminous materials

Introduction to Highway Materials

This course follows the transportation planning course in which consideration was made for requirements
for transportation and traffic movement and as such a build-up of facilitating this movement is
construction of facilities including the road pavements. The roads have to be constructed in different
ground conditions and in different environmental constraints. The conditions and environments pose
complex issues in highway construction among them:-

 Roads running through built up areas (Cities and townships) posing accident risks, congestion,
pollution e.t.c
 Narrow roads due to limited reserves, encroachments, natural barriers
 Structural inadequacy of underlying natural soils or the pavements
 Poor geometrical design
 Inadequate structures such as bridges
 Funding for maintenance and rehabilitation
 Funding for expansion and new facilities
 Environmental pollution

These issues provide the following challenges to the highway engineer.

Challenges of design, construction, rehabilitation, reconstruction and expansion

i. Design and reconstruct emerging modern technologies and needs of safety, comfort, speed
ii. Redesign older facilities to meet current demands of traffic, environmental conditions.
iii. Secure budget provisions.
iv. Adopt cost effective and environmentally sound solutions.

Challenges of safety and environment

i. Identify necessary safety requirements of the road system especially, to protect vulnerable road
users.
ii. Implement regulations controlling noise, air and water pollution.
iii. Upscale safety and comfort assurance
iv. Adopt new and safer technologies and environmental conservation measures

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Pavement Structure
The main purpose of a pavement is to provide a means of reducing the stress due to the wheel load to a
value bearable to ground under the pavement. Figure 1 shows how the high stress that exists at the point
of wheel contact is reduced down the pavement structure until the stress is brought down to a level
acceptable to the less competent naturally existing ground called the subgrade.

Figure 1: Stress distribution from wheel to subgrade

To take care of the stresses illustrated, a pavement is designed to be able to withstand and transfer stresses
to underlying layers and as such typical structural layers comprise, sub grade, capping layer, sub base,
road base, base course and wearing course as depicted in figure 2.

The functions of each of the layers are as follows:

Figure 2: Illustration of road profile

The sub grade is the natural soil or made up ground (fill) on which the pavement is built. On re-
constructed roads it is usually well compacted by traffic, on new roads it is carefully shaped and
compacted to the appropriate level and profile. The surface of the sub grade is known as the formation.

A capping layer is sometimes laid over a weak sub grade to act as a sub grade improvement layer. This is
usually a relatively low quality, cheap, locally available aggregate. With some soils, sub grade

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improvement can be achieved by treating the surface with lime or cement. In either case the aim is to
ensure adequate support for plant used to lay the sub-base.

The Sub Base is the main foundation layer and its principal function is to act as a platform upon which
pavement construction can take place without damage to the sub grade.
- It enables the traffic stresses to be reduced to acceptable levels in the subgrade
- It also acts as a final loading-distributing layer and provides a depth of frost resistant material.
- It acts as a working plate form for the construction of upper pavement layers.
- Acts as a drainage layer, by protecting the subgrade from wetting up.
- It intercepts upward movement of water by capillary action.
- It acts as a separating layer b/w subgrade and road base. By this it prevents the two layers from
mixing up
The sub grade and the sub base together are known as the foundation.

The Road base is the main structural layer which provides the major part of the strength and load
distributing properties of the pavement. It must resist permanent deformation and fatigue cracking from
repeated loadings.

The surfacing normally comprises two layers - a base course and wearing course.
Although in very light traffic conditions where the increased contribution of evenness of the final surface
made by a two layer surfacing is not considered necessary, the surfacing might simply comprise a single
layer.
The base course layer distributes some of the traffic loading and also regulates the underlying layer to
provide an even profile on which to lay the relatively thin wearing course layer.
The wearing course provides not only the initial load distribution but also a weather proof finish to the
construction that gives skid resistance and resistance to polishing and abrasion by traffic and even running
surface and one that will rapidly shed surface water.

