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DBMS unit 2

The document provides an overview of the relational model in database management systems, explaining key concepts such as tables, tuples, attributes, and integrity constraints. It details various types of integrity constraints, including domain, entity integrity, and referential integrity, as well as how to enforce these constraints. Additionally, it covers querying relational data using SQL, the features of SQL, and the importance of views and relational algebra in managing and manipulating databases.

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2 views47 pages

DBMS unit 2

The document provides an overview of the relational model in database management systems, explaining key concepts such as tables, tuples, attributes, and integrity constraints. It details various types of integrity constraints, including domain, entity integrity, and referential integrity, as well as how to enforce these constraints. Additionally, it covers querying relational data using SQL, the features of SQL, and the importance of views and relational algebra in managing and manipulating databases.

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babukondapaka8
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Unit 2 Introduction to relational model Relational model: Relational Model in DBMS Relational model can represent as a table with columns and rows. Each row is known as a tuple. Each table of the column has a name or attribute. Domain: It contains a set of atomic values that an attribute can take. Attribute: It contains the name of a column in a particular table. Each attribute Ai must have a domain, dom(Ai) Relational instance: In the relational database system, the relational instance is represented by a finite set of tuples. Relation instances do not have duplicate tuples. Relational schema: A relational schema contains the name of the relation and name of all columns or attributes. Relational key: In the relational key, each row has one or more attributes. It can identify the row in the relation uniquely. ADVERTISEMENT, Example: STUDENT Relation NAME ROLL.NO PHONE.NO ADDRESS AGE Ram 14795 7305758992 Noida 24 Shyam 12839 9026288936 Delhi 35 Laxman 33289 8583287182 Gurugram 20 Mahesh 27857 7086819134 Ghaziabad 27 Ganesh 17282 9028 913988 Delhi 40 © In the given table, NAME, ROLL.NO, PHONE_NO, ADDRESS, and AGE are the attributes. © The instance of schema STUDENT has 5 tuples. ° t3 = Properties of Relations o Name of the relation is distinct from all other relations. o Each relation cell contains exactly one atomic (single) value o Each attribute contains a distinct name © Attribute domain has no significance © tuple has no duplicate value o Order of tuple can have a different sequence Integrity constraints over relation: Integrity Constraints o Integrity constraints are a set of rules. It is used to maintain the quality of information. o Integrity constraints ensure that the data insertion, updating, and other processes have to be performed in such a way that data integrity is not affected. o Thus, integrity constraint is used to guard against accidental damage to the database. Types of Integrity Constraint Integrity Constraint Referent Integnty Cor 1. Domain constraints o Domain constraints can be defined as the definition of a valid set of values for an attribute. o The data type of domain includes string, character, integer, time, date, currency, etc. The value of the attribute must be available in the corresponding domain. Example: ADVERTISEMENT, ADVERTISEMENT, 1D NAME SEMENSTER | AGE 1000 __| Tom 1 17 1001 Johnson 2nd 24 1002 Leonardo 5th 21 1003__| Kate 34 19 1004 [Morgan | 8® A, Not allowed. Because AGE is an integer attribute 2. Entity integrity constraints ADVERTISEMENT, ADVERTISEMENT, o The entity integrity constraint states that primary key value can't be null. ° This is because the primary key value is used to identify individual rows in relation and if the primary key has a null value, then we can't identify those rows. o A table can contain a null value other than the primary key field. Example: ADVERTISEMENT, NOES as == EMPLOYEE EMP_ID EMP_NAME ‘SALARY 123 Jack. 30000 142 Harry ‘60000 164 John 20000 n Jackson, 27000 Not allowed as primary key can’t contain a NULL value 3. Referential Integrity Constraints ADVERTISEMENT, ADVERTISEMENT, ° A referential integrity constraint is specified between two tables. eln the Referential integrity constraints, if a foreign key in Table 1 refers to the Primary Key of Table 2, then every value of the Foreign Key in Table 1 must be null or be available in Table 2. Example: ADVERTISEMENT, PNET =V SNL (rable 1) lemp_wame} wame | ace | D.No —~—— Foreign key sce | 20 " nay | ao | 2 - 12-1 Not allowed as 0_No 18 ay ‘ol getied 2s a Prmary Dea 2 2 key of fable 2 and In table 1, 1D_No'sa foreign key deine Relationships pn Primary Key ———[— p.no | D_Location * Mamba: 2 en 3 Noida 4. Key constraints ADVERTISEMENT, ADVERTISEMENT, © Keys are the entity set that is used to identify an entity within its entity set uniquely. © An entity