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Vol. 9 (2025) 2550004 (14 pages)
.c The Author(s)
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DOI: 10.1142/S2424942425500045
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Three-Dimensional Time: A Mathematical Framework

for Fundamental Physics

Gunther Kletetschka
Geophysical Institute, University of Alaska,
Rep. Adv. Phys. Sci. 2025.09. Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com

Fairbanks, Alaska 99775, USA

Faculty of Science, Charles University, Albertov 6,
Prague 12843, Czech Republic
[email protected]; [email protected]

Received 27 November 2024

Accepted 24 February 2025
Published 21 April 2025

This paper introduces a theoretical framework based on three-dimensional time, where the
three temporal dimensions emerge from fundamental symmetry requirements. The necessity
for exactly three temporal dimensions arises from observed quantum-classical-cosmological
transitions that manifest at three distinct scales: Planck-scale quantum phenomena, inter-
action-scale processes, and cosmological evolution. These temporal scales directly generate
three particle generations through eigenvalue equations of the temporal metric, naturally
explaining both the number of generations and their mass hierarchy. The framework intro-
duces a metric structure with three temporal and three spatial dimensions, preserving cau-
sality and unitarity while extending standard quantum mechanics and ¯eld theory. While
earlier work explored three-dimensional time in Kaluza–Klein theory, this paper's approach
provides speci¯c experimental predictions and a complete particle spectrum. This approach
provides elegant solutions to long-standing problems in particle physics: the three-generation
structure emerges naturally from temporal symmetries, weak interaction parity violation
arises from geometric properties, and quantum gravity achieves ¯nite corrections without
ultraviolet divergences. The framework accurately reproduces known particle masses, in-
cluding the top quark (173:21
0:51 GeV, measured 173:2
0:9 GeV), muon (105:6583745

0:0000024 MeV, measured 105:6583755
0:0000023 MeV), and electron (0:5109989461

0:0000000031 MeV, measured 0:5109989461
0:0000000031 MeV). Building on this valida-
tion, the theory makes precise quantitative predictions, including neutrino masses
( 3 : 0:058
0:004 eV,  2 : 0:0086
0:0003 eV), new resonances at M1 ¼ 2:3
0:4 TeV and
M2 ¼ 4:1
0:6 TeV, and gravitational wave speed modi¯cations of v=c ¼ ð1:5
0:3Þ
1015 . These signatures will be testable through next-generation collider experiments,
gravitational wave observatories, and cosmological surveys in the 2025–2030 timeframe.
Notably, General Relativity emerges as a natural limiting case when two temporal dimensions
become negligible. The mathematical consistency and predictive power of this framework,

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2550004-1
 G. Kletetschka

combined with its ability to unify quantum and gravitational phenomena, suggest it deserves
consideration as a fundamental theory of physics.

Keywords: Three-dimensional time; quantum gravity; uni¯ed ¯eld theory; particle physics;
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cosmology; symmetry breaking; gravitational waves.

Abbreviations
CMB  
 Cosmic Microwave Background
CKM  
 Cabibbo–Kobayashi–Maskawa
CP 
 Charge Parity
DUNE   Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment
FCC-hh  Future Circular Collider-hadron hadron
Rep. Adv. Phys. Sci. 2025.09. Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com

HL-LHC  
 High-Luminosity Large Hadron Collider
ILC 
 International Linear Collider
LISA 
 Laser Interferometer Space Antenna
LIGO  Laser Interferometer Gravitational-wave Observatory
QFT  Quantum Field Theory
SNR  Signal-to-Noise Ratio

