ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND PRODUCT

PROCESSING IN VALUE CHAIN (ABVM –M1031)

LT 1. CATTLE PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT AND

PRODUCTS PROCESSING (5ECTS/ 3Cr. hr)

Compiled by:
Amsalu Sisay (MSc)
Lemma Fita (PhD)

April, 2014
Animal Production and Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production and Product processing

Table of Contents

1 INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................3
2 OBJECTIVES........................................................................................................................3
3 INTRODUCTION TO CATTLE PRODUCTION.............................................................4
3.1 Terminologies in dairy and beef cattle production..........................................................4
3.2 Dairy and beef cattle industries.........................................................................................6
3.3 Importance of dairy and beef cattle for the national economy.......................................6
4 CATTLE BREEDS................................................................................................................8
4.1 Dairy cattle breeds..............................................................................................................8
4.2 Beef cattle breeds................................................................................................................9
5 CATTLE PRODUCTION SYSTEMS...............................................................................11
5.1 Dairy cattle production systems......................................................................................11
5.2 Beef Cattle Production Systems:.....................................................................................12
6 CATTLE FEED RESOURCES AND FEEDING SYSTEMS.........................................16
6.1 Cattle feeds and feeding....................................................................................................16
7 CATTLE HOUSING SYSTEMS........................................................................................22
8 CATTLE FARM ESTABLISHMENTS............................................................................27
9 MILKING AND MILK HANDLING TECHNIQUES...................................................33
10 CATTLE HEALTH MANAGEMENT............................................................................37
11 ALIGNING CATTLE PRODUCTION AND PRODUCT PROCESSING TO
VALUE CHAIN......................................................................................................................40
11.1 Dairy and dairy products’ value chain........................................................................40
11.2 Dairy products processing, handling and marketing..................................................44
11.3 Beef and beef products’ and by –products value chain.............................................48
11.4 Beef and beef products and by –products processing, handling and marketing....56
12 CONSTRAINTS OF CATTLE PRODUCTION............................................................62
13 RECORD KEEPING OF CATTLE PRODUCTIONS..................................................64
14 GENDER ROLE IN CATTLE PRODUCTION.............................................................71
15. PROOF OF ABILITY:.....................................................................................................72
16. Major References................................................................................................................73

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Animal Production and Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production and Product processing

Cattle Production and Management and Products Processing

1 Introduction
This learning task is aimed to help the students realize the general aspects of cattle
production. It will enable them to describe the different systems of cattle production. They
will see also the major indigenous and exotic cattle breeds with their distribution and
characteristics. In addition to this, it will enable them to know which cattle breeds are used for
the purpose of milk and meat production in different parts of the world in general and in our
country in particular. The unit also deals with the management practices such as feeding,
breeding, housing and health care of cattle.

The course also describes basic roles of cattle production in the world economy in relation to
our country, Status and development of cattle industry in Ethiopia, Establishment of dairy and
beef herd. It also includes aspects of clean and safe milk and meat production, factors
influencing milk and meat yield and composition, Proper slaughtering of beef animals milking
procedure, milk and meat handling and product processing. Here the students are highly
required to make great efforts in their study in order to achieve the objectives of this learning
task.

2 Objectives
At the end of this learning task, the learners would be able to:-

 understand system of cattle production in Ethiopia,

 describe types and breeds of cattle,
 understand different feeds and feeding systems of cattle,
 describe different types of housing for cattle,
 describe different methods of processing ,storage and marketing of dairy and beef
products and
 acquire knowledge on how to align cattle production and their products to value
chain.
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3 Introduction to cattle production

Ethiopia has the tenth largest livestock inventory in the world. The country has 52 million
cattle including 10.5 million dairy cattle and 47million shoats. Animal ownership is
ubiquitous throughout Ethiopia.
Animals contribute in many ways to household incomes and food security, as draught animals
and through milk production. They are only sold or slaughtered at an advanced age, or in case
of urgent need. If slaughtered, the animal provides the family with meat and income from
hides and skins.
With this immense and potentially productive resource, with such influence on household
incomes as well as the national economy, it is imperative for the Ethiopians to maximize the
economic value of their animal assets, including use of the animal for value added products.
Yet by most economic metrics, this is not yet happening. Animals are not managed for high
off-take, or to maximize their value for meat production. Hides and skins are not adequately
preserved for fine leather production or international competitiveness, nor are they effectively
collected to reach the tanneries and eventual leather products manufacturing. Milk
productivity per cow is particularly low, and only ineffectively marketed.

3.1 Terminologies in dairy and beef cattle production

Beef cattle are cattle raised for meat production (as distinguished from dairy cattle, used for
milk production). The meat of adult cattle is known as beef

Beef is the cookery name for meat from bovines, especially cattle. Beef can be harvested from
cows, bulls, heifers or steers.

A cow-calf operation is a method of raising beef cattle in which a permanent herd of cows is
kept by a farmer or rancher to produce calves for later sale.

A feedlot or feed yard is a type of animal feeding operation (AFO) which is used in factory
farming for finishing livestock, notably beef cattle

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Carcass is made up of muscle, bone and fat. The ideal carcass has minimum bone, maximum
muscle and optimum fat. A certain proportion of fat is desirable to reduce drying out of the
carcass. Too much fat is undesirable.

Dressing percentage Is the amount of carcass in relation to the animal's live weight.

Can be calculated as: (Hot Carcass Wt./Live Animal Wt.)X100=Dressing percent,

Milk: -Milk is defined as the lacteal secretion obtained by the complete milking of one or
more mammalian animals. Although in other parts of the world a variety of animals are used
as sources for milk, in most part of the World, almost all commercially available milk comes
from cows. Milk is valued because it is an important source of many of the nutrients essential
for the proper development and maintenance of the human body. Because of its content of
almost all essential nutrients: milk is used throughout the world for feeding infants and as a
supplement o the diets of children and adults. It is usually termed as perfect food.

Dairy - is a place /building where milk is kept and milk products are made and it is also used
to describe a shop/place where milk and milk products are sold.

Dairying /dairy farming: The term dairying can be defined as an art, science and business
dealing with milk and milk related products, produced from different animals; whereas dairy
farm: is a farm that produces milk and milk products.

Type: is an ideal or standard of perfection combing all the characteristics that contribute to
animals use fullness for a specific purpose

Dairy type: Cattle of this type are usually not large, and are of somewhat lean build or are
characterized by a lean, angular form and a well-developed mammary system.

Dairy cattle: are those breeds that have been developed primarily to produce milk. Specialist
dairy cattle are characteristically lean, fairly fine-boned animals with substantial udders. They
need to be capable of breeding regularly, have udders that are not too pendulous, and have
strong feet to withstand walking to and from the milking parlour, sometimes on rough roads.

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Animal Production and Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production and Product processing

3.2 Dairy and beef cattle industries

In many respects the dairy industry occupies a special position among the other sectors of
agriculture. Milk is produced everyday and gives a regular income to the numerous small
producers. Milk production is highly labor - intensive and provides a lot of employment. Milk
- also known as white gold - can be used to make an enormous variety of quality products.
The special nature of milk (perishable and bulky) leads to the necessity of strict and
comprehensive quality regulation and to high transport costs.

Meat production offers opportunity to serve a vast export market as well as Ethiopia’s
domestic market. It also drives much of the rest of the livestock value chain in Ethiopia,
particularly hides, skins and leather. (HSL is the focus of a separate VCA.) Ethiopia’s
challenge has been and continues to be that the booming formal and (particularly) informal
trade of live animals across the frontiers of neighboring states keeps significant numbers of
animals from reaching abattoirs in Ethiopia. This means that there is less meat processed,
thereby limiting the number of hides and skins that reach the tanneries. Partly because of this,
a thriving industry to produce packaged meats destined for Middle Eastern and East African
markets is unable to get launched.

3.3 Importance of dairy and beef cattle for the national economy
Livestock systems represent a potential pathway out of poverty for many smallholders in the
developing world. The majority of the world’s rural poor, and a significant proportion of the
urban poor, keep livestock and use them in a variety of ways that extend far beyond income
generation. In many cases, livestock are a central component of smallholder risk management
strategies (Bailey et al 1999). The economic contribution of the livestock sub-sector in
Ethiopia is also about 12% of the total and 33% of agricultural Gross Domestic Product
(GDP) and provides livelihood for 65% of the population (Ayele et al 2003).

Formally, Ethiopia exports approximately 200,000 livestock annually (Yacob and Catley
2010). This is significantly higher than the annual official exports of cattle (12,934 head),
sheep (13,554 head) and goats (1,247 head) between 1998 and 2003 (Asefaw and Mohammad

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Animal Production and Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production and Product processing

2007). In Ethiopia, recent studies estimated that annual illegal flow of livestock through
boundaries reaches as high as 320,000 cattle (Workneh 2006). This being the potential for
export, the actual performance has remained very low, leaving most (55 to 85%) of the
projected livestock off take for the unofficial cross-border export and the domestic market.
These become barriers to understand and analyse the full range of activities required to bring
a product (e.g. live animals, meat, milk, eggs, leather, fibre, manure) to final consumers
passing through the different phases of production, marketing, processing and delivery to the
consumers. It creates barriers to identify a market-focused collaboration among different
stakeholders who produce and market value-added products. Beef cattle production and
marketing systems in Ethiopia are characterized by long marketing chains featuring great
distances, numerous phases of weight gain and feeding regimes, many levels of formal and
informal traders and transactions, a multitude of steps and exporting processing, and a variety
of employment-creating services and inputs.

Live animal and meat exports are an important and growing sector of international trade for
Ethiopia. For instance, earnings from the export of live animals in 2008 was USD 40 million,
while it jumped to USD 207 million in 2011 and such trade has contributed to increased rural
incomes and reduced rural poverty in Ethiopia. The economic contribution of the domestic
market consumption to the Ethiopian economy by the meat and live animal sectors has also
been important. Livestock is also an important contributor to export earnings, responsible for
nearly 8% (or USD 211 million) of the USD 2.75 billion in export earnings achieved in 2011.
Although informal trade is difficult to quantify, the value of the informal trade in livestock
may be over $200 million.
Learning Activities:
Problem based learning 3.1
Exploring the development and status of dairying in the world and in Ethiopia,
describe its contribution to the economy and factors that influence the sector then,
forward possible strategies that help to alleviate the problems based on factors
identified.
Assessments

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Animal Production and Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production and Product processing

-Group work/assignments
-First quiz
-Practical report

4 Cattle breeds
A breed can be defined as a group of domestic livestock having definable and easily
identifiable external characteristics that distinguish it visually from other similar groups
within the same species.

4.1 Dairy cattle breeds

The major breeds of dairy cattle in the world are the Holstein-Friesian, Ayrshire, Brown
Swiss, Guernsey and Jersey. The ancestors of these animals were from Europe, where similar
cattle exist today. The Holstein-Friesian came from Holland and adjacent areas, the Ayrshire
from Scotland, the Jersey and the Guernsey from the Channel Islands of the coast of England,
and the Brown Swiss from Switzerland. The major breeds show distinctive characteristics
that may be used for identification. The Holstein-Friesian is the largest; a mature cow weighs
at least 675 kg (1,500 lb).

It is followed in size by the Brown Swiss, Ayrshire, and Guernsey. The Jersey is the smallest,
with mature cows weighing 450 kg (1,000 lb). Breeds also differ in color. The Holstein is
black and white, although some animals may be red and white; the Brown Swiss varies from a
very light greyish-brown to dark brown; and the Ayrshire can be red, brown, or mahogany
with white. The Guernsey is fawn, with white markings and a yellow skin, and the Jersey may
vary from a light grey to a very dark fawn, usually solid in color but sometimes with white
spots. Breeds also differ with respect to the volume of milk produced and the milk
composition. Holstein-Friesians produce the largest volume, averaging 7,890 kg (17,400 lb),
followed by the Brown Swiss, Ayrshire, Guernsey, and Jersey. Milk from the Jersey contains
the highest concentration of fat (5%), followed by that of the Guernsey, Brown Swiss,
Ayrshire, and Holstein (3.61%).

Tropical dairy breeds

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Animal Production and Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production and Product processing

Most of the cattle breed in the tropics evolved, through natural selection, for adaptability and
survival to local environments. Often, breeds resemble each other with slight morphological
differences but because of constant inbreeding in one locality, independent breeds have
evolved. In general, the cattle from drier regions are well built and those from heavy rainfall
areas, coastal and hilly regions are of smaller build.