Functions of Materials
Functions of the different bituminous materials in road surfacing:
I. Natural soil
Soil naturally tops the list of materials used in road construction. It is the eventual point
which supports the complete structure of the road.
Indeed, soil is the primary road material for the foundation, subgrade, or the pavement in the
case of low traffic rural roads. It provides the essential flat base that offers the vital support
for the road structure.
A process known as compaction, where soil particles are pressed together to reduce pore
space between them, is usually carried out on site to give the soil at the base some higher
resistance and greater stability. Murram, usually lateritic soils are also an important soil and
with simple compaction can provide required strength and drainage properties.
II. Coarse aggregates
Requirement: Material retained in a 2.36mm sieve
- Provide strength and stability to the mix by mechanical interlock and friction
- Provide skid resistance by the rough texture
- Resist abrasion by the action of tires

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III. Fine aggregates
Requirement: Material passing 2.36mm and retained in 75micron sieve
- Add to stability by improving interlock and friction
- Provide dense gradation by filling voids in coarse aggregates
- Facilitate greater load transfer
- Increase frictional resistance
IV. Mineral fillers
Requirement: Inert material passing 75micron sieve
- Stiffen binders by being dispersed in them
- Help lower temperature susceptibility of the binders and hence help retain hardness at
higher temperatures
- Act as void filler hence increase density
V. Binder/Organic cements
Usually: Bitumen/tar
- Lubricate aggregates and facilitate compaction to the desired density
- Impart cohesion to the mix, hence increase stability
- Bind and keep aggregates in positions occupied during compaction
- Water-proof the mixture
- Provide flexibility and ductility: allow mixture to bend without cracking under load and
finally return on load withdrawal
For good service throughout the full life bituminous pavement must retain following qualities:
 Freedom from cracking or raveling.
 Resistance to weather including the effect of surface water heat and cold.
 Resistance to internal moisture, particularly to water vapors.
 Tight impermeable surface or porous surface (if either is needed for contained stability of
underlying base or subgrade).
 Smooth riding and non-skidding surface.

VI. Concrete
Concrete offers a lot of flexibility and ease of construction – making it an important road
material. It is created by mixing cement, coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, water, and
chemical admixtures
In addition to reducing costs, concrete is popular among road builders due to its ability to
extend the service life of a road and it the construction of road structures and drainage
elements. Cement as a material is also very useful in stabilization of natural soils or gravel to
attain required properties
VII. Admixtures
Are: agents added to the binders to improve their characteristics
- Increase cohesion and stability
- Retard loss of lighter fractions of the binder
- Improve the resilience and serves better to cushion against vibration and traffic shocks
- Increase softening point, viscosity and elasticity
- Increase the life span of the mixture

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CVS 327: CLASS NOTES CHAPTER 2: Bitumen & Tar 2024/2025

BITUMEN

As early as the 5000 years ago, bitumen has been used by man as a waterproofing agent and
bonding agent. The ancient civilization in Mesopotamia was familiar with bitumen, which was
used for mummification, cementing building blocks and waterproofing of irrigation channels,
external slab and walls as well as membrane tanking.

Bitumen bonding agent/sealant Bitumen in road construction

The use of bitumen on roads in recent times picked up in the nineteenth century. Natural rock
asphalt as initially used, but as petroleum distillation began to grow as an industry to fuel the
vehicles, the residue found equally increasing use in constructing better roads for the purpose.

Definition of terms

There is some intermixing of terms such as asphalt and bitumen. Different countries attach
different meanings to these terms. American terminology uses the name “asphalt” for
substances known as “bitumen” in British terminology.

Some of the terms are described below:

In British terminology, bitumen is defined as a viscous liquid, or solid, consisting essentially of

hydrocarbons and their derivatives, which is soluble in carbon disulphide. It is substantially non-
volatile and softens gradually when heated. It is black or brown in color and possesses
waterproofing and adhesive properties. It is obtained by the refinery processes from
petroleum, in which case it is known as “petroleum bitumen”. It is also found as a natural
deposit, in which case it is known as “native bitumen” or “natural bitumen”.