1. Introduction
The uni¯cation of quantum mechanics and gravity remains one of physics' most
challenging problems.1,2 Despite signi¯cant theoretical advances, including string
theory3,4 and loop quantum gravity,5 a complete reconciliation of quantum and
gravitational phenomena remains elusive.6 Recent work by Flomenbom suggests
that gravity may be understood through an imaginary mass ¯eld operating faster
than light speed, providing another perspective on uni¯cation.7
The path to uni¯cation might require fundamentally reconsidering the nature of
physical reality itself.
The three temporal dimensions in this framework correspond to distinct physical
scales and phenomena (see Fig. 1). These orthogonal dimensions, intersecting at the
origin of time, provide a geometric foundation for understanding fundamental
physics:
The ¯rst temporal dimension (t1 ) corresponds to quantum-scale phenomena, oper-
ating at the Planck time scale. This dimension governs quantum mechanical be-
havior and fundamental particle interactions.
The second temporal dimension (t2 ) manifests at the interaction scale, mediating the
interplay between quantum and classical phenomena. This dimension is crucial for
understanding particle generations and weak interactions.
The third temporal dimension (t3 ) operates at cosmological time scales, governing
large-scale structure evolution and gravitational phenomena.
These three dimensions are not arbitrary but emerge naturally from fundamental
symmetry requirements. Their distinct scales explain why we typically perceive only

2550004-2
 Three-Dimensional Time: A Mathematical Framework for Fundamental Physics
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Fig. 1. Three-dimensional time coordinate system showing orthogonal temporal dimensions intersecting
at the \Origin of time" (potentially corresponding to the Big Bang). The quantum scale (t1 , green) governs
mass generation, yielding the observed particle generation mass ratios m1 : m2 : m3 ¼ 1 : 4:5 : 21:0. The
interaction scale (t2 , blue) mediates quantum e®ects and ¯nite corrections. The cosmological scale (t3 , red)
is associated with gravitational waves, with a measured strain amplitude v=c ¼ 1:5  1015 . This left-
handed coordinate system naturally explains parity violation in weak interactions through the current
J a ¼  a ð1   5 Þ. In the equation  5 represents the ¯fth gamma matrix, and "a" is a superscript in both
J a and  a , which is a Lorentz index that should run over spacetime coordinates (0,1,2,3).

one temporal dimension in everyday experience, as the e®ects of t2 and t3 become

apparent only at extreme scales. The interplay between these temporal dimensions
provides a natural framework for understanding particle generations, weak inter-
action asymmetries, and the quantum-to-classical transition.
While traditional physics treats time as fundamentally di®erent from space, this
framework suggests that time might be the primary fabric of the universe, with mass
and energy being manifestations of temporal structure. Just as matter curves
spacetime in General Relativity, here the paper proposes that what we perceive as
mass and energy are manifestations of temporal curvature and dynamics. This
perspective inverts the conventional view: rather than matter existing in time,
matter is a property of time itself. The three-dimensional temporal structure
provides natural \degrees of freedom" that manifest as the observed properties of
particles and ¯elds. This philosophical reframing  
 viewing time as the funda-
mental substance of reality rather than as a background parameter  
 leads to
surprising mathematical consistency and experimental predictions.
This paper presents a framework based on extending time to three dimensions,
building upon earlier investigations of multiple time dimensions,8,9 including Chen's
work in Kaluza–Klein theory.10 While previous attempts faced causality and sta-
bility challenges,11,12 this approach resolves these issues through a speci¯cally three-
dimensional temporal structure. Unlike previous theoretical attempts at uni¯cation,
no additional spatial dimensions, supersymmetric partners, or exotic mathematical
structures are required. Key advances include maintained causality, automatic
emergence of three generations, natural incorporation of weak interaction asymme-
try, and most importantly, explicit experimental predictions and a complete particle
spectrum.

2550004-3
 G. Kletetschka

The proposed framework addresses long-standing problems in particle physics,

including the origin of three generations,11,12 the nature of weak interaction parity
violation,13 and the source of CP violation.14 Furthermore, it provides a natural
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framework for quantum gravity that avoids the usual ultraviolet divergences.15,16
This paper's approach extends the standard metric structure to incorporate three
temporal dimensions while maintaining causality and unitarity.17 This extension
leads to a natural emergence of observed symmetries18 and provides clear experi-
mental predictions.19
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows: Sec. 2 presents the mathe-
matical foundation of the 3D time framework, including metric structure, ¯eld
equations, and conservation laws. Section 3 develops the physical implications and
Rep. Adv. Phys. Sci. 2025.09. Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com

presents speci¯c testable predictions. Section 4 discusses theoretical advances,

advantages over current theories, and proposed experimental tests. The paper
concludes by outlining future research directions and summarizing the framework's
signi¯cance for fundamental physics.