In Ethiopia the cattle breeds are not characterized to any specific function instead indigenous
cattle breeds are used as multi-purpose (milk, meat and animal power).some of the identified
local breeds are Boran,Horro, Arsi, Fogera, Begait, Kereyu, etc.

4.2 Beef cattle breeds

What breeds of beef cattle are found in the World in general and in Ethiopia in particular?

Tropical Beef Cattle Breeds

Like that of dairy production there is no as such well appreciated beef type cattle breed in the
tropics. However, there are some cattle breeds like Africander, Boran, Brahman, Gir, Nelore,
Guzerate, Red Sindhi, Indo-Brazilian and Ankole-Watusi. These cattle breeds do have good
beef parameters in relation to weaning weight, slaughter weight, carcass percentage, dressing
percentage and meat quality. Currently they have been used for crossbreeding purpose with
local animals to improve their beef production and productivity.

Temperate Beef Cattle Breeds

The temperate/exotic cattle breeds refer to cattle that found in the temperate zones especially
USA and Europe. The temperate breeds have been deliberately selected for various purposes
and can be easily differentiated with their peculiar features such as body color, length and
shape of horn, hump-less and other traits. Temperate cattle breeds encompass Hereford,
Angus, Shorthorn, South Devon, Red Poll, Simmental, Limousin, Charolois and others. They
are well known for their good beef traits and provide more meat. But they are not adapted to
the tropical conditions and for this reason they usually perform low due to poor tolerance to
high temperature and diseases. The reduced performance is also aggravated by their poor
foraging ability under the local management practices.
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Temperate animals are at high risk if any one aspect of management breaks down. Importing
European stock into high-temperature, high-humidity, monsoonal areas has resulted in heavy
stock losses. Fertility and calf mortality for the pure-breeds tend to remain poorer than for the
crossbreeds. In areas with medium potential for dairying (meat and draught), like semi-arid
grazing lands and on mixed farms, there is a need for a dual purpose breed with some
indigenous blood (50-75% temperate blood). In areas of high potential for dairying only
productive cattle can be competitive. The climate in these areas, particularly over 760 mm
rainfall and 1525 m altitude, is suited to pure-bred European cattle. On smaller holdings
where husbandry and nutrition may not be improved, some proportion of Bos indicus or
indigenous blood should be retained.

Learning Activities:
Practical 4.1
Identification of dairy and beef characteristics, determination of cattle for dairy or beef type.
Individual Studies 4.1
James.R. Gillespie (2002). Modern livestock and poultry production.6th ed. Pp 110-400
(instructors can opt for alternatives relevant reference materials)
Assessments
-Group work/assignments
-First quiz
-Practical report
Section Summary
The aim of this section was to help the students to realize the general aspects of dairy and beef
cattle production. The section described the major indigenous and exotic dairy and beef cattle
breeds with their distribution and characteristics. In addition to this, it enables the student to
know which cattle breeds are used for the purpose of milk and meat production in different
parts of the world in general and in our country in particular.

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Animal Production and Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production and Product processing

5 Cattle production systems

5.1 Dairy cattle production systems

The dairy sector in Ethiopia could be categorized based on market orientation, scale, and
production intensity. The four major production systems identified in this regard are:

1. Commercial farming system

2. Urban/peri-urban systems
3. Smallholder mixed farming system
4. Pastoral/agro-pastoral systems
1. Commercial Farming System

➮ This system comprises Private and state farms

➮ Exotic or crossbred animals are used under this syste

➮ The share of this system in the total national milk production of the country is only
about 1.0%

2. Urban/peri-urban systems

➮ under this system mainly cross-bred animals are used

➮ in some places cross-bred and local breeds are also used

➮ have access to milk collection centers

➮ The share of this system in the total national milk production of the country is
about 14.3%

3. Smallholder mixed farming system

➮ common in the highland areas

➮ Mainly local breeds are used in this system

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Animal Production and Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production and Product processing

➮ The share of this system in the total national milk production of the country is about
63.3%

4. Pastoral/agro-pastoral Systems

➮ It is common in the lowland areas

➮ Local breeds are used in the system

➮ The share of this system in the total national milk production of the country is about
21.4%

5.2 Beef Cattle Production Systems:

There are three major beef cattle production systems:
1. Cow-calf producers,
2. Purebred breeders,
3. Cattle feeders.
Cow-calf system
The cow-calf system of beef production involves keeping a herd of beef cows. These cows are
bred each year to produce calves. The calves are then sold to cattle feeders who feed them to
slaughter weights. Most of this type of beef production is done in the range lands. Beef cows
(Dairy cows in Ethiopia) are maintained mainly on roughage. Usually no concentrate feed is
needed for this type of beef production. This type of operation requires less labor and a lower
investment.

The cows are usually bred to calve in the long rainy season. Most weaned calves are sold as
feeders. Sometimes the calves are fed roughage for a year and sold as yearlings. Feeder calves
are weaned calves <1 year of age and are sold to be fed for more growth. Yearlings are 1 to 2
years of age and are sold to be fed to finish for slaughter.

Purebred Breeders (Cattle Breeding Ranches in Ethiopia)

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Animal Production and Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production and Product processing

Purebred breeders keep herds of purebred breeding stock. They provide replacement bulls for
cow-calf operations. Cow-calf farmers sometimes buy cows or heifers from the purebred
breeder to improve the herd.

Ranches in Ethiopia are responsible for the genetic improvements in beef cattle. A great deal
of knowledge and skill are required to Ranches. The costs are usually higher in this type of
cattle business. It takes many years to develop a high-quality herd.

Cattle Feeders (Small Scale fatteners in Ethiopia)

Cattle feeder, feeds animals for the slaughter market. The objective is to produce finished
cattle in the shortest time possible. The operator buys feeders or yearlings and finishes them
in the feedlot. Some producers feed cattle on pasture for a time and then finish them in the
feedlot. This enterprise requires more concentrate feed than cow-calf or purebred production.
It usually takes concentrate to get the quality of finish that is in demand in the marketplace.

Feeder operations can easily adjust to changes in feed supplies, operating costs, labor supply,
and economic outlook. The cattle feeder can expect a return on investment in 4 to 6 months.

The facilities required for feeding of cattle are more expensive than those required for cow-
calf operations. Feed, labor, and transportation costs are higher. Cattle-feeding is a high-risk
enterprise because of the fluctuations in the price of finished cattle.

Systems of Cattle Fattening in Ethiopia

Traditional Systems

In such type of systems, oxen are usually sold after the plowing season when they are in poor
condition. Meat yields are low, the beef is of poor quality and the farmer returns are often
inadequate to buy a replacement ox. This is obvious scope to improve this traditional and
inefficient system through strategic feeding of good quality forage to fatten animals before
they are sold, or to buy and fatten animals sold by others. In the low lands, where pastoralists
do not use cattle for draft, cattle are sometimes fattened on natural pasture in good seasons. In

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Animal Production and Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production and Product processing

average or poor seasons, low land cattle are rarely fattened and often have to be sold in poor
condition at low prices.

By-product-Based Fattening

This is a type of fattening in which the agro-industrial by-product such as molasses, cereal
milling by-product and oilseed meals is the main sources of feed. In this system grazing land
is completely unavailable and crop-residues are only significant roughage source.

The Hararghe Fattening System

In this system peasants buy young oxen from the adjacent lowlands pastoral areas, use them
for several years, and then fatten and sell them before they become old and emaciated. The
system is largely based on cut-and carries feeding of individual tethered animals. Grazing is
rare. Few concentrate are used.

Types of Cattle for Fattening

There are many choices for the cattle feeder when selecting cattle to feed.
Selection is made on the basis of sex, age, weight, and grade of cattle.
Sex
Steers gain about 10 percent faster than heifers if both are fed for the same length of time.
Steers are 10 to 15 percent more efficient in gains. Efficiency in gain refers to the amount of
feed needed for each pound (kilogram) of gain. The less feed required, the higher the
efficiency. Heifers finish at lighter weights than do steers and are usually bought and sold for
less money. Heifers are better fit for shorter feeding periods than steers are. Feeder heifers
may be pregnant when purchased. This may result in discounts when they are sold for
slaughter. The developing fetus is of lower value to the packer than is the rest of the carcass.
Young bulls may be fed for market. At the same age and weight as steers, they gain faster and
more efficiently. Bulls produce lean carcasses of about the same quality as steers. However,
bulls are not as well accepted in the marketplace. Generally, the feeding of young bulls for
market is not recommended.
Age and Weight

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Feeders are generally divided into three groups; calves, yearlings, and older
Feeders based on age and weight.
Calves
Calves are feeders that are less than 1 year old, usually weighing about. They are adapted to
many different systems of cattle feeding. Gains are more efficient than they are in older cattle.
However, it takes longer to feed calves to slaughter weights. Calves need more grain and less
roughage than older cattle when fed immediately for slaughter. They do not make good use of
low-quality roughage. Death losses are usually higher with calves, and health problems are
greater. Since calves are lighter in weight when bought, most of the weight sold is gain.
Success in feeding calves depends more on feeding skill than it does on ability to buy and sell.
Yearlings
Yearlings are feeders that are between 1 and 2 years old. Yearlings are well adapted to
feeding programs using more roughage than that given to calves. Less time in the feedlot is
necessary to finish yearlings for slaughter, and there are fewer health problems.
Older Feeders
Older feeders are those that are 2 years old or older. These feeders are fed for a short period
of time, usually 90 to 100 days. Gains are fast but not as efficient as in younger feeders. Older
feeders can make use of more roughage in the ration. Death losses are low. Much of the profit
comes from reselling purchased weight. Therefore, more skill in buying and selling is needed
for this type of feeder.
Learning Activities:
Individual Studies 5.1
James.R. Gillespie (2002). Modern livestock and poultry production.6th ed. Pp 110-400
(instructors can opt for alternatives relevant reference materials)
Assessments
-Group work/assignments
-First quiz
-Practical report
Section Summary

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Animal Production and Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production and Product processing

The objective of this section was to help the students to realize the general aspects of existing
dairy and beef cattle production systems in the country. The section described the major
modern and traditional dairy and beef production systems and their opportunities and
constraints. The section also described the contribution of each production system to the total
milk and meat production of nation. This enables the student to identify the appropriate
production system for future development works.

6 Cattle feed resources and feeding systems

6.1 Cattle feeds and feeding

Can you mention some feed resources fed by cattle?

What do understand by animal feed requirement?

What do we mean by economic feeding of cattle?

There are various feed resources used for cattle. These feed resources are commonly
grouped into three forms as below.

A) Dry feeds

This type of feed resources includes hays, grains, oilseed meals, straw, Stover, corn cobs, corn
husks, SB hulls, SB mill feeds, cottonseed hulls, peanut hulls, oat hulls, rice hulls

B) Green feeds

Such type feed resources includes pasture and green chop (feeds are roughages chopped daily
in the feed and brought to livestock for feeding.

C) High moisture feeds

Here feed resources like high-moisture grain, wet byproduct feeds, roots & tubers, fresh milk,
silage, cactus, Enset etc could be mentioned.

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In the other hand the feed resources could be also categorized into two as roughage and
concentrate based on the quality or feeding level.

Roughage feeds: Concentrate feeds

 are feeds that are high in fiber and  are feeds that are low in fiber and
low in TDN high in TDN
 contain above 18% CF when dry  contain below 18% CF when dry
Two types of Roughage

Legumes Grass
 have on their roots nodules  include timothy, brome grass,
containing bacteria that fix nitrogen orchard grass, blue grass, Sudan
from the air grass, millet hay, oat hay, etc.
 include alfalfa, clovers, peanut hay,
SB hay etc.
Two types of Concentrate

a) Grain feeds
 corn, oats, barley, grain sorghum, wheat
b) Supplement feeds
 include protein feeds, minerals and vitamins
Mineral feeds

 are used to provide the mineral needs of the animal

 are of two types: Macro and Micro Minerals
Vitamin supplements

 are available to provide necessary vitamins in the ration

Byproduct feeds

 From the milling & brewing are used in the feeding include wheat bran, rice bran,
molasses, brewer’s grain, beet pulp, malt sprouts, whey, etc.
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Important Feed Components

1. Carbohydrates 4. Minerals

2. Lipids (Fats & Oils) 5. Vitamins

3. Protein 6. Water

The level at which each nutrient is required by an animal depend on whether the animal is
being fed for:

 maintenance
 maintenance + production
 maintenance + production + reproduction
Most nutrients can be fed in excess, but if any nutrient is not present in an adequate amount,
the performance of the animal will be limited.