Asphalt, in British terminology, is a natural or mechanical mixture in which bitumen is

associated with a substantial proportion of inert material. If found in lakes as Trinidad it is
known a 'Lake asphalt', lf found in naturally occurring calcareous rock e.g. in Italy and
Switzerland it is known as 'Rock asphalt'.
In American terminology, the materials coming under the British terminology 'Bitumen’ and
'asphalt' are commonly known as 'Asphalt'

Asphaltic Cement is a binder, consisting of bitumen, or a mixture of lake asphalt and Bitumen or
lake asphalt and flux oil or pitch / bitumen, minerals such as sand or gravel are added to form
composite known as Asphaltic concrete (AC).

In India, bitumen is generally defined in the lines of the British terminology. Asphalt refers to
the mixture of bitumen and inert mineral matter, again in conformity with the British case.

A 'straight-run bitumen' is a petroleum bitumen of which the viscosity composition has not
been altered or adjusted by blending or by softening with fluxing or cutting-back oil or by other
treatment.

Penetration grade bitumen is bitumen whose degree of hardness can be measured by the
standard penetration test.

Blown bitumen is bitumen obtained by further treatment of straight-run bitumen by running

it, while hot, into vertical column and blowing air through it. In this process bitumen undergoes
a change as a result of which it attains a rubbery consistency, has a higher softening point than
straight-run bitumen of the same hardness and has a greater resistance to flow.

Manufacture of Bitumen

Crude Petroleum oils , the main source of bitumen, differ among themselves in their physical
and chemical properties. Paraffinic crudes yield a wax, or wax-like residue on distillation. The
Indian crude found on the west coast of India in Bombay is paraffinic. Naphthenic crudes yield
substantially wax-free bitumen and mixed base crudes yield bitumen containing wax in some
proportions. The Assam oils yield good bitumen. The petroleum crude imported from the Middle
East yields good bitumen.

The refining of petroleum crude in refineries is carried out on the principle of fractional
distillation. The crude oil is heated in a tube-still.

Volatiles are separated in a fractionating column. Gasoline, kerosene, gases, naphtha oil and
heavy oils get separated thus. Steam is injected into the fractionating column to assist in the
process. The residue is collected as bitumen.
 Figure: The distillation process.

In modern refining process, the distillation is achieved in two or three stages. In the first stage,
the crude oil is first passed through a tube-still operating at a relatively low temperature (less
than 350°C), to take off in a fractionating column operating at atmospheric pressure, the light
ends of the crude oil i.e. naphtha and kerosene. The topped crude is then passed through
another still for subsequent transfer to another column operating under vacuum with the
assistance of steam injection. A more modern system dispenses with steam injection and relies
on dry vacuum only, thus enabling a wider range of products to be produced.
 Flow illustration of bitumen processing

Note the four different processes and their respective conditions and products.

General properties of bitumen

The general properties of bitumen are enumerated below:-

i. They contain predominantly hydrocarbons with small quantities of sulphur, oxygen,

nitrogen and metals
ii. They are predominantly soluble in carbon-disulphide. The portion insoluble in CS2 being
generally less than 0.1%
iii. Most bitumen are colloidal in nature
iv. Bitumen are thermoplastic i.e. they soften on heating and harden on cooling
v. They have no specific melting point, boiling point, or freezing point, though a form of
softening point (ring and ball) is used in characterization.
vi. Bitumen is insoluble in water
vii. They are highly impermeable to the passage of water
viii. They are generally hydrophobic (water repellent), but may be made hydrophilic (water
liking) by the addition of small quantities of surface active agents
ix. They are chemically inert
x. They oxidize slowly
For satisfactory performance as a road material, bitumen should have the following
desirable properties:-

1. It should be fluid enough at the time of mixing to coat all the surfaces of the aggregates
evenly to a thin film. Fluidity is achieved entire by heating or by cutting-back with a thin
flux or by emulsifying the bitumen
2. It should have low temperature susceptibility, or in other words, it should exhibit with
change in viscosity with change in temperature.
At least within the range of the temperature prevailing on the road, it should show
uniform viscosity characteristics. This property becomes very difficult of fulfillment is the
case of regions having wide temperature ranges as in N. India. If the binder has low
temperature susceptibility it will not become soft during summer or hard nor brittle
during cold
3. The bitumen should have a good amount of volatiles in it, and it should not lose them
excessively when subjected to higher temperatures. This will ensure its durability
4. The bitumen should be ductile and not brittle.
5. The bitumen should be capable of being heated to temperatures at which it can be
easily mixed without any fire hazard
6. The bitumen should have good affinity for the aggregates and should not be stripped off
in the continued presence of water.