set can have multiple keys, but out of which one key will be the primary key. A primary key can contain a unique and null value in the relational table. Example: ADVERTISEMENT, ADVERTISEMENT, 1D, NAME ‘SEMENSTER | AGE 1000 [Tom ra 17 1001 [Johnson | 2° 24 1002 | Leonardo | 5 21 1003 | Kate 3a 19 1002 [Morgan [3 22 Not allowed. Because all row must be unique Enforcing integrity constraints: Enforcing integrity constraints ina Database Management System (DBMS) is essential to maintain the accuracy and consistency of the data stored in the database. There are several ways to enforce integrity constraints: Me dea ASU ole Kom Marcle each row ina table has a unique identifier, which helps prevent duplicate or null values in the primary key column. . Unique Constraints: Ensure that values in a particular column or set of columns are unique across all rows in a table. . Foreign Key Constraints: Maintain referential integrity by ensuring that values in a column match values in another table's primary key column. . Check Constraints: Define custom conditions that must be satisfied for data Vv to be inserted or updated in a table. This . Check Constraints: Define custom conditions that must be satisfied for data to be inserted or updated in a table. This can be used to enforce business rules or data validation. . Default Constraints: Specify default values for columns, ensuring that a value is assigned when no explicit value is provided during an INSERT operation. . Not Null Constraints: Specify that a particular column cannot contain NULL values, ensuring that essential data is always present. . Triggers: Use triggers to execute custom code automatically in response to specific events, such as INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE operations, to enforce complex integrity rules. . Domain Constraints: Define domain- specific rules and validations for columns, ensuring that data adheres tov specific constraints. Querying relational data: — » Query is a question formulated for a relation\table to retrieve some useful information from the taBle . » Arelational database query is a question about the data and the answer consist of anew relation containing result. » Different languages are used to frame queries , the most popular is sql Syntax : select column_list from table_name ; Example : select *from student ; The above query gives the table student as result Ex:2: select *from employe® { s\ wheTeerMip_no=50 7 7 SV TECH KNOWLEDGE The above query gives the complete information about the employee with number 50. ex:3: select *from employee where dept_no=10; The above query will list the information about the employees who are working for the department number 10. » select ‘*’indicates all columns from table » Combine information from two tables Select s.name , enroll_id From student s, enrolled e Where s.sid=e.stdid AND e,grade’= ‘a’; » The above query gives us ‘a’ grade students NN » Here where clause used to operate conditjons on relations it can usq logical operations like AND”, OR, WOT TC... Ee SQL :ISTRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE): » SQL stands for Structured Query Language 4 » SQL lets you access and manipulate databases » Itis also called as SEQUAL » Developed in 1970 by ibm » The main objective of sql is to store , miniplate or retrieve data. » Sql is used by most rdbms users . » In1979 oracle corporation introduced the first commercially available implementation of sql . Features of sql | = KNOWLEDGE » Sqlis anon procedural language » Sqlis very simple to understand , it is English like language , uses such words like select , insert , delete etc.. 8 » It saves time to retrieves the data & process . » Ituses the querying the data. » Guaranteeing database consistency . _— WhatCanSQLdo? we {2} SV TECH KNOWLEDGE » SQL can execute queries against a database » SQL @p retrieve data from a database » SQL can insert records in a database » SQL can update records in a database » SQL can delete records from a database » SQL can create new databases » SQL can create new tables in a database » SQL can create stored procedures in a database » SQL can create views in a database » SQL can set permissions on tables, procedures, and views Types of SOL Commands — Creat@ Grant Commit Alter Revoke Rollback Drop Saveprint Truncate Delete Rename Logical data base design: ~Srieeas dlcinse a T ts) 4p. paces ar . (ox)! tah the concephey ots ” Ch ey am Pehl nll mah 7 Te Joiel db b has cuts concepts heh SS 1. eT of anti cel) inke ables: nappy weak ont ‘ato table , more si beak class inte teibleo . Meng felon sels, (coheat Consteainks ) int 6 « table oe ] rdabon scts\ vith eats fahin conta ted wit es conte rinhs - Mori ‘al Off 4 ER chert, coil, pepe inko ' i °, Sebles at of Sy seh into teub fo Clie) ) corake a Jabfe for enlity *) Te catsibaube of ent will Lecome attibade of o labk 2) efrieg becok ofl leks inte _- _ te of 1) here we hawe te cxute 400 tables t 2» ast teble tos “il vat KX lily sek sy) eve he ) and gable fos weak ent J te inchde he pity cf Hs adel ae entity eS as a Fesep af Empeyse Aepercent | | i a stable « Creoke