Nutrient Requirements for maintenance

is the amount of feed that must be fed to keep an animal at a particular weight without any
significant change in body composition is that amount of feed needed to maintain essential
body functions such as respiration, heart rate, eating, keeping warm, etc. includes also the
feed needed to replace the nutrients that are excreted daily from the body tissue of the body
are constantly undergoing breakdown and repair, therefore nutrients are required to replace
this loss
Nutrient requirement for growth:

Immature animals need additional nutrients for growth until they reach five to six years of
age. Such nutrient requirement is known as growth nutrient requirement.

Nutrient requirement for pregnancy: are the amount of feed needed above the maintenance
level, for the cow to conceive and produce a healthy fetus and calf. Thus, dairy animals
require balanced nutrient supply during their pregnancy period.

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Animal Production and Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production and Product processing

Nutrient requirement for lactation: lactating cows also require additional nutrients for
production of milk. The amount of energy required by dairy cattle for lactation is proportional
to the amount and composition (percentage of fat) of the milk.

Nutrient requirement of an animal are estimated based on the weight and age of the animal,
stage of lactation, daily milk production and milk fat percentage. This information is used to
estimate animal’s daily nutrient requirements for energy, protein, calcium, phosphorus, salt,
magnesium, sulfur or any other required nutrients.
Cattle feeding management
Feeding has considerable influence on the success and profitability of the farm business.
Success of animal nutrition involves securing the necessary field resources (forages and
concentrates) and combining and delivering these feeds in such a manner that promote
desirable growth of herd replacements and production of large quantities of milk and meat
with acceptable composition from the herd.

The major goals of feeding in dairy and beef farms are that the feeding program should
provide each animal with a ration that:

 Meets the animal’s nutrient requirements. The ration must provide adequate amount of
each nutrient required for maintenance growth and reproduction.
 Is palatable. Ingredients of the ration must be in a form and condition that are
appealing to the animal.
 Is economical. The ration must maximize the use of high quality homegrown forage in
most cases and grains in some cases. Necessary supplements should be purchased to
provide needed nutrients.
 Is conducive to the health of the animal and production of milk and meat of normal
composition.

Feeds account for up to 70% of the expense of animal production in average dairy and beef
farms. Deficiencies in total nutrient intake or intake of specific nutrients or lack of a balanced
ration will result in lower milk and meat production.

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Animal Production and Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production and Product processing

Feeding management of beef cattle

Starting beef Cattle on Feed

Many cattle coming into the feedlot have had little or no concentrate in the growing ration. If
cattle are put on a full feed of concentrate too quickly, the microbes in the rumen do not have
time to adjust to the new ration. This will put the cattle off feed. A good-quality grass or
alfalfa hay is good roughage for starting cattle feeding. Cattle will often eat grass hay better
than legume hay when starting on feed. Alfalfa hay will often cause the cattle to scour (have
diarrhea). Grass hay helps to stop scours in cattle.
Other roughages that may be used are oat hay, Sudan hay, or green chop.

A starting mixture of 80% concentrates and 20% roughage may be used for cattle that have
been fed Concentrate. The roughage is decreased by 10% and the concentrate increased by
10% percent at the end of the first week. For the rest of the feeding period 90% percent
concentrate and 10% roughage should be offered.

For Cattle which come from pasture, start feeding on a mixture of 60% concentrates and 40%
roughages. After 2-week, the concentrate is gradually increased & roughage is decreased. On
full feed, they receive 90% concentrate and 10% roughage in the ration.
Ration Formulation

Rations need to be formulated in such a way that fulfills the nutrient requirements of the
animals. The animals need to be fed to optimum level so that to exploit their real genetic
potential. This is to get the expected production from the animals. Ration formulation enables
to alter or substitute expensive feeds with the cheap one without changing the nutrient
contents. This maximizes the profit of the beef business venture. Ration formulation can be
done using manually or using computer. Nowadays, modern technologies are being harnessed
in the animal ration formation work. Models are also developed by the nutritionists to predict
the need nutrients requirements of each animal species, breed, class, age, weight and sex. T he
objective is to formulate balanced rations that supply all the required nutrients: at adequate

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Animal Production and Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production and Product processing

level, in a proper balance and at minimum cost. To formulate the ration the following
information are needed:

 Feed resources available at hands (locally available feed resources need to be

considered)
 Chemical composition of the feeds (this is found by chemical analysis in nutrition
laboratory)
 Weight, sex, breed, species, age, production status of the animal
 Purpose of animal feeding (finishing, growing, breeding, lactating etc)
 Nutrient requirement of the animal
Calculating Total Feed Needed
Some general guidelines may be used to calculate the total amount of feed needed to finish
cattle. The exact amounts needed vary according to the age and condition of the cattle, kind of
feed used, weather conditions, and management practices of the feeder.
Fattening cattle will eat about 2.5 to 3 percent of their body weight in feed each day.
Multiplying the average weight of the animal by 2.5 to 3 percent and then multiplying by the
number of days in the feeding period gives the amount of feed needed.
Example:
 Starting weight of steer 272 kg
 Length of feeding period 210 days
 Average daily gain 1.1 kg
 Ending weight 500 kg

Daily ration:
 W Bran 75%
 Protein supplement 10% kg
 Mixed hay 15% kg
 Feed intake 2.5 % BW

Calculation:

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Animal Production and Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production and Product processing

 (IWt + Fwt)/2 X FI X No days = Total Feed/h.

 (272 + 500)/2 X 0.025 X 210 = 2,026.5 kg/h

Amount of each feed:

W Bran 0.75 X 2027 = 1520 kg
Protein 0.10 X 2027 = 203 kg
Mixed hay 0.15 X 2027 = 304 kg
Total = 2,027 kg
Learning Activities:
Practical 6.1
Body condition scoring of cattle and recommending the feeding management based on the
condition score
Individual Studies 6.1
James.R. Gillespie (2002). Modern livestock and poultry production.6th ed. Pp 110-400
(instructors can opt for alternatives relevant reference materials)
Assessments
-Group work/assignments
-First quiz
-Practical report
Section Summary
In this section all available feed resources for cattle production are described. Potentials of
these feed resources for milk and meat production are also described. The nutrient
requirements of cattle based on their physiological status, age and production levels are
discussed. Different feeding managements and practices for dairy and beef cattle are well
described.

7 Cattle housing systems

Can you mention the major/common types of cattle housing and factors to be considered
while designing dairy barns?

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Animal Production and Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production and Product processing

An efficient management of cattle will be incomplete without a well planned and adequate
housing of cattle. Improper planning in the arrangement of animal housing may result in
additional labor charges and that curtail the profit of the owner. During erection of a house for
cattle, care should be taken to provide comfortable' accommodation for an individual cattle.
No less important is the (1) proper sanitation, (1) durability, (3) arrangements for the
production of milk and meat under convenient and economic conditions, etc.

Location of Buildings

The points which should be considered before the erection of buildings are as follows.

1. Topography and drainage: The building should be at a higher elevation than the
surrounding ground to offer a good slope for rainfall and drainage for the wastes of the dairy
to avoid stagnation within. A leveled area requires less site preparation and thus lesser cost of
building. Low lands and depressions and proximity to places of bad odour should be avoided.

2. Soil type: Fertile soil should be spared for cultivation. Foundation soils as far as possible
should not be too dehydrated or desiccated. Such a soil is susceptible to considerable swelling
during rainy season and exhibit numerous cracks and fissures.

3. Exposure to the sun and protection from wind: The building should be located to a
maximum exposure to the sun in the north and minimum exposure to the sun in the south and
protection from prevailing strong wind currents whether hot or cold. Buildings should be
placed so that direct sunlight can reach the platforms, gutters and mangers in the cattle shed.
As far as possible, the long axis of the dairy barns should be set in the north-south direction to
have the maximum benefit of the sun.

4. Accessibility: Easy accessibility to the buildings is always desirable. Situation of a cattle

shed by the side of the main road preferably at a distance of about 100 meters should be
aimed at.

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Animal Production and Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production and Product processing

5. Durability and attractiveness: It is always attractive when the buildings open up to a

scenic view and add to the grandeur of the scenery. Along with this, durability of the structure
is obviously an important criterion in building a dairy.

6. Water supply: Abundant supply of fresh, clean and soft water should .be available at a
cheap rate.

7. Surroundings: Areas infested with wild animals and dacoits should be avoided. Narrow
gates, high manger curbs, loose hinges, protruding nails, smooth finished floor in the areas
where the cows move and other such hazards should be eliminated.

8. Labor: Honest, economic and regular supply of labor is available.

9. Marketing: The buildings should only be in those areas from where the owner can sell his
products profitably and regularly. It should be in a position to satisfy the needs of the farm
within no time and at reasonable price.

10. Electricity: Electricity is the most important sanitary method of lighting a farm. Since a
modem farm always handles electric equipments which are also economical, it is desirable to
have an adequate supply of electricity.

11. Facilities, labor, feed: Cattle yards should be so constructed and situated in relation to
feed storages, hay stacks, silo and manure pits as to effect the most efficient utilization of
labor. Sufficient space per animal and well arranged feeding mangers and resting are
contributing not only to greater milk and meat yield of animals and make the work of the
operator easier but also minimizes feed expenses. The relative position of the feed stores
should be quite adjacent to the cattle barn.

Types of dairy Housing

The most widely prevalent practice in this country is to tie the cows with rope on a Katcha
floor except some organized dairy farms belonging to government, co-operatives or military
where proper housing facilities exist. It is quite easy to understand that unless cattle are
provide with good housing facilities, the animals will move too far in or out of the standing
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space, defecating all round and even causing trampling and wasting of feed by stepping into
the mangers. The animals will be exposed to extreme weather conditions all leading to bad
health and lower production.

Dairy cattle may be successfully housed under a wide variety of conditions, ranging from
close confinement to little restrictions except at milking time. However, two types of dairy
barns are in general use at the present time.

1. The loose housing barn in combination with some type of milking barn or parlor.
2. The conventional dairy barn.

1. Loose housing system

Loose housing may be defined as a system where animals are kept loose except milking and
at the time of treatment. The system is most economical. Some features of loose housing
system are as follows.

 Cost of construction is significantly lower than conventional type.

 It is possible to make further expansion without change
 Facilitate easy detection of animal in heat.
 Animals feel free and therefore, proves more profitable with even minimum grazing
 Animals get optimum excise which is extremely important for better health
production.
 Over all better management can be rendered.

2. Conventional Dairy Barn

The conventional dairy barns are comparatively costly and are now becoming less popular
day by day. However, by this system cattle are more protected from adverse climatic
condition.
The following barns are generally needed for proper housing of different classes. Dairy stock
in the farm:

 Cow houses or sheds

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Animal Production and Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production and Product processing

 Calving box
 Isolation box
 Sheds for young stocks
 Bull or bullock sheds

Advantages of tail to tail system

Under the average conditions, 125 to 150 man hours of labour are required per cow per year.
Study of time: Time motion studies in dairies showed that 40% of the expended time is spent
in front of the cow, and 25% in other parts of the barn and the milk house, and 60% of the
time is spent behind the cows. Time spent at the back of the cows is 4 times more than the
time spent in front of them.

 In cleaning and milking the cows, the wide middle alley is of great advantage.
 Lesser danger of spread of diseases from animal to animal.
 Cows can always get more fresh air from outside.
 The head gowala can inspect a greater number of milkmen while milking. This is
possible because milkmen will be milking on both sides of the gowala.
 Any sort of minor disease or any change in the hind quarters of the animals can be
detected quickly and even automatically.

Advantages of face to face system

 Cows make a better showing for visitors when heads are together
 The cows feel easier to get into their stalls.
 Sun rays shine in the gutter where they are needed most.
 Feeding of cows is easier, both rows can be fed without back tracking.
 It is better for narrow barns.