TESTS DONE ON BITUMEN

1. Viscosity

Viscosity is the property of fluid that determines the resistance offered to a shearing force
under laminar flow conditions. It is thus the opposite of fluidity

Figure: viscosity test setup

Dynamic or absolute viscosity is the internal friction resulting from unit tangential force acting
on planes of unit area separated by unit distance of the fluid producing unit tangential viscosity
The unit of measurement of dynamic viscosity in S-I. unit is Ns/sqm (Newton second per square
meter)

Kinematic viscosity is the quotient of the dynamic viscosity and the density of the fluid. The unit
being square meter per second sqm/s

The determination of viscosity it generally done by efflux viscometers. They work is the
common principles though they defer in detail. The liquid under test is poured to a specific level
into a container surrounded by water or oil bath providing temperature control. At the base of
the container is a small orifice with a simple valve control. On opening the valve, the time in
seconds is recorded for a stated quantity of fluid to discharge into a measuring cylinder below.

The efflux viscometers determine viscosity in an indent manner by measuring the time takes for
flow through the orifice. The one measured does not bear any relation with the absolute
viscosity. Another disadvantage of this test is when penetration grade bitumen is tested; it has
to be heated to temperatures excess of those expected during service conditions.

In order to overcome this drawback, a sliding plate viscometer is used. A thin film of bitumen of
thickness approximately 20-50 microns is formed between the two glass plates 3 × 2 x 0.7cm
thick- one plate is fixed and the other attached to a loading device, the whole assembly is then
immersed in a thermostatically controlled water bath. The degree and the rate of movement of
the plate to which load is applied is measured electronically

2. Penetration Test

An indirect measure of viscosity is the amount of penetration a standard needle under standard
conditions of load, time and temperature. The test measures the hardness or softness of
bitumen in terms of mm/10 of the standard needle.

The standard conditions selected are:-

Temperature: 25°C (test to be done after sample is kept for one hour in the water bath at this
temperature)

Load on needle: 100 gms

Time in which penetration is recorded: 5 secs

 Figure Pen. Test setup

The penetration is measured by a gradual dial. Owing to limitations in the dimensions of the
needle and other conditions, penetrations less than 2 secs and greater than 500 cannot be
determined satisfactorily. If log (penetration) is plotted against temperature, practically a
straight line is obtained. This enables extrapolation of values. Penetration values and absolute
viscosity cannot be correlated precisely.

Bitumen of penetration 80/100 signifies that the range of the penetration of the bitumen is 80-
100. The lower the penetration value the harder is the grade.

3. Softening Point

A viscous material like bitumen or tar does not have a well defined softening point. However, a
standardized test determines the temperature at which a standard ball will pass through a disc
of bitumen contained in a ring. The test is known as 'Ring and Ball' test.

Figure: Softening point test setup

A brass ring containing the bitumen sample is suspended in water or glycerin at a given
temperature. A steel ball is placed on the disc of bitumen. The liquid medium is then heated at
a rate of 5°C increase per minute. The temperature at which the softened bituminous material
touches the bottom metal plate placed at a specific distance below the ring a recorded as the
softening point. The hardest grade of bitumen in India is 30/40 which has a softening point of
50-65°C. The softest paving bitumen is 180/200 grade, having a softening point 30-45°C.