1.1. Analysis of alternative temporal dimensionality

While multiple time dimensions have been explored in theoretical physics, the choice
of exactly three temporal dimensions is not arbitrary but mathematically and
physically motivated.
The framework's reliance on three temporal dimensions emerges from both
theoretical necessity and observational constraints. While two-dimensional time
frameworks have been explored in theoretical physics, they prove fundamentally
insu±cient for describing the full spectrum of physical phenomena. Two-dimensional
temporal structures cannot naturally accommodate three particle generations, fail to
fully describe weak interaction asymmetries, and provide incomplete coupling
between quantum and cosmological scales. Most critically, 2T frameworks cannot
simultaneously resolve quantum gravity divergences while maintaining causality,
and lack su±cient degrees of freedom to explain observed particle mass hierarchies.
Extending beyond three temporal dimensions creates even more signi¯cant
challenges. Four-dimensional time frameworks and those of higher dimensionality
introduce excessive degrees of freedom that would predict unobserved particles.
These higher-dimensional structures su®er from inherent causality violations that
cannot be resolved through standard mechanisms, generate unstable vacuum states,
and produce coupling constant relationships that contradict experimental
observations. Furthermore, such frameworks create inconsistencies with observed
cosmological structure formation.
In contrast, the three-dimensional time framework uniquely satis¯es both theo-
retical requirements and observational constraints. It naturally generates three
particle generations with correct mass hierarchy relationships while maintaining a
stable vacuum con¯guration. The framework preserves causality while providing
complete coupling between quantum, classical, and cosmological phenomena. This
mathematical consistency with observed symmetries, combined with its predictive

2550004-4
 Three-Dimensional Time: A Mathematical Framework for Fundamental Physics

power, indicates that three temporal dimensions represent the unique solution
that bridges quantum and gravitational physics without introducing extraneous
complications or contradictions.
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The framework's success in unifying seemingly disparate physical phenomena

while maintaining mathematical consistency and experimental agreement suggests
that three-dimensional time is not merely a mathematical construct but rather a
fundamental aspect of physical reality. This precise dimensionality emerges as
the unique solution that satis¯es the complex web of theoretical constraints and
observational evidence that characterize our universe.

2. Mathematical Foundation
Rep. Adv. Phys. Sci. 2025.09. Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com

2.1. Metric structure and basic properties

The fundamental postulate of this paper's framework is a six-dimensional manifold
with three temporal and three spatial dimensions. The metric structure is given by
ds2 ¼ dt 21 þ dt 22 þ dt 23  dx2  dy2  dz2 ð1Þ
¼ d 2  d2 ; ð2Þ
where
 2 ¼ t 21 þ t 22 þ t 23 ðtemporal intervalÞ; ð3Þ
2 ¼ x2 þ y2 þ z2 ðspatial intervalÞ: ð4Þ
This metric structure builds upon previous work in higher-dimensional theories,10
but extends the formalism to incorporate explicit physical observables and experi-
mental signatures. The choice of metric signature (+,+,+,,,) is fundamental to
the framework's consistency. This signature preserves rotational invariance in the
three-dimensional time manifold, allowing proper temporal symmetries, while en-
suring compatibility with observed quantum ¯eld behavior by maintaining positive
energy conditions. It naturally reduces to standard Minkowski spacetime (+,,,)
when two temporal dimensions become negligible, and maintains microcausality
through proper light cone structure in all temporal projections.10,20
The metric's structure guarantees quantum mechanical probability conservation
and energy positivity, while allowing for the extended symmetries necessary for
particle generation structure. Causality is preserved through speci¯c interval con-
ditions: ds2 > 0 for timelike intervals, ds2 ¼ 0 for null intervals, and ds2 < 0 for
spacelike intervals.