Types of beef cattle housing

Open Feedlots

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An open feedlot has no buildings. Protection for cattle is limited to a windbreak fence and
sunshades. Several types of windbreak fences may be used to protect cattle from wind in the
feedlot. The fence may be from 1.2 to 3.7 m high and may be solid or semisolid. The solid
fence is better for wind protection. Local wind speeds need to be considered when
determining how far to place windbreak fences from the feedlot. Fifteen to eighteen m is
about right for wind speeds of up to 40 miles (64 kilometers) per hour.
Open Barn and Feedlot
Protection for cattle housed in this kind of facility is provided by the use of an open-front
barn. Feeding is done in an open lot, and mechanical or fence-line bunks are common. This
kind of facility is well adapted to smaller feedlots. The floor of the barn and the lot are usually
unpaved, although some pavement is often installed around the feed bunks.
Feeding Barn and Lot
Th e only major difference between this system and the open barn and feedlotsystem is that
the feed bunks are located inside the barn. Placing the bunks inside has some advantages. Th e
major advantage is that the feed and cattle are protected from the weather. Less feed is lost
from the bunks by being windblown or damaged by the weather.
Learning Activities:
Practical 7.1
Individual Studies 7.1
James.R. Gillespie (2002). Modern livestock and poultry production.6th ed. Pp 110-400
(instructors can opt for alternatives relevant reference materials)
Assessments
-Group work/assignments
-First quiz
-Practical report
Section Summary
The aim of this section was to describe different housing systems for cattle production.
Accordingly, different housing systems for dairy and beef cattle are discussed. In this section,

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types barns, their location, drainage systems, orientations towards the sun and wind are well
described. The advantages and disadvantages of each housing system are also discussed.

8 Cattle farm establishments

Challenges of establishing a cattle farm

The challenges facing potential new cattle managers can be categorized in to two general
areas.

1). The challenge of developing personal characteristics needed for success in the cattle
business.

2). The challenge of acquiring resources needed to establish a cattle enterprise.

A. Personal challenges

Some of the major personal challenges that must be met if failure is to be avoided are the
following:

1. Acquiring updated knowledge of all aspects of dairying and herd mgt.

2. Gaining practical experience in cattle production

3. Possessing interest, motivation, and willingness to work hard both physically and
mentally and to make personal sacrifices, especially during beginning years .

4. Avoiding over confidence accompanied by an unwillingness to accept advice from more

experienced persons

5. Avoiding unrealistic expectations

✓ Many beginners observe other established cattle produceres with top- quality

cattle, facilities, and equipment and a high income, and expect similar

resources and income level the first year of operation

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✓ Trying to emulate successful farm managers is certainly a good long- range

goal, but it is unrealistic to expect in beginning years

✓ Beginners must realize that most well established, successful operations

started with more modest resources and income level and reached their

current status only after years of wise management and hard work .

Avoiding discouragement when temporary setbacks occur. These will happen in any high-
risk business

6. Avoiding careless or unrealistic planning

7. Accepting cattle production as a business as well as a way of life

b. Resource challenges

 Availability and /or cost of needed resources or capital to purchase these resources
may be a major challenge in establishing a cattle herd.

 Major resources needed that require major capital outlay include:

 Cattle

 Facilities and equipment to house and handle the cattle

 Land for growing all or part of the forage for the cattle

 Marketing privileges (marketing base)

 Cattle and equipment usually can be purchased and facilities can be built if capital is
available; however, lack of availability of land to raise feed and /or lack of availability
of forage is something decisive.

Evaluating the production factors of the area

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1. Weather

 Climate must be considered as it affects:

 forage production,

 general agricultural production

 the animal it self.

 High temperature associated with high humidity affect production of animal as it

decrease feed intake.

 High humidity also favors bacterial and parasite multiplication, which affect health of
the animals. So areas having good weather that fits to the cattle breeds should be
selected.

2. Grazing land availability and access to grazing land

 The size of the land available limits the number of cattle that can be maintained

 Production is depending on fodder crop production and yielding potential of the herd

 So availability of grazing land, its size and accessibility should be considered before
starting the farm

 The fertility of soil also limits the number of animals to be raised since fertile land
causes high production.

3. Availability of cattle breeds as a foundation stock

 Although breeds are available in the area, we have to consider the quality of
the breeds

 Besides, we have to see the fitness of the breeds with the climate because
different breeds require different climatic conditions

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Animal Production and Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production and Product processing

 From where that breed could be obtained should also be assessed

4. Availability of feed sources and consistent supply

 Feed sources could be forage, concentrates, crop by- products etc.

 So, before we start a the farm, we have to consider the availability of feed
sources and their consistent supply.

5. Availability of land for farmstead structure

 Before establishing a farm, we have to see whether there is land for different
construction of farmstead structures or not

 Farmstead structures are different cattle sheds, feed store, hay barn, store for
equipments etc.

 We have to also consider the topography of the land

 The land to be selected should have good elevation and good drainage.

6. Man power availability

 This includes skilled and non-skilled labor. Skilled labor should have adequate
knowledge of both animal science and plant science.

 Non-skilled persons include daily laborers, herds men etc.

7. Access to market

 Since animal products are highly perishable product, they have to be sold
before they are spoiled

 To do so, availability and access to market is important

 Bulk milk and meat cooling system and refrigerator facilities are important to
transport the products to distant areas.

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 If the farmers are residing in remote areas and producing milk they should be
advised to change the milk to butter or other forms

 Other option is that they could form cooperatives and could transport milk to
the town or process in their areas and sell the product to the town.

8. Transportation facilities

 Access of transport to reach market should be considered to sell out cattle

products and to purchase inputs for the farm

9. Well drained area with ample and clean water supply

 Access to source of drinking water should also be considered before we start a

the farm

 Water is needed on the farm for washing purpose (animals, equipments

building etc.), drinking purpose (animals, workers, residences) and irrigation
purpose.

 Source of water could be rainfall, ground water (rivers, ponds lakes etc.), under
ground water (deep& shallow wells, springs etc.) and water pipe.

 Whatever the sources are, water should be available in abundant amount.

 The soil should be porous and having gentle slope so that drainage is efficient
and the farm premises remain dry.

10. Distance from residential area and other social services

 The farm manager’s dwelling as well as the office is often called homestead
structures should be located on high area which is well drained and
commands a view of other buildings and be accessible near to road.

11. Distance from other farms and future expansion.

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 There should be sufficient distance from other farms such as poultry farm etc.
preferably the distance be 100 meters in order to avoid transmission of diseases
from one farm to another farm.

 We have to put some extra land for future expansion of the farm if the farm
will be profitable.

12. Availability of veterinary and equipments

 Veterinary and farm equipments (milk can, weighing balance etc.) should be
available and think in an advance

13. Direction of the prevailing wind and sun

 The farmsteads structures should be located to obtain the maximum sun

exposure since sun shine kills micro organisms

 The house facing to the east direction is preferable to get morning sunshine

 Protection from the strong prevailing wind should be done, so that the house to
be constructed should be against prevailing wind

 A site with many trees around is ideal since trees act as wind break and also
provide natural shelter (shade).

 Learning Activities:
PBL 8.1
Examine how cattle farms being established in your vicinity considering all necessary
inputs, identify shortcomings and suggest possible means that help to improve the farm.

Individual Studies 8.1

James.R. Gillespie (2002). Modern livestock and poultry production.6th ed. Pp 110-400
(instructors can opt for alternatives relevant reference materials)
Assessments

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Animal Production and Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production and Product processing

-Group work/assignments
-First quiz
-Practical report
Section Summary
In this section the major challenges to establish cattle farms, specially, the personal and
resource challenges are well described. All productive factors to be considered in
establishing cattle farm are well detailed and discussed.

9 Milking and milk handling techniques

Cows should be completely milked out at each milking for maximum production. If some
milk is left in the udder this will lead to a permanent reduction in milk yield for the lactation,
and early drying off. The first milk removed from the udder is low in fat compared with milk
at the end of milking. Incomplete milking will tend to leave high-fat milk behind. The interval
between milking also affects the fat percentage. The longer the interval, the more milk is
produced and the lower is the milk fat content.

Hygienic milking
Good hygiene and quality control needs to be observed at all stages of milk production,
handling and sale. Thus, hygienic practice must begin at the farm level. Good hygiene will
ensure that the milk you collect is clean and has low levels of spoilage bacteria. Below is
some advice you can give to the farmers who bring milk to your collection centre, in order to
ensure good quality:
● Maintain clean and healthy cows
● Keep a clean milking environment, free of dust and mud
● Do not milk cows if you are suffering from communicable diseases like diarrhea or typhoid,
but seek medical treatment and resume milking only when you have fully recovered.
● Do not mix colostrum (the milk produced for the first seven days after calving) with normal
milk
● Wash your hands with soap and clean water before milking
● Wash the udder with a clean cloth and warm water

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Animal Production and Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production and Product processing

● Dry the udder with a clean dry cloth.

● Make the first draw into a strip cup to check for mastitis and throw away from the milking
area even if the milk appears clean
● Use clean containers for milking
● Cows with mastitis should be milked last and their milk discarded
● Milk from cows under antibiotic treatment should not be sold or consumed until 3 days
after last treatment or as advised by the veterinary practitioner
● After every milking, dip the teats into an “antiseptic dip”
● During milking, the milker should not: (a) have long nails, (b) sneeze, spit or cough, (c)
smoke.
● Release the cow from the milking area as soon as milking is finished
● After milking, sieve the milk through a strainer or muslin cloth to remove solid particles
that may have fallen in during milking
● Cover the milk to avoid contamination
● Move the milk to a clean and cool area

Hygienic milk handling

It is important for you to know some of the things that can cause milk spoilage so that you can
avoid unnecessary losses. Milk is very rich in nutrients. Because of this, the bacteria that
cause spoilage can grow very quickly in milk. Bacteria cells grow by dividing into two. If
milk is stored at high temperatures for a long time then the bacteria will grow and divide very
fast and soon the milk will have a very high number of bacteria and thus get spoilt quickly.
Also, if the milk had a high number of bacteria to begin with then it will get spoilt in a very
short time.
Poor hygiene during handling of milk and undesirable practices like addition of water and
other substances can introduce the bacteria that cause milk to go bad. Here are some
guidelines to follow in order to avoid milk spoilage:
● Always handle milk in clean metal containers.
● When transferring milk between containers, pour the milk instead of scooping. Scooping
may introduce spoilage bacteria

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Animal Production and Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production and Product processing

● Do not store milk at high temperatures

● Avoid keeping milk for a long time before it is delivered to the collection point
● Do not handle milk if you are sick. Seek medical treatment and resume your work only
when the doctor says you are fit to do so.
How to store milk to reduce spoilage
Because milk spoils easily if it is left at high temperatures for long periods, you need to keep
it in a cool place soon after milking. The low temperatures reduce the rate of growth of the
spoilage bacteria. If you do not have a refrigerator or cooler, you can store milk in a cold-
water bath or wrap the milk can with a wet sack, but ensure that the milk container is well
covered to prevent dirt from entering the milk.
Equipment for milk handling and storage
Always use certified food grade containers, e.g. aluminum, stainless steel or food grade
plastic jerry cans designed for single use only. Metal containers are preferable because these
are easy to clean and sterilize. Do not store milk in plastic jerry cans that previously contained
paint, herbicides and other chemicals because traces of these substances can taint your milk.
Hand-milking

Good hand-milkers can obtain more milk from cows than machines. However, few milkers
have the skill or endurance to empty the udder completely before letdown passes. With hand-
milking, the milker, not the cow, is generally the limiting factor in milk removal. A skilled
milker can milk 10 cows per hour by hand.

It is advisable to start by milking the two front quarters. They can be reached easily and do
not hamper the milking of the rear quarters when they are empty. Milking the two rear
quarters is not so easy when one sits on the right side of the cow. However, it is not good
practice to milk a front and a rear quarter at the same time. After this the rear quarters are
milked. If these are emptied as well, the milker should repeat the sequence in order to get all
the milk out of the udder. The rear legs of the cows may have to be tied to prevent overturning
of the bucket or the milker being kicked.

Machine milking

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Animal Production and Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production and Product processing

Milking machines have been used since the mid 1800´s and their principles of operation are
simple. The machine must draw milk under vacuum from the cow’s teats like the calf does,
and must supply some massaging action to prevent engorgement of the teats under vacuum.

The teat is inserted in a rubber-lined teat cup. The inner chamber in which the teat is inserted
is under constant vacuum to hold open the streak canal and hold the cup on the teat. The outer
chamber between the liner and the metal cup is alternately under vacuum and atmospheric
pressure. The resulting ‘squeezing’ action has no role in milk removal, but is there to allow
the teat to relax and blood to flow through the teat, avoiding congestion. To a certain extent,
the massaging action may stimulate the cow to let down milk.