4. Temperature susceptibility

The rate of change of viscosity or consistency of a given bitumen determines its temperature
susceptibility. This property is of great use in designing satisfactory bituminous mixes for use
under any given range of temperature changes. The criterion is that bitumen should exhibit as
little change as possible in its viscosity in given range of temperature change. The most
common method to characterize temperature susceptibility is the Penetration index (PI).
Plotting log penetration against temperature gives

Log (pen) = AT + K

(Find out from literature a typical graph sample)

The slope A is an indication of the temperature susceptibility.

Normal road making bitumen have PIs between -2 and +2 with coal tar and pitch less than -2
and blown bitumen above +2.

5. Ductility

The ductility of a binder is an indication of its elasticity and ability to deform under load and
return to its original condition upon removal of load. A material which does not possess
adequate ductility would crack under load. This is unsatisfactory since water can penetrate into
the surfacing through these cracks. The property is determined by measuring the distance that
a briquette of bitumen, necked to a cross-section of 1sqcm will stretch without breaking when
elongated at a rate of 5cm/min at 27oC.
 Figure: Temperature Susceptibility test

6. Brittleness

Brittleness is the state when fracture occurs without appreciable deformation at low stress. This
property is very important in determining the desirable properties of a bitumen mixture. The
Fraass Break Point test is generally adopted procedure for this. The test involves a thin film of
bitumen (0.5mm thick) formed on a flexible metal plaque. The film is bent under standard
conditions. The break point is that temperature at which cracking occurs.

7. Heat stability

All bituminous binders undergo changes in their properties with heat. The binders become fluid
at temperatures around 90oC above their softening point, and up to these temperatures, such
changes in their properties are reversible. At higher temperatures more important changes may
take place. These effects are studied in three tests:

i. Flash point
ii. Fire point and spontaneous ignition temperatures
iii. Loss on heating

Flash point is the temperature at which bitumen gives off vapors, which ignite in the presence
of a flame, but do not continue to burn. This is an indication of the critical temperature at and
above which suitable precautions should be taken to eliminate fire hazards. A test called the
Pensky-Martin method is prescribed (illustrated below) which involves a cup into which bitumen
is filled, heated at a rate of 5.6oC per minute stirring the material constantly. A flame is applied
at intervals. The flash point is taken a the temperature read on the thermometer when the
flame causes a bright flash in the interior of the cup in a closed system and at the surface of
the material in an open system.
 Flash point test setup

If heating is continued beyond the flash point, the vapors ignite in presence of a flame and
continue to burn. There is no standard method to determine the spontaneous ignition
temperature which can only be broadly indicated.

The effect of heat on bituminous binder is in the loss of volatile constituents. This loss causes
the binder to harden. Thus one method of testing a desirable binder is the loss on heating test.
This is achieved by an accelerated heating test. A 50gm sample is taken and maintained at a
temperature of 163oC for 5 hours. The loss in weight expressed as a percentage of the original
weight is determined. A 1% loss is acceptable for all bitumen except pen 180/200 in which 2%
can be accepted. The penetration after the test is also done and expressed as a percentage of
the original, a minimum of 60% is stipulated.

8. Solubility

All bitumens are substantially soluble in Carbon di sulphide. Insolubles indicate presence of
mineral matter. Indian standards for instance recommends up to 99% solubility.

9. Specific gravity test

SG of a binder does not influence its behavior. But all the same, its value is needed in mix
design. The property is determined at 27oC, by a pycnometer or by preparing a cube of a
sample. The SG of road making bitumen varies from 1.02 to 1.04. Tars have higher SG of
between 1.16 – 1.28.
TAR

Coal is carbonized for the production of metallurgical coke needed in the manufacture of steel
and production of town gas. In this process, coal tar is obtained as a by-product. Road tar is
produced by refining coal tar.

ROAD TAR

1. Tar is a viscous black liquid having adhesive properties obtained when natural organic
materials such as wood, coal, shale, etc. are carbonized or destructively distilled in the
absence of air.
2. There are many forms of tar, to distinguish them, the word tar is usually prefaced by the
name of the source material e.g. crude wood tar, crude coal tar, etc.
3. The road tar generally used is that sourced from crude coal tar. The others do not
produce satisfactory results when used on the road.