fob de Qudant ( Nace varchar (52) , solino int pore ae Cechon Vercher ( 1) } b Converting RE model to table or relation is called logical base design J Chidenk el, noon ~alino Ceck mon Bat Ghodect (coma vorchert Z archery (S90, cal Int prey a Nexclior ( to) ys Ki | Vee >> wld Gade table Duatngs ( Roo ink prem Addven Vorthe a) “yy J Dept nacet — yorchor( =) Praga kay ( dachiid ) vebrereas Qaldrat (02) feo ee prey HL Addeas Voxher (1°) J | Apt -id ie, Dept noc vorchor( m) Frogs Kap (Sahl), ea Baldr ( ) Comertng, “Plation Ship Cot ito bab fe pid ‘int Cine int Progen by (enptd) ‘elect ereplleyer lend), Parieyn Hy (Did) refowres deportrert: (0°) Introduction to views: | Mize. > View %3 2 Vivhiel Table bated m ome of moe tables. > fp Viud Can be Geated from one ovmove tables hich depends on tha wilt SHL Aug te unl a Viw. + A Yiud Can imtein oll wus % 2 table or Selected vous from a Table- > mat 4 Te opetation that Can be Camicd on fable can be Galkied Out on View. Any Updating 4 vous © Re table url) automaticuly reHet fn tke Viww- DisAdv S— SCH CARR, be bndexect: may or maynt be diretly ' ide dale Security and Corfidentially. A: View use Cie Strage Space - rs a Culterited View for UIA, 4 not arise - updatable . View ed tay aki Syntee: “oe Views Prom where Sdet x frm Stdviad’ Sewusity and Gofidentially. ie, ese, Space Destroying/alternating tables and views: DESTROYING/ALTERING TABLES AND VIEWS * If we decide that we no longer need a base table and want to destroy it (i.e., delete all the rows and remove the table definition information), we can use the DROP TABLE command. For example, DROP TABLE Students RESTRICT destroys the Students table unless some view or integrity constraint refers to Students; if so, the command fails. * If the keyword RESTRICT is replaced by CASCADE, Students is dropped and any referencing views or integrity constraints are (recursively) dropped as well; one of these two keywords must always be specified. * A view can be dropped using the DROP VIEW command, which is just like DROP TABLE. ALTER TABLE modifies the structure of an existing table. To add a column called maiden-name to Students, for example, we would use the following command: ALTER TABLE Students ADD COLUMN maiden-name CHAR(10) The definition of Students is modified to add this column, and all existing rows are padded with nu// values in this column. ALTER TABLE can also be used to delete columns and to add or drop integrity constraints on a table; we will not discuss these aspects of the command beyond remarking that dropping columns is treated very similarly to dropping tables or views. * A view is a relation whose instance is not explicitly stored but is computed as needed. *In addition to enabling logical data independence by defining the external schema through views, views play an important role in restricting access to data for security reasons. * Since views might be defined through complex queries, handling updates specified on views is complicated. * A view is a relation whose instance is not explicitly stored but is computed as needed. *In addition to enabling logical data independence by defining the external schema through views, views play an important role in restricting access to data for security reasons. * Since views might be defined through complex queries, handling updates specified on views is complicated. Relational algebra: ie Relotimol PAlgebya Cv) Relafioal Set OLAS lations Ctabha) | ined cod 7 pul relat tobles )- ional Algebra con be defined ab a Set abs Used % Manipy le | ek opesator of tre velational algebra aes tite. ane or fio veletios of is topuk ard | duces a how valetion of tts “output Relational model Supports Nine a Te ONION t= Tt Combines all rows From iyo Tables, excluding dopliele ows. That in" the Same attribube characteristics Cdalk type should ‘hatch >: Le . | Syptees Select cealumnilisty fron AtaWlenamer> UNION Select dtolumnslisk> From UNION ALLE Te Gmblnes all wow! fren two tebh . , zon have the Same attribut chauehilsice, Inducing duplicate TOUS. That table mast Somtes Sled cesblist > from Ex: Sdeu x from Ti UNION ALL Lele x from Te; 3 Enheasect Tt oe only the vows ther appey fo beth tables dak means Comincn ows. Syntax:- Sled from ; exe Sele x from T INTERSECT Select M From Try . Mi te Tt gives all tke your fn one table ther ate net found br te other table. ° Mines o EXPE Thr Set Tt Subpvact one table from Ihe other Table. Syrter- Sted From fiom : ex- Sele 4 from Minos Selec % fram Tay from : mers yp tee Relotimol Algebva (7) Relation! Set opratrs 5. Sclecki- Te ts Used te Scleck all Te dala vor or ar of dala rows fron The table. Select % from > Std Syotes oxy Sede %* from Std; 6 project i- It give all Values for Sdecked atlrbutes. Synteo: Sdlek from 5 ex: Sele — Rnd sSName From Stay ay * 1 7, - ge gives all possible pows of vous from two a predut: OF Bet ee chtuien produ: ! Syntoy: Sdek From | € javatpoint A subject = databa Output: This query will yield the article, page, and subject from the relational javatpoint, where the subject is a database.

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