Cows are the main source of milk, and it is cows’ milk that is the focus of processing in
Ethiopia (Layne et al. 1990). Dairy processing in Ethiopia is generally based on ergo
(fermented milk in Ethiopia), without any defined starter culture, with natural starterculture.
Raw milk is either kept at ambient temperature or kept in a warm place to ferment prior to
processing (Mogessie 2002). Dairy processing in the country is basically limited to
smallholder level and hygienic qualities of products are generally poor (Zelalem and Faye
2006). According to Zelalem and Faye (2006), about 52% of smallholder producers and 58%
of large-scale producers used common towel to clean the udder or they did not at all. Above
all they do not use clean water to clean the udder and other milk utensils. Of the interviewed
small-scale producers, 45% did not treat milk before consumption, and organoleptic
properties of dairy products are the commonly used quality tests.
Learning Activities:
PBL 9.1
Visit any dairy farm in your vicinity and evaluate milking procedures and milk handling
p r a c t i c e s , identify the shortcomings and suggest possible means that help to improve the
practices.
Individual Studies 9.1
James.R. Gillespie (2002). Modern livestock and poultry production.6th ed. Pp 110-400
(instructors can opt for alternatives relevant reference materials)

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Animal Production and Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production and Product processing

Assessments
-Group work/assignments
-First quiz
-Practical report
Section Summary
The milking procedures and practices, methods of milking and the importance of complete
milking are discussed.

10 Cattle health management

Many important livestock diseases that inflict major socio-economic losses in Ethiopia occur
every year. Annual disease losses amount to 8–10%, 14–16%, and 11–13% of the cattle,
sheep and goat populations, respectively. It is estimated that some 700 million Birr (1US$ =
9.2 Birr) is lost annually due to helminth (internal parasite) infestation of domestic animals.
Besides affecting the quantity and quality of livestock products, the prevalence of infectious
and economically important animal diseases in Ethiopia excludes the country from profitable
international markets, thereby greatly reducing the country’s foreign exchange earnings. Poor
husbandry practices and inadequate veterinary services are the major factors favoring the
expansion of livestock diseases.
Examining the health condition of an animal
Healthy Animal
• Has a good appetite
• Appears bright, alert and responsive
• Stay with the flock
• Has smooth, clean and shiny coat
• Has clear eyes with some pink colour in the eye lids
• Has an erect tail and a moist nose
• Healthy lambs/kids are:
• Active and alert, breath normally. They are up on their feet in 30-60 minutes after
birth, moves freely and feed often.

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Animal Production and Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production and Product processing

Sick/unhealthy animal
• Has reduced appetite , Has fast or slow breathing
• Sit or lay down separated from the flock/herd
• Has ill appearance with a dull matted coat, hunched up stance, tail and ears down
• Has dry nose or discharge from the nose, eyes, mouth
• Unhealthy lambs/kids are
• Often unwilling to move or feed, they appear weak, cold, lazy and hunched up.
• Unhealthy older lambs/ kids show similar clinical signs. Often they stand separate
from the rest of the flock in pain, scouring, moving slowly
The followings are the common diseases of cattle in Ethiopia:
Anthrax, Brucellosis, Foot and mouth disease, Ringworm, Calf Scours External parasite
(Mites and ticks), Internal parasites (round worms, flat worms)

Disease prevention
• Preventing disease is much more effective than trying to cure sick animals.
• Through good husbandry practices, livestock owners can reduce the risk of diseases entering
a flock.
• Understanding the main disease threats to a herd can assist a producer in taking appropriate
disease prevention measures, and thus lower the impact of disease problems.
Good management practices are vital to preventing diseases
• These include provision of clean water and proper nutrition, maintaining clean housing with
adequate ventilation, and clean pastures that reduce parasite and disease build-up, and the
strategic treatment of stock with anthelmintics. All of these measures will reduce disease
challenges.
Housing and feeding
• Housing that provides protection from wind and rain, is easily cleaned and is well ventilated
is preferred to warm, wet and airless conditions.
• Feed racks should be used to avoid contamination of feed with feces and urine.
Drenching and spraying

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Animal Production and Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production and Product processing

• The build-up of parasites is likely to occur where sheep and goats are kept in intensive
conditions.
Regular practice of sanitation measures such as manure removal or rotation of grazing areas
or paddocks can assist in disease control.
• Sheep and goats in these conditions may need regular treatment with effective anthelmintics
to reduce worm burdens.
• The same approach is required with external parasites such as ticks, lice and flies.
• Spraying or dipping of animals is needed to reduce external parasites during periods of high
infestation.
Learning Activities:
Practical 10.1
Individual Studies 10.1
James.R. Gillespie (2002). Modern livestock and poultry production.6th ed. Pp 110-400
(instructors can opt for alternatives relevant reference materials)
Assessments
-Group work/assignments
-First quiz
-Practical report
Section Summary
In this section the economic losses due to major cattle diseases is estimated at farm level and
at national level. Sub-clinical procedures used to examine if an animal is sick or not are
described. Common cattle diseases in Ethiopia are mentioned. Important cattle management
practices those are vital to prevent cattle diseases are detailed and discussed.

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Animal Production and Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production and Product processing

11 Aligning Cattle production and Product Processing to

Value Chain

11.1 Dairy and dairy products’ value chain

___________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

The dairy value chain starts with the raw product/milk supply at the farm level and ends with
consumers who make the choice to buy, or not to buy, the finished product. The dairy value
chain has several links between the farm and the consumer: procurement, transportation,
processing, commodity storage, conversion packaging, distribution, retailing, and food
services.

Formal Dairy value Chain

The formal dairy chain involves seven distinct value adding activities from production of the
milk through reaching to the final consumer in the market. These activities include input
supply, milk production; Raw milk transportation, bulking and cooling, processing and
packing, transporting processed milk and milk products and retailing gathering (bulking);
processing; transportation; and retail trading.

Input supply category of segment includes the supply of all inputs that are required by
smallholder milk producers and dairy commercial farms. Different dairy value chain actors
are engaged in supplying feed, AI service providers, veterinary services, machinery
equipment and packaging, financial institutions. In formal dairy chain the main milk
producers are commercial dairy farmers and smallholders located on urban and pre urban
areas of the milk shades.

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Animal Production and Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production and Product processing

Fig 11.1 Dairy value chain actors and the linkages

The Informal Dairy Value Chain

The informal market involves direct delivery of fresh milk by producers to consumer in the
immediate neighborhood and sale to itinerant traders or individuals in nearby towns. In the
informal market, milk may pass from producers to consumers directly or it may pass through
two or more market agents to local consumers and neighboring countries Somaliland and
Kenya) consumers. The informal system is characterized by no licensing requirement to
operate, low cost of operations, high producer price compared to formal market and no
regulation of operations. The informal (traditional) milk channel has remained dominant in
Ethiopia. Moreover this channel provides substantial amounts of milk which goes into
traditional dairy processing and then traded especially traditional soured butter.

The main milk producers in this channel are sedentary rural smallholders and pastoralists.
The main feed sources for these milk producers are pasture land, green fodder from their own
land and crop residues. Besides this, in some rural areas local brewery residue and hay also

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Animal Production and Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production and Product processing

used. In pastoral areas particularly in dry season feed multi-nutrients block, hay and
concentrates are supplied with the support of different development organizations and some
pastoralists purchase supplies from Nazareth area. The government extension system takes
assumes most of the responsibility for supplying AI, veterinary services and drugs. However
there are individuals’ drug ventures in some areas of the pastoralists and sedentary rural areas.

Available data indicates that out of the total milk produced about 68.4% is retained at
household level, about 14.6 % is sold, 17% utilized by calves. The smallholders use the milk
retained at household level for consumption (50.8%) and traditional processing two purposes
(49.2%). More over the total milk supplied to the market is geographically goes to the urban
(69.2%) and the rural neighborhood (30.8%) market.

Value addition in milk and milk products

Milk, more than most agricultural products, is closely associated with the transformation of
the raw product into processed products and, as a result, the adding of value via processing.
Stemming from milk’s perishability and high water content, processing can be considered an
essential element for storage, preservation and transport. This is reflected by the fact that most
milk in the world is not consumed in its original liquid form, but in some processed state:
cheese, butter, yogurt, powder etc. Additionally, where milk is consumed as a liquid, it is
increasingly presented in a wide variety of forms: low- to full-fat, flavored, with added
vitamins and minerals. Here, the list is extensive and, frequently, value is added to the milk in
the process.

The food market in general and the dairy market in particular, is noteworthy for its dynamism
and inventiveness. Consumers are many and varied. In the dairy market of the future, some
will demand low-priced products, while others will pay a premium for quality and uniqueness.
The challenge for the dairy industry is to identify which markets it can profitably supply and
to focus its efforts on meeting the needs of consumers in these markets.

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Animal Production and Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production and Product processing

The demand for value-added dairy products is affected by a number of factors relating both to
the general economic and social situation, and to specific developments in the dairy market.
Some important elements are:

 increased urbanization and income growth in the developing countries;

 growing power of supermarkets;
 concentration in the processing sector;
 different levels of adding value;
 increased segmentation of consumption and,
 Changes in eating habits.
There are different methods of value addition in milk viz., enrichment with milk fractions, use
of probiotics, enrichment with plant products, addition of additives, modification in
processing conditions, utilization of recombinant dairy enzymes, texturization of milk
proteins, intelligent packaging, and improving sensory quality.

Learning activities

Practical 11.1. Analysis of dairy Value addition

Students will be divided in groups of two or three. First they will be asked to design a
questionnaire for questions about dairy value addition practices and then to perform a survey.

Practical 11.2. Production of Cultured milk

Practice how culture can be produced using starter culture

S4.1. Venkateshwara, P. 2008. Dairy Farm Business Management

Individual study 11.1.1. Reading assignment

Continuous assessment

Students will be assessed by Group discussion, Tests and quiz.

Summary

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Animal Production and Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production and Product processing

The objective of this section was to align dairy production and product processing into the
value chain. Accordingly, the Value chain in dairy products is well described in the section.
The chain actors, service provides, and the chain influencers in relation to their major role and
influence at each stage of the value chain are well discussed. The formal and informal value
addition processes are also described. The different factors affecting the value addition,
marketing and consumers demand are also well stated.

11.2 Dairy products processing, handling and marketing

Processing of products enables products to be preserved and stored for longer time that can be
either sold during the dry season when products become scarce and when the price rises.
Processing improves the taste of the products that might be preferred by the consumers.
Processing also diversify the products thereby increasing the income of the farmers. It also
increases the quality and the shelf life of the products and thereby reducing the spoilage of the
products. The quality and shelf life is improved because processing reduces the number of
microorganisms in the milk or meat and reduces the transmission of disease from products to
its consumers.
Common operations in dairy processing

Straining, filtration, clarification

These are a process of removing visible foreign matter, which may get into the milk during
production and handling of milk by use of filtering media. They improve the aesthetic quality
of milk. Filtration removes suspended foreign particles/matters by the straining process, while
clarification removes the foreign particles by centrifugal force/sedimentation. The materials
retained on the filter cloth include suspended foreign particles, milk fat, proteins, leucocytes
and bacteria.
The general features of filters used are:

 A filter cloth or pad of different pore size, which can retain the smallest
particles.

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Animal Production and Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production and Product processing

 A frame or support to compress and hold the margins of the cloth or pad so
that milk can pass only through pores.
 A perforated metal or other support for cloth or pad which will not tear or
break under the pressure of milk.
Pasteurization

Pasteurization is the most common process used to destroy bacteria in milk. In pasteurization,
the milk is heated to a temperature sufficient to kill pathogenic bacteria, but well below its
boiling point. This also kills many non-pathogenic organisms and thereby extends the storage
stability of the milk. Numerous time/temperature combinations are recommended but the
most usual is 720C for 15 seconds followed by rapid (less than 2 minutes) cooling to below
100C. This is normally referred to as High Temperature Short Time (HTST) treatment and this
followed by rapid (less than 2 minutes) cooling below 10 0C. It reduces the microbial counts of
milk for cheese making. Cream is also pasteurized before tempering for butter making in
some factories. For batch pasteurization, fixed quantities of milk are heated to 63 0C for 30
minutes (Low Temperature Long Time LTLT).