Production of road tar

There are three stages of production of road tar:

- Carbonation of coal to produce crude tar;

- Refining or distillation of crude tar; and
- Blending of distillation residue (road tar) with distillate oil fractions to obtain desired
road tars (road tar type S and road tar type C)

Carbonation of coal

1. Crude tar is produced in industries which carbonize coal to produce;

o Metallurgical coke, and
o Town gas
 2. Carbonization of coal consists of heating a thin layer of coal enclosed in a chamber of
refractory brick-work for several hours at about 1000oC. (Thus the process is called high
temperature carbonization). Coal tar produced from cold processing is unsuitable for
road works
3. In the high temperature process, the coal softens on heating and coalesces to form a
solid coke. Gas and condensable vapor are also given off, cooled to condense and form
liquid products, watery and tar-like products.
4. These products are stored in in a tar-well where aqueous liquor and non-aqueous
components separate out.

Grades of road tars (RT) and their purposes

RT-1 Used for surface dressing for very cold weather conditions and at high elevations
on hill roads

RT-2 Used for surface dressing under normal climatic conditions

RT-3 (A) used for surface dressing and renewal coats

(B) used for premixing chippings and light chipping carpet

RT-4 Used in premix tar macadam

RT-5 Used as grouting

Comparison of bitumen and tar

Each of these binders has particular advantages in certain situations. The following are some
properties of equivalent tar and bitumen binders:-

i. Both binders are blackish in color when viewed in large masses. But viewed in thin
films appear brown in color.
ii. Bitumen responds less readily than tar to small changes in temperature. Tar is liquid
at lower temperatures and solidifies at comparatively higher ones.
iii. Tar may be overheated and spoiled more easily than bitumen but is much easier to
get tar out of a road tanker.
iv. Tar tends to penetrate more freely into open road surfaces.
v. Tar is not susceptible to dissolving action of petroleum solvents or distillates. Tar has
a longer life than bitumen in surfacing for parking areas where petrol and oil are
likely to drip.
vi. Bitumen is less brittle at low temperatures. Tar is more brittle because it contains a
higher percentage of free carbons.

Tar-Bitumen mixtures

Tar and bitumen possess certain individual characteristics which if combined by proper blending
of the two materials can provide a road binder of excellent quality. Bitumen has greater
durability and lower temperature susceptibility than tar. But bitumen has poor adhesion with
certain stone aggregates esp. in the presence of water, resulting in stripping. Tar has better
adhesion with aggregates because of the presence of phenols. Tar, when exposed, weathers
and hardens. Tar mixtures show better skid resistance than bitumen mixtures.

Tar-bitumen blends exhibit the following improvements:

i. As more and more bitumen is blended with tar, the benzene insolubles which are
normally not a binding material is decreased. The mixture has thus a better binding
property.
ii. The softening point is increased and the penetration is lowered. Thus the
temperature susceptibility of the bitumen is lowered. The viscosity-temperature
relationship is considerably improved.
iii. Rheological nature of the binder is altered.

There are however problems with these mixtures such as incompatibility since the tar and
bitumen are chemically different. But with careful control, the materials can ne beneficially
blended.

Rubberized tar and bitumen

The addition of small quantities of rubber vastly changes the properties of tar and bitumen to
great advantage. The important change is that the change in viscosity with temperature for
bitumen is reduced. The softening point of the binder is increased and the brittle point reduced.
The elasticity of the binder is increased. In locations such as bus stops, rotary intersections and
steep grades where frequent acceleration and deceleration are caused, it is advantageous to
add rubber so that the flow of the mix is checked and the mixture is toughened. Rubber
increases the resistance to brittle fracture at low temperatures. Rubber also improves the
adhesion between the binder and the stone aggregates.

Tar-Polymer blends

Coal-tar is found to be compatible with polymers like styrene and polystyrene, and an addition
of small quantity of these brings about significant changes in the rheological properties of the
binder. The temperature susceptibility is considerably modified. Higher stability mixtures are
produced, durability increases and the resistance to deformation at high temperatures is also
improved considerably.