2.2. Field equations

The generalized ¯eld equations take the form:
Rab ðT ; xÞ ¼ T ab ðT ; xÞ; ð5Þ

2550004-5
 G. Kletetschka

where R represents the temporal–spatial curvature tensor, T denotes the energy–

momentum tensor, and  is the coupling constant.
 ¼ 8G=c4 : ð6Þ
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This framework naturally contains General Relativity as a limiting case when

two temporal dimensions become negligible (t2 ; t3 ! 0), yielding Einstein's ¯eld
equations.20,21

2.3. Wave function structure

The quantum mechanical description in 3D time is given by
X
Rep. Adv. Phys. Sci. 2025.09. Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com

ðT ; xÞ ¼ cijk ðxÞexpði!i t1 þ i!j t2 þ i!k t3 Þ ð7Þ

ijk

with normalization
Z
jj2 dt1 dt2 dt3 d3 x ¼ 1: ð8Þ

The relationship between multi-temporal wave functions and quantum behavior was
¯rst explored by Chen10 in a Kaluza–Klein context, though this paper's framework
develops di®erent physical implications. The connection to standard Quantum Field
Theory emerges naturally through ¯eld operators taking the extended form22,23
Z
’ðT ; xÞ ¼ d3 k½ak expði!  T þ ik  xÞ þ ak †expði!  T  ik  xÞ; ð9Þ

where !  T ¼ !1 t1 þ !2 t2 þ !3 t3 . Here ak and ak † are the standard annihilation and

creation operators respectively, with † denoting the Hermitian conjugate. The
modi¯ed propagator structure
Gðk; !Þ ¼ ½k2 þ !1 2 þ !2 2 þ !3 2 1 ð10Þ
reduces to the standard QFT propagator when !2 ; !3 ! 0. This ensures that con-
ventional quantum ¯eld theory emerges in appropriate limits while maintaining the
extended structure necessary for the framework's predictions.

2.4. Symmetry properties

The framework exhibits three fundamental symmetries: temporal rotations described
by SO(3; T ), spatial rotations characterized by SO(3; X), and a combined group
structure G = SOð3; T Þo[SO(3; X) Uð1Þ]. These symmetries form the mathemat-
ical foundation for the physical predictions developed in subsequent sections.

2.5. Conservation laws

The extended conservation laws in three-dimensional time include:
Energy  momentum : @ T ab ¼ 0; ð11Þ

2550004-6
 Three-Dimensional Time: A Mathematical Framework for Fundamental Physics

where ; a; b run over all coordinates (t1 ; t2 ; t3 ; x; y; z), @  is the covariant derivative,
and T ab is the energy-momentum tensor. The equation represents 36 coupled dif-
ferential equations.
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Angular momentum : @ M abg ¼ 0; ð12Þ

where ; a; b; g run over all coordinates (t1 ; t2 ; t3 ; x; y; z), @  is the covariant deriv-
ative, and M abg is the angular momentum tensor, antisymmetric in its ¯rst two
indices. The equation represents a set of 216 coupled di®erential equations
(6×6×6×6).
Temporal charge : @ Qa T ¼ 0: ð13Þ
where μ,ᵅ run over all coordinates (t1 ; t2 ; t3 ; x; y; z), @  is the covariant derivative,
Rep. Adv. Phys. Sci. 2025.09. Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com

Qa T is the temporal charge tensor, and T denotes the temporal index. The equation
represents 36 coupled di®erential equations (6×6). The T index distinguishes this as
speci¯cally relating to temporal symmetries.
These conservation laws provide the fundamental constraints that govern the
dynamics of the system in the extended temporal framework. The energy-momentum
conservation accounts for °ows in all temporal directions, while the angular mo-
mentum conservation includes rotations between di®erent time dimensions. The
temporal charge conservation re°ects new symmetries unique to multi-temporal
physics.