Sterilization

In pasteurization, milk receives mild heat treatment to reduce the number of bacteria present.
But in the case of sterilization, milk is subjected to severe heat treatment that ensures almost
complete destruction the microbial population. The product is then said to be commercially
sterile. The Time/Temperature treatment of above 100 0C for 15 to 40 minutes are used. The
product has a much longer shelf life (several months) than pasteurized milk. Another method
of sterilization is Ultra high temperature (UHT). In this system, milk is heated under pressure
to above 1400C for 4 seconds. UHT sterile the product, moreover, it retains more of the
properties of fresh milk than conventionally sterilized milk.

Homogenization

The main characteristics of homogenization process is the breaking down of fat globules in a
homogenizer, thereby reducing their average size, thus preventing the fat globules from rising

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Animal Production and Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production and Product processing

during storage and forming a cream layer. Milk is forced to pass through a small hole/narrow
opening at a pressure of 250 atm. which results in the fat globules breaking. Since milk fat
must be in a liquid form state to be homogenized, the product that enters the homogenizer
should be at a temperature of at least 400C

Milk /Cream separation

The fat fraction separates from the skim milk when milk is allowed to stand for at least 30 to
40 minutes. This process is known as creaming. A number of methods are employed to
separate cream from milk.
A. Gravity separation: Cream can be separated from milk by allowing the milk to stand
in a cool place. This can be done in either of the two ways.
I. Shallow pan method: Milk preferably fresh from the cow is poured into a shallow
pan 40 to 60 cm in diameter and about 10 cm deep. The pan is kept in a cool place
and after 36 hours practically all of the fat capable of rising by this method will
have come to the surface, and the cream is skimmed off with a spoon or ladle. The
skim milk usually contains about 0.5 to 0.6% butterfat.
II. Deep setting method: Milk preferably fresh from the cow is poured into a deep
can of smaller diameter. The can is placed in cold water and kept as cool as
possible. After 24 hours the separation is usually complete. The skim milk is
removed through a tap at the bottom of the can. Under optimum conditions, the fat
content of the skim milk averages about 0.2 to 0.3%.
B. Centrifugal separation: Gravity separation is slow and inefficient. As compared to
gravity separation centrifugal separation is quicker and more efficient leaving less than
0.1% fat in the separated skim milk as compared to 0.5 to 0.6% after separation.
It allows removal of cream and recovery of the skim milk in a fresh state. The separation of
the cream from the milk in the centrifugal separator is based on the fact that when liquids of
different specific gravities revolve around the same center at the same distance with the same
angular velocity, a greater centrifugal force is exerted to the heavier liquid than on the lighter
one. Milk can be regarded as two liquids, serum and fat of different specific gravities.

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Animal Production and Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production and Product processing

Standardization of milk and cream

If adjustment of the fat content of cream is required or if the fat content of whole milk must be
reduced to a given level, skim milk must be added. This process is known as standardization.
Standardization is important to guarantee the consumer a product of constant fat content and
to meet the national and international standards of the fat content destined for the manufacture
of various milk products. In most cases, the fat content of the raw milk is higher than the
required standard. Standardization can be accomplished by direct method- separating whole
milk to achieve the required fat and by indirect method- mixing whole milk and skim milk or
cream and skim milk. The usual method of making standardization calculation is the
Pearson’s Square techniques. To make this calculation, draw a square and write the desired
fat percentage in the standardized products at its center and write the percentage of the
materials to be mixed on the upper and lower left hand corners. Subtract diagonally across the
square the smaller from the larger figure and place the remainders on the diagonally opposite
corners. The figures on the right hand corners indicate the ratio in which the materials should
be mixed to obtain the desired fat percentage.

Marketing of milk and milk products

In Ethiopia, fresh milk sales by smallholder farmers are important only when they are close to
formal milk marketing facilities such as government enterprises or milk groups. Farmers far
from such formal marketing outlets prefer to produce other dairy products instead, such as
cooking butter and cottage cheese. The informal fresh milk market involves direct delivery of
raw milk by producers to consumers in the immediate neighborhood and sales to itinerant
traders or individuals in near towns. Milk is transported to towns on foot, by donkey, by horse
or public transport and frequently commands a higher price than in the originating village.

Market oriented smallholder dairy production systems could be one of the avenues towards
agricultural intensification. These farms could also play a pivotal role in providing good
quality and diversified dairy products at acceptable prices and may eventually contribute to
minimize importation of milk and milk products. Marketing of agricultural products consists
primarily of moving products from production sites to points of final consumption. Few

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Animal Production and Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production and Product processing

African smallholder milk producers have access to formal milk marketing systems. Most sell
any surplus milk they may have through informal markets or process it into other marketable
products such as butter and cottage cheese. Improvements in the milk production system call
for complementary improvements in the marketing system in order to ensure that there are
sufficient out lets for producers' milk and milk products.

11.3 Beef and beef products’ and by –products value chain

Beef cattle production system and market sources

Based on integration of livestock with crop production, level of input and intensity of
production, agro-ecology and market orientation, livestock production systems in Ethiopia is
categorized as pastoral, agro-pastoral, mixed crop-livestock farming, urban and peri-urban
farming and specialized intensive farming systems. However, the livestock production
systems are predominantly categorized as agro-pastoral system in the lowlands, and the mixed
crop–livestock system in the highlands. Traditionally, fattening of animals in both systems
concentrates on male animals and on females which are either infertile or have finished their
reproductive cycle. In the lowland agro-pastoral system, grazing is the most common source
of feed, with limited use of crop residues, whereas in the highland system, crop residues are
the most important source of animal feed. During the wet season, when crop residues are
scarce in the highlands, male animals are taken to the lowland areas for grazing.

There is little evidence of strategic production of livestock for marketing except some sales
targeted to traditional Ethiopian festivals. The primary reason for selling livestock is to
generate income to meet unforeseen expenses. Sales of live animals are taken as a last resort
and large ruminants are generally sold when they are old, culled, or barren. In the highlands,
large numbers of cattle are kept to supply draft power for crop production, whereas prestige
and social security are the predominant factors in the lowland pastoral areas.

The marketing systems and the main actors in marketing live animal export

Markets are dispersed with remote markets lacking price information. Generally, the number
of animals offered in the local market is usually greater than the number demanded, so there is

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Animal Production and Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production and Product processing

excess supply. This effectively suppresses producer prices since the more mobile trader is
better informed on market prices, while better information combined with excess supply place
the trader in a better position during price negotiation. Livestock are generally traded by ‘eye-
ball’ pricing, and weighing livestock is uncommon. Prices are usually fixed by individual
bargaining and depend mainly on supply and demand, which is heavily influenced by the
season of the year and the occurrence of religious and cultural festivals. Ethiopia’s livestock
supply is heavily influenced by the severity of the dry season.

The livestock marketing structure follows a four-tier system, of which different actors
involve in buying and selling of beef cattle in the market system .The main actors of the 1st
tier are local farmers and rural traders who transact at farm level with very minimal volume,
1–2 animals per transaction irrespective of species involved. Some traders may specialize in
either small or large animals. Those small traders from different corners bring their livestock
to the local market (2nd tire). Traders purchase a few large animals or a fairly large number of
small animals for selling to the secondary markets. In the secondary market (3rd tier), both
smaller and larger traders operate and traders and butchers from terminal markets come to buy
animals.

In the terminal market (4th tire), big traders and butchers transact larger number of mainly
slaughter type animals. From the terminal markets and slaughterhouses and slabs, meat
reaches consumers through a different channel and a different set of traders/businesses.

In Ethiopia, both legal and illegal livestock marketing systems are operating at different
magnitudes. Small farmer exporters and traders are the major actors in the illegal cattle
marketing system while medium- to large scales licensed exporters are dominantly operating
in the legal system. Most cattle sales are related to farm households’ cash needs and
commercial orientation. However, cattle sales are also induced by fear of theft and insecurity.
Unofficial cross-border trade is practiced in the eastern, western, and southern, and north
western borderlands of Ethiopia. In addition to the Ethio-Sudan cross-border huge livestock
trade, there are other important cross-border livestock trade operations: Ethio-Somalia, Ethio-
Kenya and Ethio-Djibouti. The cross-boarder trade with Sudan involves predominantly male

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cattle. Un-castrated and fattened oxen are also exported legally. Few medium to high quality
female animals are also exported, which are used for slaughtering in Sudan or for live animals
re-export to Egypt, Libya and Yemen. Most of the borders are characterized by arid and semi-
arid agro-ecologies where livestock play dominant role in household livelihoods. Eastern
Ethiopian/Somaliland cross-border livestock trade accounts for the largest share among the
four borders in terms of the volume and value of export from Ethiopia. Port of Berbera is the
main outlet for livestock exports.

The purpose of the meat processing industries in Ethiopia is to produce and supply high
quality meat products to the domestic and export markets. The export market is the main
market of the meat processing industries of the country. Products supplied to the local and
overseas markets by these companies are chilled/frozen beef, goat meat, mutton, chilled veal,
chilled camel meat and red offal.

Consumers buy meat through one of the three channels: buying and slaughtering live
animals, from markets and from abattoirs. They may purchase live animals directly from the
terminal market and slaughter by themselves or they may get meat from markets, which by-
pass the formal procedures through abattoirs; or they may access from butchers who process
the meat via abattoirs. Livestock market locations in primary and secondary markets are
typically not fenced; there are no permanent animal routes and no feed and watering
infrastructures. Yet buyers and sellers are subjected to various service charges by the local
authority as well as other bodies.

Challenges & opportunities for beef production & value chain

Challenges:

The major challenges facing the beef cattle marketing and value chain are:

 Less competitiveness of these firms in the domestic and export markets which has
been limited by the underutilization of the processing capacities.
 It has been observed that the live animal throughput is inadequate resulting in the
existing meat processing facilities operating at less than 50% of their operational
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Animal Production and Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production and Product processing

capacities. This is apparently due to inadequate supply of the required quality live
animals for meat processing by the export abattoirs which makes them less
competitive in the global or regional meat market.
 The export abattoirs are competing for the domestic supply of live cattle with the
demand for live cattle for domestic consumption, and for formal and informal (cross-
border) trade.
 The annual outflow of beef cattle from Ethiopia through illicit (informal) market is
huge. The legal export of both live animal and processed meat is thus constrained due
to shortage created by the illicit export. The existing beef cattle sources and market
channel of livestock trade in Ethiopia are indicated in the Figure 1.
As a whole, the following are the main challenges faced beef cattle production, value chain
and marketing:-

1. Lack of well defined breeding program and production systems.

2. Lack of an integral connection between the stakeholders involved in the production

chain.

3. Inadequate market promotion and study tours to potential importing countries

4. Lack of efficient air transport for export of fresh and chilled meat.

5. Some markets are also dominated by influential personalities and illegal exporters.

6. Limited access to market-related information (e.g. on prices, value chains,

competitors, consumer preferences).

7. Lack of capital to invest in assets, equipment and inputs that would improve quality.

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Animal Production and Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production and Product processing

Figure 11.2. Existing beef cattle sources and market channel of livestock trade in Ethiopia.

The Figure illustrates that beef cattle is brought to market primarily from three sources:
from farmers which produce the beef cattle, small scale to large scale producers organized in
the form of cooperatives to fatten the cattle and some brokers which buy either from directly
from producers and fattening cooperatives. Those animals brought to the market are exported
legally by small and medium scale exporter and illegally by small scale exporter and farmers.

Opportunities

High demand of animals by the local abattoirs

The export abattoirs are required to ensure a consistent and continuous supply of meat in
order to meet the demand of the customers in the importing countries. There are seven
abattoirs in Ethiopia which processes canned meat products mainly for the army, domestic
market and some exports. These abattoirs are located in Addis Ababa, Melge Wondo, Dire

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Dawa, Kombolcha, Gondar and Debre Zeit. Of these plants, Melge Wondo is to some extent
preparing frozen beef and that of Debre Zeit abattoir produce chilled beef, sheep and goat
meat for both domestic and export markets.

Official exports

There are few legal exporters engaged in the export of live animals and meat in the country.
These exporters secure livestock from pastoral areas by themselves or through agents for
export in live or meat form (chilled mutton, goat meat and beef). The Livestock Marketing
Authority (LMA) (2004) estimated the annual potential for export at 72,000 metric tons of
meat. NEPAD-CAAD (2004) identified the Middle East and North African countries which
are considered important for the country’s export in livestock and livestock products (LLP) to
be Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Yemen, Jordan, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Iran,
Syria and Egypt. The annual demand of these countries is estimated to be 206,846 tons of
meat and 12 million heads of live animals (cattle, sheep and goats). The estimated national off
take rates of 10% for cattle, pastoral areas of the country alone, could produce 734 000 heads
of beef cattle per annum. When these are compared to the current demand in the Middle East,
they meet only 42% for beef. However, the live beef cattle supplies are well over the demand
(144%), thus requiring new market outlets.

The exports of meat and live animals have dramatically increased in 2010-2011 Ethiopian
fiscal. Ethiopia exported 16,877 tons of meat and 472,041 head of live animals, recording a 69
% increment from last year’s export revenue. Ethiopian revenue and customs authority
reported that live animal export in 2010 contributed 70% of the earnings while 30% was
obtained from meat export. Chilled sheep and goat carcass accounted for 80%, beef 9% and
offal 11% of the exported meat. Of the number of exported live animals, cattle accounted for
46%, sheep 35%, camels 13% and goats 6%. In terms of revenue, cattle contributed 67%,
camels 25% and sheep and goats 8% to the revenue generated.

Domestic Consumption

NICHE: Jimma, Ambo, Adama,Haramaya, Hawassa,Bahirdar,Wolaita Sodo, Samara Universities

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Animal Production and Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production and Product processing

The domestic meat demand is believed to increase with increasing literacy and family
income. Meat consumption is often an indicator of the economic status of a country or an
individual. People with a higher social or economic status demand a greater amount of high-
quality meat products. The per capita consumption of meat in developed/industrialized
countries is much higher than in developing countries. Countries whose population consumes
the least amount of meat are located in Africa and Asia.

Developed countries consumed a consistent level of 77 kg of meat per capita annually, while
developing countries struggled to maintain a diet with only 25 kg of meat per capita annually.
Ethiopians remained slightly below the meat intake of all low-income countries and
consuming 9 kg per capita annually. Livestock market value chain structure that should be
taken as an opportunity is indicated in Figure 11.3

NICHE: Jimma, Ambo, Adama,Haramaya, Hawassa,Bahirdar,Wolaita Sodo, Samara Universities

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Animal Production and Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production and Product processing

Figure 11.3. Livestock market value chain structure

NICHE: Jimma, Ambo, Adama,Haramaya, Hawassa,Bahirdar,Wolaita Sodo, Samara Universities 56

Animal Production and Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production and Product processing

Learning Activities:

Problem Based Learning 11 .1

Indentify and assess the existing beef value chain structure in your locality and suggest
appropriate chain.

Assessments

-Group work/assignments
- Written exam/test/quiz
Summary

In this sub-section, under beef value chain, different value chain related issues viz., value
chain mapping from beef production to consumption, value chain actors and their
transactional relationships in the value chain, the key market channels- formal and informal
beef channels and challenges and opportunities with respect to smallholder beef farming were
discussed.

11.4 Beef and beef products and by –products processing, handling and
marketing
Meat processing

Livestock products are considered as a perishable crop requiring certain special harvesting
and processing. This is because they have a very low keeping quality.

This day the demand for meat consumption is growing /increasing due to:

- Increased population
- Income growth (higher earning capacity)
- Urbanization
 Nutritional development

Increased demand for meat consumption increase meat production (opportunity)

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Increased meat production must be complemented with improved meat processing methods.

Meat has a very low keeping quality mainly due to:

- Incorrect slaughtering practices (lack of sanitary slaughtering)

- Lack of adequate processing facilities
- Lack of meat inspection
 Deprives farmers of the benefits of information on disease
 Preventing the elimination of diseases
To harvest livestock products in the most efficient way without wastage and spoilage, the
followings are very important:

 Good marketing infrastructures

 Transportation facilities
 Slaughtering facilities
 Processing facilities
 Good storage facilities
 Distribution facilities
If meat is not consumed within the short period of time processing becomes very important.

Meat processing includes:

 Slaughtering facilities
 Hygienic slaughtering procedures
 Meat inspection
 Meat grading ( Quality control)
 Meat preservation
Slaughtering facilities:

There are three types of slaughter facilities

1. Simple rural slaughter slabs

2. Public slaughter houses
3. Factory abattoirs
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In modern abattoirs the following facilities/buildings must be provided:

A. Lairage- accommodation for animal waiting slaughter. Animals need a rest of 24 hours
before slaughter. This has a beneficial effect on appearance and marketability of carcass.

B. Isolation block (Emergency slaughter unit)

-Is actually a miniature abattoir and is provided with lairage for up to four cattle

-should be situated near to the suspected meat detection room

-should be in direct communication with the by-products department

C. Slaughter hall - Should be well ventilated and lighted

- The floor must be non-slippery

- Blood must not be allowed to gain access to the gullies as it congeals

& blocks the drains.

Line or the on-Rail Dressing- This consists essentially conveying the carcass by gravity or
power along an overhead rail where after stunning and bleeding the process of dressing is
divided into various stages each undertaken by an operator who performs his allotted task as
the carcass reaches him.

For dealing with cattle four main types of line dressing can be described:

1. Gravity rail system- In this method the carcass suspended from a spreader and single
wheel trolley or runner are gravitated to each station, being stopped by means of a stop
operated manually on the overhead rail. The system is used for smaller slaughter rates of 10-
40 cattle per hour.

It is the most compact and economical. Being the simplest in design there is less chance of
serious breakdowns with consequent loss of production.

2. Intermittent powered system

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- Can be used for rates of 10-75 cattle per hour

- It involves the mechanical moving of the carcasses suspended on a spreader and trolley
along a level rail at intervals by means of a variable timing device which can be preset to suit
slaughter rate.

3. Continuous powered system

-In this method the dressing line is in continuous motion and is used for higher rate of
kill i.e. 40-120 cattle/hour. More sophisticated equipment is allocated with this slaughter line
for example mechanical hide puller. The carcass can be revolved 360 0 while on the rail,
allowing the operator to work all side from one position.

4. ‘Canpak system’- is a continuous conveyorized method in which the carcasses are

suspended by heavy beef trolleys or runners from the overhead rail. No spreaders being used
as in the previous systems. Rate of slaughter range from 50-150 cattle/hour.

D. Chill rooms: The treatment of the carcass immediately after dressing is of importance, a
desirable condition being rapid cooling in a dry atmosphere. Chilling space should be ample
to accommodate at least two days kill and it is preferable to provide several small chill rooms
than one large room. The advantage of chilling is to hold the meat in good condition with out
destroying the bloom and for this purpose temperature between 1.5 and 4.5 0 have proved most
satisfactory.

E. Hide and skin store

F. Guttery and Trippery

G. Offices

H. Condemned meat room

I. Laboratory

Slaughtering procedures- affects:

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 Quality of the meat

 Animal welfare
 Safety of personnel operating
Before slaughtering we have to do ante-mortem inspection to detect possibly clinical signs of
disease which can make meat unsafe for consumption. After ante-mortem inspection, the
slaughtering procedures involve:

A. Stunning- Making the animal unconscious by using:

 Severe knife
 Captive-bolt pistol
 Gas chamber (Pig- Co2)
 Electrical stunning ( Sheep, Pigs, Calves)
Animals must be killed as soon as possible after stunning because stunning increases blood
pressure and heart rate facilitating bleeding.

B. Bleeding: Cutting the jugular veins.

C. Dressing (skinning) - removal of skin.

D. Evisceration- The removal of different parts of internal organs, head and legs.

E. Washing the carcass- to remove surface blood and visible dirts by spraying water.

F. Postmortem inspection- To identify any diseases or abnormalities which make the meat
unsafe for human consumption. It is done visual observation, palpation and incision of
different tissues and organs.

Meat inspection:

Purpose- To safeguard the public by eliminating diseased or otherwise bad meat from food

supply.

- To enforce the sanitary preparation of meat and meat products

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- To guard against the use of harmful ingredients

- To prevent the use of false or misleading names or statements on the labels

a) Ante-mortem inspection (Before the death of animal)

- To eliminate unfit animal and to make provision for special postmortem examination

- The animals are observed in pens or as they move from the scales after weighing to
detect

evidences of diseases or any abnormality that would indicate a disease.

- If an animal is suspected, an ear tag is placed on its ear and the record of the tag
number, the inspectors diagnosis the temperature of the animal and sent to an inspector who is
to conduct the postmortem examination.

b) Postmortem inspection:

-Is made at the time of slaughter

- Include a careful examination of the carcass and the viscera (internal organ)

- Postmortem examination of the carcass and offals immediately after slaughter

including

laboratory test.

Inspection of a carcass and its organs should proceed in the following order:

Head→ Lungs→ Heart →Liver →Stomach & intestine→ Kidney→ Spleen →Uterus→
Udder →Carcass.

Certain diseases and certain stages of diseases make meat unsafe for human consumption but
this does not mean that certain diseased parts, distinctly localized would make the entire
carcass unfit for food.

Disposal of condemned meat

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Condemned animals’ carcasses and other materials are destroyed by rendering them in
separate steam pressure tanks, sealed and under the custody (supervision) of an inspector. The
pressure cooking and denaturing process destroys all the disease germs and the contents are
made available for fertilizer.

Meat grading (Quality control)

Meat quality includes the yield, composition, appearance, palatability and wholesomeness
of meat.

Yield- is the higher proportion of carcass in relation to the weight of the life animal.

- it also refers to higher proportion of lean meat and fat to bone and higher ratio in
muscle to fat.

Appearance - Appearance is the only criteria that the consumer uses to judge the
acceptability during purchasing.

Palatability- is the easing quality or acceptability of food. It includes qualities like flavour,
odour, texture and appearance.

Wholesomeness- refers to the safety for consumption, freedom from parasites, pathogenic
microorganisms, hazardous chemicals and nutritive value of meat.

12 Constraints of cattle production

The major constraints of cattle production can broadly be divided in to two:

1. Technical constraints

Genotype: The indigenous local cattle are evolved largely through natural selection and they
are poor milk yielders as selected to perform better under tropical harsh environments.

Feed supply and feeding management: For the farmers inability to feed animals adequately
throughout the year is the most widespread technical constraint. In drier regions, the quantity
of forages is often insufficient for the number of livestock carried; dry season feed supply is

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the paramount problem. In wetter regions, feed supplied is usually ample, but forages are poor
in quality, that is their protein and energy content is low. In both drier and wetter regions, the
feed shortages and nutrient deficiencies are more acute in the dry season. Also crop residues
and agro- industrial by- products that could be fed to animals are largely wasted or
inefficiently used because infrastructure for transporting, processing and marketing feed stuffs
is under developed.

Animal disease: Disease sharply reduces the productivity of livestock in all agro- ecological
zones and production system in Ethiopia. The most important animal disease constraints to
livestock productivity in the country today are the parasitic and viral disease, mainly vector
transmitted, that have a wide geographic distribution and whose severity is strongly
influenced by the environment. No effective and easily administered vaccines or
chemotherapeutic agents exist for these diseases. Control of their tick or insect vectors with
pesticides is expensive, difficult to achieve, and not sustainable because of the development of
resistance. Disease like mastitis, brucellocis, trypanosomiasis, thelioriosis, Anthrax, Blue
Tongue, Foot and Mouth, pasturolosis and etc. are among the major disease of dairy cattle
worth mentioning.

Farming systems and animal management: - As crop- livestock systems evolve, inadequate
understanding by farmers, researchers, and extension workers of various cropping patterns,
market opportunities, livestock alternatives, and use of labor, technology, and inputs is a
major constraint to increased dairy productivity throughout the country. Moreover, the level
of livestock husbandry practices among farmers is poor.

Non - technical constraints

Inadequate infrastructure: With regard to infrastructure, Ethiopia has one of the poorest
transportation networks in the world. The best example is trekking cattle to long distance, the
absence of stock routes, resting areas, watering and feed points that result in substantial
weight loses before the cattle reach target destinations. Absence/inadequate road facilities and
transportation facilities also created problem to produce more milk and market fresh milk.

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Institutional issues: The extension system and animal health services have not been well
developed. Besides, the traditional land use system of the arid regions, which once were quite
capable of balancing grazing, water and livestock numbers, are breaking down because of
population growth. However, they are not being replaced by systems that provide flexibility in
the management of land and water and at the same time conserve grazing resources.