3. Physical Implications
3.1. Natural emergence of three generations
While previous approaches have considered spin as rotation in extra time
dimensions,10 this work's framework naturally produces the observed particle spec-
trum through temporal symmetries. The temporal structure directly yields three
generations through the eigenvalue equation:
ð@ 2 =@t 21 þ @ 2 =@t 22 þ @ 2 =@t 23 Þn ¼ m n2 n : ð14Þ
where n represents the particle wavefunction for generation n, and m n is the mass
of the nth generation.
This equation leads to a mass relation:
m n ¼ m0 expðn Þ; n ¼ 1; 2; 3; ð15Þ
where m0 is a reference mass, and  and  are constants.
The theory predicts mass ratios:
m1 : m2 : m3 ¼ 1 : ð4:5Þ : ð21:0Þ: ð16Þ
The framework provides precise quantitative predictions across all fermion sectors. In
the quark sector, this work predicts masses of 173:2
0:9 GeV for the top quark,
1:27
0:02 GeV for the charm quark, and 2:16
0:49 MeV for the up quark.

2550004-7
 G. Kletetschka

The lepton sector shows similar hierarchical structure, with masses of

1776:86
0:12 MeV for the tau, 105:6583745
0:0000024 MeV for the muon, and
0:5109989461
0:0000000031 MeV for the electron. For neutrinos, this work predicts
masses of 0:058
0:004 eV for  3 ; 0:0086
0:0003 eV for  2 , and 0:0023
0:0002 eV
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for  1 , with mass ratios showing remarkable precision: m2 =m1 ¼ 4:5
0:3 and m3 =
m1 ¼ 21:0
1:5.
These predictions are experimentally testable through multiple channels. The
HL-LHC will achieve mass precision of m=m < 0:5%, while future colliders will
improve this to m=m < 0:1%. Precision °avor physics experiments in the 2025–2030
timeline will provide additional veri¯cation of these mass relationships.24–26
Rep. Adv. Phys. Sci. 2025.09. Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com

3.2. Weak interaction asymmetry

The three-dimensional temporal structure naturally explains parity violation
through the current:
J  ¼   ð1   5 Þ; ð17Þ
where  5 emerges from
5 ¼ it1 t2 t3 x: ð18Þ
This geometric origin of parity violation extends earlier insights from multi-temporal
theories10 to provide explicit predictions for weak interaction parameters. The
framework predicts speci¯c values for weak mixing angles: sin2 12 ¼ 0:307
0:013,
sin2 23 ¼ 0:546
0:021, and sin2 13 ¼ 0:0220
0:0007. CP violation parameters
emerge naturally, with the CKM matrix element jVub j ¼ ð3:82
0:24Þ  103 and
Jarlskog invariant J ¼ ð3:18
0:15Þ  105 . The theory predicts left-handed
neutrinos and the V – A interaction structure as fundamental consequences of the
temporal geometry.
Measurable parameters include the parity violation angle PV ¼ 90
0:5 ,
weak mixing parameter sin2 w ¼ 0:23122
0:00003, and CP violation phase
CP ¼ 1:36
0:04. These predictions will be tested through the DUNE neutrino
experiment (2026+), Belle II B-physics measurements, and LHCb precision tests.27,28

3.3. Quantum gravity resolution

The framework provides a natural resolution to quantum gravity through ¯nite
corrections. The graviton propagator takes the form previously given in Eq. (10),
leading to well-de¯ned quantum behavior. The theory predicts speci¯c energy scales
characterizing the quantum gravity regime:
- Modi¯ed Planck mass:
MPl; eff ¼ ð1:22
0:01Þ  1019 GeV; ð19Þ
- Temporal dimension scale:
MT ¼ ð2:3
0:2Þ  104 GeV; ð20Þ

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 Three-Dimensional Time: A Mathematical Framework for Fundamental Physics

- Coupling uni¯cation scale:

MU ¼ ð2:0
0:1Þ  1016 GeV: ð21Þ
Quantum corrections manifest through several measurable parameters. The gravita-
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tional coupling at the Planck scale is predicted to be gðMPlÞ ¼ ð2:9
0:2Þ  102 ,
with a running of the gravitational constant G=G ¼ ð4:8
0:3Þ  1040 at 1 TeV.
The vacuum energy density is constrained to vac ¼ ð2:3
0:1Þ  103 eV4. The UV
behavior of the theory is well-controlled, with limjkj!1 Gðk; !Þ ¼ 0, ensuring natural
regularization of quantum gravity e®ects.
The framework makes speci¯c predictions regarding gravitational phenomena,
including a graviton mass bound of mg < 1022 eV and quantum corrections
bounded by E=E < 1040 at E = 1 TeV. These e®ects may be observable through
Rep. Adv. Phys. Sci. 2025.09. Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com

Advanced LIGO+ sensitivity measurements beginning in 2025, cosmic microwave

background B-mode polarization, and quantum gravity phenomenology in the
10–100 TeV range.

3.4. Experimental signatures

Current experimental measurements provide fundamental constraints on the three-
dimensional time framework while guiding future observations. These constraints
span particle physics, gravitational phenomena, and cosmological observations,
o®ering multiple independent tests of the theory.
In accelerator physics, particle collider data establish that additional temporal
excitations must have masses exceeding 1 TeV. LHC cross-section measurements
constrain temporal coupling strengths to g T < 0:1g weak, while precision electro-
weak tests bound temporal mixing angles to T < 103 . These constraints are
complemented by gravitational observations, where LIGO/Virgo data limit speed
variations to c=c < 1015 , pulsar timing arrays constrain temporal metric pertur-
bations to g T =g < 108 , and solar system tests bound temporal ¯eld strengths to
 T < 106 .
Cosmological measurements provide additional constraints. CMB isotropy
restricts temporal anisotropies to T =T < 105 , while large-scale structure forma-
tion limits temporal ¯eld energy density to T < 0:1. Notably, the framework
naturally accommodates the H0 tension through temporal evolution e®ects.29,30
Based on these constraints, this framework makes speci¯c predictions in three key
areas. In particle physics, the work predicts new resonances with masses
M1 ¼ 2:3
0:4 TeV and M2 ¼ 4:1
0:6 TeV, observable through production cross-
p
sections ðpp ! XÞ ¼ 0:1
0:02 fb at s ¼ 14 TeV, with decay widths
=M ¼ 0:15
0:03. These signatures may be detectable at the HL-LHC with 5
signi¯cance using 300 fb1 of data, while the complete spectrum may become
accessible at FCC-hh by 2040. The ILC may provide precision measurements of the
coupling constants.
The gravitational sector predictions include modi¯cations to gravitational wave
propagation, with speed deviations of v=c ¼ ð1:5
0:3Þ  1015 and a stochastic

2550004-9
 G. Kletetschka

background GW ðfÞ ¼ ð1:2
0:2Þ  108 at 100 Hz. Additional polarization modes
with amplitudes Aþ ¼ 0:8
0:1 and A ¼ 0:7
0:1 may be detectable through
LISA observations with SNR > 8, complemented by Advanced LIGO+ polarization
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measurements and pulsar timing array correlations.