Policy constraints: There is no well developed livestock policy in general and that of cattle
development in particular. Government polices over the last longer years are to favor urban
consumers at the expense of rural producers. There is no price incentive to encourage
producers in most instances in the century.

Learning activities

PBL . 12. 1.

- Identify constraints and opportunities of dairy production in your areas

Individual study 12.1. Reading assignment

Flavey, L &L. Chantalakhana. 1999. Small Holder Dairying in the Tropics. ILRI. Nairobi
Kenya: 462 PP.

Summary

The aim of this section was to give the highlights of the important factors affecting cattle
production in Ethiopia. In this regard, the major limiting factors of cattle production are
discussed. The possible strategies for intervention are also indicated in the section.

13 Record keeping of cattle productions

Record keeping is quite important in any livestock production system for decision making of
farm management. It is better to gather information on various farm activities such as feeding,
watering, breeding, health treatment, financial matters, marketing and others. These
information/databases are very helpful in amending the farm conditions accordingly and also

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play an important role in examining the feasibility of the animal business venture. Most farms
fail to have well organized records and do not have the custom of having farm records.

Farm business cannot be carried out without maintaining the necessary set of records. Milk
and meat production efficiency can be improved and costs lowered when the farmer has the
necessary information at hand to guide him in feeding, breeding, and management practices.
Farm records are kept for all or some of the following reasons:

 Records are the mirror on a farm. They are necessary for genetic improvement of
dairy/beef cattle. Records are necessary to know milk and meat production efficiency of the
animals and based on this information, we can retain or cull the cows or their offsprings.

 Satisfy the receiver’s revenue

This is an essential requirement of record keeping but should not be the sole reason, and a
record system can be designed which satisfies the receiver and is also useful for other
purposes. Profit can be increased by reducing the wasteful or undue expenditure. To know
such items, it is necessary to have detail records on each item of expenditures viz,

1. Feeds for animals- fodders and concentrates

2. Labour

3. Interest

4. Depreciation on farm structure, equipments and animals

5. Miscellaneous expenses for medicines, breeding (AI), vaccinations, etc and as well as
sources of incomes.

Assist in financial planning decisions

Financial records, in more detail than those required for the receiver, can be used for cash
flow planning, enterprise analysis and other purposes.

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control labour

This is usually a wages book recording days worked, wages paid, money owed, leave etc.

Assist in land management decisions

These include farm maps and grazing, irrigation, fertilizer use, crop yield, areas and
management operations records.

Assist in livestock management decisions

These are the records of individual animals and groups of animals, their production, health,
feed use, etc.

No logical reason

A lot of useless information is often kept which is never, or can never, be converted into
useful information.

Criteria for record keeping

The brief summary of record types given above illustrates that several sets of records must be
kept, inevitably involving much of the farmer's time. Hence, if records are not to be more
trouble than they are worth, they should satisfy the following criteria:

 They must be useful

Unless data which is being recorded will at some future time be used (turned into information)
in making management decisions it should not be recorded at all.

 Records must be kept in such a form that they can be easily converted into
information

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Before keeping a record, the eventual end use must be decided upon so that the form in which
the data are recorded will facilitate later analysis and interpretation. Too often the end use is
not considered, and the usefulness of the data is severely impaired.

 Record keeping systems must be simple

Farmers/producers have enough to do without burdening themselves with complex record

keeping systems that are difficult to understand and time consuming to complete, and
therefore nearly impossible to delegate to employees.

 Duplication must be avoided as much as possible

Some data may have to be recorded more than once in different forms, but this must be
reduced to a minimum. In other words, if a record is to be made in the field, the recording
system should be such that data can be conveniently entered in the field and does not have to
be re-entered back at the office.

 Records must lead to actions being taken

Unless a record is specifically intended to be used for some future action or in management
planning it should not be kept. For instance, the records required on a dairy farm can be
grouped broadly into the following:

1. Registers pertaining to financial and accounts matter

2. Registers pertaining to accounting of animals

3. Milk production registers

4. Registers pertaining to reproduction

1. Financial and accounts registers

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This group of register is more pertaining to administration and accounts side rather than the
technical side. It includes the registers such as cash book, ledger, milk coupons, register bill
book, receipt book, demand and collection registers,

2. Registers pertaining to accounting of animals

This includes:

a) Cattle yard report

This is primary record and maintained daily. It gives the strength of the herd in terms of
various classes like milk herd, dry cows and heifers, calves, bulls, bullocks and castrated
males. This register also records details of sickness and treatment, vaccination, deworming,
services to heifers and cows, pregnancy diagnosis, feeding etc. Extreme climate change,
rainfall, cloudy-windy weather etc. is noted under this register.

b) Roll call register

This is an annual register maintained month wise. It is changed every year. It gives the
number of animals in each class of the herd.

c) Herd register

This is an annual register and all the animals in different classes of the herd are listed. They
are listed class wise viz, cows, heifers, male calves, bulls, castrated males and bullocks etc.
Details of each animal viz, name, and number, date of birth, parents, etc. are given.

d) Birth registers

This is an annual register and gives information about number of male and female births, birth
weight of the calves born, gestation period, number of heifers becoming cows, their age at
first calving etc.

e) Death registers
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This group of registers is concerned with increase or decrease in the strength of the herd. The
increase may be by birth and purchase while decrease may be due to death, sale of farm
transfer and class transfer; Example: Heifers on delivering a young one becomes a cow. It is
an annual register and gives information about total deaths during the year and their causes.
Frequency of a particular disease or ailment can be seen from this register.

3. Milk production register

This group of register gives the detail of milk production of each cow. This may be daily
milk production, monthly milk production, milk yield in different lactation etc. of all the
cows. The registers are:

a) Daily milk yield register

This is written daily, both for morning-evening or sometimes three times i.e. morning, noon
and evening. Cows are listed in register according to date of calving. The daily total milk
production is averaged by dividing it with the number of milking units. By watching the
fluctuation in this average daily milk production per unit, as well as correcting the causes, we
can maintain the milk production efficiency of the herd.

b) Monthly milk yield register

The milk production of the cows from the date of calving to till the cow dries or till the total
milk production of the lactation is given if the lactation is complete. This register gives:

 Name and number of the cows which have completed the lactation
 Their lactation milk yield

 Length of lactation period and

 Length of the previous dry period if the cow has calved again. This information then is
entered into the history sheet of each cow completing lactation.

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c) Life time milk production registers

This register gives information about the milk yield of the cow from calving to death or sale
etc. Annual milk production is calculated each year and also progressive annual average
figures are calculated. The progressive annual average figures indicate the upward or down
ward trend in the productive efficiency of the cow and used for taking decision for culling or
retaining the animal.

d) History sheet

This register gives the overall milk production capacity of the cow. One page is allotted to
each heifer as they fresh for the first time and become cow. At that time all the details of their
parentage, pedigree, breeding, description, date of birth, date of calving, age at fist calving
etc. are entered on the upper part of the page. Relevant information about service, date of
calving and calf born are entered in the lower part in the respective columns. On completion
of the lactation, lactation milk yield, milk yield of first 305 days, lactation period, dry period
etc. are entered and the averages are calculated. The average daily milk production from the
first to latest calving is a good indicator of the rise or fall of the overall efficiency of the
animal to produce milk and to reproduce from lactation to lactation.

4. Register pertaining to Reproduction

This group of registers as a group gives us all the details about the reproductive history and
records of heifers and cows in the herd. We know the date of service, date of pregnancy, date
of calving, length of lactation period and dry period etc. from these registers. The registers
are:

a) Cattle yard report

As the cows and heifers come in heat, the date of coming in heat and the name and number of
the bull (if served) are written in this register. These details should be written promptly,

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otherwise calves with unknown sires will be born. These entries of services are then
transferred to “Service Book”.

b) Service book

This is maintained monthly and services to heifers and cows as the case may be, are noted in
this register from cattle yard report. List of animals for pregnancy diagnosis is made from this
register. Similarly, the list of advanced pregnant animals and the list of animals due to calve
in the current month are made using this register.

c) Service ledger

This register gives information about the near past history and current status of reproduction
of each breedable female in the herd. The lists for examination of repeat breeders and
anoestrous can be made with the help of this register.

d) History sheet

This register gives information about the overall reproductive efficiency of cows. Example:

 It gives the age at first calving,

 length of the dry period

 length of calving interval for all lactation of the cows.

14 Gender role in cattle production

Men and women are involved in livestock sector, but in different ways; and they face
different constraints. Women have important roles in managing cattle. They are often
involved in feeding, watering and milking animals reared close to home, such as in intensive
and mixed systems and in processing and marketing of livestock byproducts. Women are
most typically primarily in roles that revolve around the home, deferring matters of sales and
marketing, other than in nearby locations, to men.

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Nowadays encouragingly, female entrepreneurs are entering into the value chains of dairy,
animal fattening and hides with increased incidence. However there remain a number of
constraints which include:

 In fattening and breeding, most of the work is done by women, but they don’t have control
and full rights over use and sale of animals
 The participation of women across the livestock value chain is mostly in the production of
animals and not in more value added activities. This limits the upside potential of women
in the chain

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 Since the value chain concept is relatively new in Ethiopia, understanding the role of men
and women in the area is very important. Gender analysis and assessments are required to
collect information that can aid in the facilitation of women as accepted operatives in
value chain activities
 The limitation of women in the workplace and at home must inform programs to
appropriately accommodate for the inadequacy of the current constraints. This can be
done by offering day care, subsidized transport, literacy and numeracy classes
 Few financial institutions provide credit and loan services to women. When financing is
available, women are much less likely to get formal financing than men even if they have
comparable skills and businesses
 Although women are intimately involved in the rearing and fattening of shoats, it’s
usually their husbands and sons who take the shoats to the market for sale
 Most women do not own land which can present a major obstacle to the development of
their own businesses. Women generally find it difficult to rear animals on rented premises
(they usually end up sharing the same space with the land’s owner). Those who own land
have full control to the land and can do with it as they please
 Fattening requires women to leave the house in order to buy, sell, and market livestock,
products. Women are thus prone to shy away from being involved in livestock fattening
due to their household responsibilities

15. Proof of Ability:

Summative exam that includes different types or methods of assessment put to use as a proof
of ability. This includes simulation, written exams; project work; scenario/case studies;
individual and group assignment; and presentations.

Its Purpose is to evaluate the extent to which the learner has captured the intended knowledge
and skills in this learning task within a specified date and period.

Finally students will be assessed out of 50%.

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16. Major References

Alemu Yami and R.C. Merkel (2008). Sheep and Goat Production Handbook for Ethiopia.
Ethiopia Sheep and Goat productivity Improvement Program (ESGPIP).

Alganesh Tola, Ofodile, L. N and Fekadu Beyene.2007. Microbial quality and chemical
composition of whole milk from Horro cattle in East Wallega Ethiopia. Chemical
Society of Nigeria. Vol. 33 (1): pp: 31-36.

FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations).2005. Milk and Dairy
products, post Harvest losses and food safety in sub-Saharan Africa and the Near
East-regional approaches to national challenges/ FAO action program for the
prevention of food losses. Synthesis report international Livestock research.

Haile Welearegay, Zelalem Yilma, Yosef Tekle-Giorgis.2012. Challenges and opportunities

of milk production under different urban dairy farm sizes in Hawassa City, Southern
Ethiopia. African Journal of Agricultural Research Vol. 7(26), pp. 3860-3866.

James.R. Gillespie (2002). Modern livestock and poultry production. 6th ed. Pp 110-400
Lemma Fita, Fikadu Beyene and P.B. Hegde. 2004. Traditional milk and milk products
handling practices and preservation methods in three districts of East Shoa Zone of
Oromia. In: Proceedings of the 12th Annual conference of the Ethiopian Society of
Animal Production (ESAP) held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, August 12-14, 2004.
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. pp: 77-84.

Ulfina Galmessa, Jiregna Dessalegn, Alganesh Tola, Gebregziabher Gebreyohannes, and

Mulugeta Kebede. 2006. Status of peri-urban dairy production system in western
oromia, ethiopia, Oromia Agricultural Research Organization,Technical
Report.Pp22.

Zelalem yilma and Inger ledin, 1999.Efficiency of smallholder milk processing techniques in
the central highlands of Ethiopia. Ethiopia agricultural research organization, holetta
research center, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia.

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76