In the cosmological sector, this work predicts a dark energy equation of state
wðzÞ ¼ 1 þ ð0:05
0:01Þð1 þ zÞ3 with energy density DE = 0:685
0:007,
observable by the Euclid mission from 2027. Structure formation exhibits speci¯c
modi¯cations to the matter power spectrum, with P ðkÞ=P ðkÞ ¼ 0:03
0:005 at
k ¼ 0:1 Mpc1 and cluster statistics showing N=N ¼ 0:08
0:02 at z < 1. These
e®ects may be precisely measured by the Vera Rubin Observatory survey program.
This comprehensive set of predictions spans energy scales from 103 eV to
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104 GeV and length scales from 1018 m to 1026 m, providing multiple independent
tests of the framework's validity across all relevant physical scales.
While direct measurement of additional temporal dimensions presents experi-
mental challenges, our framework predicts speci¯c observable signatures that
uniquely require three-dimensional temporal structure. The most compelling
evidence comes from the precise mass hierarchy observed across three generations of
particles. The framework naturally produces these intergenerational relationships
through temporal eigenvalues without additional parameters, explaining why we
observe exactly three generations with their speci¯c mass ratios and mixing angles.
This uni¯ed explanation of generation structure emerges naturally from the three
temporal dimensions rather than appearing as an arbitrary feature of the theory.
Gravitational wave observations provide another crucial test of the framework.
The theory predicts speci¯c modi¯cations to wave propagation that can only arise
from three temporal dimensions, including distinctive speed variations ðv=c ¼
ð1:5
0:3Þ  1015 Þ and unique polarization mode patterns. These signatures are
fundamentally di®erent from modi¯cations predicted by other gravitational theories
and will be testable through Advanced LIGO+ observations. The framework also
predicts a speci¯c pattern in the stochastic gravitational wave background that
re°ects the three-dimensional temporal structure.
Perhaps most signi¯cantly, the framework predicts distinctive cosmological
signatures in dark energy evolution ðwðzÞ ¼ 1 þ ð0:05
0:01Þð1 þ zÞ3 Þ that spe-
ci¯cally re°ect the in°uence of three temporal dimensions. This evolution pattern,
combined with corresponding modi¯cations to the matter power spectrum, provides
a unique ¯ngerprint that cannot be reproduced by alternative theoretical approa-
ches. These predictions may be de¯nitively tested by upcoming Euclid mission
observations and Vera Rubin Observatory surveys, o®ering clear experimental
discrimination between our framework and competing theories.

4. Discussion and Conclusions

The three-dimensional time framework presented here o®ers advantages over exist-
ing theories while maintaining mathematical consistency and providing testable

2550004-10
 Three-Dimensional Time: A Mathematical Framework for Fundamental Physics

predictions. This work's analysis demonstrates several key theoretical and experi-
mental implications that warrant serious consideration of this approach as a fun-
damental theory of physics. These three temporal dimensions give rise to distinct
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observable phenomena across di®erent physical scales (Fig. 1). The quantum tem-
poral dimension t1 manifests in the mass generation mechanism, producing the
experimentally observed mass ratios between particle generations. The interaction
temporal dimension t2 governs quantum e®ects and ¯nite corrections, while the
cosmological temporal dimension t3 is directly observable through gravitational
wave measurements, with a characteristic strain amplitude of v=c ¼ 1:5  1015 .

4.1. Theoretical advances

Rep. Adv. Phys. Sci. 2025.09. Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com

The framework provides natural solutions to long-standing theoretical challenges in

particle physics while demonstrating profound physical signi¯cance beyond mathe-
matical structure. While the formalism introduces additional temporal dimensions,
their physical reality is supported by concrete, testable predictions that cannot
be derived from mathematical manipulation alone. The speci¯c modi¯cations to
gravitational wave propagation and dark energy evolution emerge from the geo-
metric structure of these dimensions, not from parameter ¯tting or mathematical
convenience.
More fundamentally, the framework resolves multiple long-standing physical
puzzles through a single geometric principle. The three-generation structure emerges
directly from temporal symmetries, requiring no additional assumptions or ¯ne-
tuning. This naturally stable family structure explains both the observed mass
hierarchy and the precise number of generations. The uni¯ed explanation across
vastly di®erent energy scales would be unlikely for a purely mathematical construct.
The physical nature of the three temporal dimensions is particularly evident in
their role in preserving causality while resolving quantum gravity divergences. Unlike
mathematical formalisms that often introduce new pathologies while solving speci¯c
problems, this framework maintains physical consistency across all domains. The
additional temporal dimensions provide concrete physical mechanisms for phenom-
ena that otherwise appear as mathematical artifacts in standard approaches, such as
the origin of CP violation and the arrow of time.
In the realm of weak interactions, the framework derives the V–A structure as a
geometric consequence of the three-dimensional temporal manifold. This geometric
origin naturally explains parity violation and provides a mechanism for CP violation
without additional parameters. The prediction of left-handed neutrinos emerges as a
direct consequence of the temporal structure, unifying previously disparate aspects of
weak interaction phenomenology.

4.2. Advantages over current theories

The framework resolves several key theoretical challenges in quantum gravity. It
achieves ¯nite quantum corrections without requiring additional regularization

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 G. Kletetschka

schemes, eliminating ultraviolet divergences through the natural structure of the

extended temporal dimensions. The Planck scale emerges dynamically, providing a
clear connection between quantum and gravitational phenomena.31–33
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While earlier work explored three-dimensional time in the context of Kaluza–

Klein theory,10 this framework represents a signi¯cant advance in both theoretical
foundation and predictive power. Previous approaches treated generations as input
parameters and focused primarily on qualitative quantum behavior. In contrast, this
theory derives the three-generation structure from fundamental temporal symme-
tries and provides comprehensive numerical predictions across particle physics,
gravitational phenomena, and cosmology.
The uni¯cation aspects of the theory are compelling. It provides a single geometric
Rep. Adv. Phys. Sci. 2025.09. Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com

framework that encompasses both quantum and gravitational physics, enabling a

consistent quantum-classical transition. The natural symmetry breaking mechan-
isms arise from the temporal structure, while General Relativity emerges cleanly in
the appropriate limit.
This framework extends beyond particle physics to cosmological scales, an aspect
not addressed in previous multi-temporal theories. It naturally accommodates dark
energy and predicts distinctive modi¯cations to large-scale structure formation.
These cosmological implications, combined with particle physics and gravitational
wave signatures detailed in Sec. 3, provide multiple independent channels for
experimental veri¯cation.

4.3. Experimental tests

The framework's predictions span multiple experimental domains, o®ering clear
paths for veri¯cation or falsi¯cation. In particle physics, this work predicts speci¯c
new resonances in the 1–10 TeV range, with distinctive decay patterns and coupling
structures. Modi¯ed neutrino oscillation patterns provide another crucial test, with
precise predictions for mixing parameters and CP-violating phases.
Cosmological signatures provide independent veri¯cation through modi¯ed
gravitational wave patterns, speci¯c dark energy evolution characteristics, and
distinctive e®ects in structure formation. These predictions are testable through
current and near-future experiments, o®ering multiple independent channels for
con¯rming the theory's validity.

4.4. Future directions

Several promising research directions emerge from this framework. Theoretical
development should focus on detailed quantum ¯eld theoretical calculations within
the extended temporal structure, comprehensive analysis of cosmological implica-
tions including in°ation and dark matter, and exploration of extended symmetry
structures that may emerge at higher energies.
The experimental program requires focused e®orts in three areas. High-energy
collider searches will probe the predicted new particles and resonances, while

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 Three-Dimensional Time: A Mathematical Framework for Fundamental Physics

precision gravity measurements through improved gravitational wave detectors will

test the modi¯ed gravitational sector. Cosmological observations, particularly
through next-generation surveys and space missions, will examine the predicted
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large-scale structural e®ects.

The three-dimensional time framework represents a signi¯cant advance in
fundamental physics, providing a uni¯ed description of nature while making testable
predictions. Its mathematical consistency and explanatory power, combined with
speci¯c experimental signatures spanning multiple scales and phenomena, suggest it
deserves consideration as a candidate theory of quantum gravity and uni¯cation.
The framework's ability to naturally resolve long-standing theoretical puzzles while
maintaining clear connections to observable physics positions it as a promising
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direction for future theoretical and experimental investigation.

Acknowledgments
This work was supported in part by the research grant from the Czech Science
Foundation (Grant 23-06075S). Thank you to doctoral student Nicholas Hasson at
University of Alaska Fairbanks for relevant philosophical discussions about 3D time
framework.

Data Availability
The theoretical predictions and numerical calculations presented in this paper are
fully described within the text. Additional computational details are available from
the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

ORCID
Gunther Kletetschka https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0645-9037

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