INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

TOPIC 1

INTRODUCTION TO ICT
Meaning of ICT
ICTs stand for information and communication technologies and are defined, for the purposes of
this primer, as a “diverse set of technological tools and resources used to communicate, and to
create, disseminate, store, and manage information.” These technologies include computers, the
Internet, broadcasting technologies (radio and television), and telephony.

Definition of terms
 Computer- A computer is an electronic device that manipulates information, or data. It
has the ability to store, retrieve, and process data.
 Data-Information in raw or unorganized form (such as alphabets, numbers, or symbols)
that refer to, or represent, conditions, ideas, or objects
 Information-Information is data that has been processed in such a way as to be
meaningful to the person who receives it.
 Information systems- An Information System (IS) is a system composed of people and
computers that processes or interprets information. The term is also sometimes used in
more restricted senses to refer to only the software used to run a computerized database
or to refer to only a computer system.
 Communication systems-a communications system is a collection of individual
communications networks, transmission systems, relay stations, tributary stations, and
data terminal equipment (DTE) usually capable of interconnection and interoperation
to form an integrated whole.
Concept of ICT
From the above discussion we can conclude that information technology refers to the
information processing of the software application on operating systems or hardware
applications that includes computers, videos, telephones and related equipment of
telecommunications, tapes, CDs etc.
Characteristics of Information Technology:
Information Technology has the following Characteristics:
 Acquisition, Storage, manipulation, management, transmission or reception of data or
information.
 Real time access to information.
 Easy availability of updated data
 Connecting Geographically dispersed regions
 Wider range of communication media

Importance of ICT
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is all around us. We encounter some
elements of ICT in our day-to-day lives. In offices, schools, libraries, industries and homes
ICT is increasingly being used. It has become progressively more important to acquire skills in
ICT for several reasons.
 Acquiring skills, knowledge and understanding in the use of ICT systems prepares people
to use such technologies to accomplish various tasks in their everyday lives as well as in
their working lives.
 ICT technologies such as the Internet enable people to access and share information.
 Distant learning and online education has become the order of the day thanks to
advancements in ICT.
 The knowledge of ICT provides opportunities for people to work both collaboratively and
independently in completing different tasks.
 Companies are able to reduce cost of operations and improve efficiency by using the right
ICT systems to conduct their businesses.
 With the appropriate ICT systems, information and data can be stored and retrieved more
efficiently and reliably.
 The application of ICT to accomplish tasks is not limited to any particular business or
industry. Whether you are a teacher, student, doctor, nurse, accountant, architect or
engineer there is a great chance that you are currently using Computers or will be doing
so in the near future to perform various duties in your field.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS:-

Computing machines can be classified in many ways and these classifications depend on their
functions and definitions. They can be classified according to:
i. The technology from which they were constructed
ii. The uses to which they are put,
iii. Their capacity or size
iv. The era in which they were used,
v. Their basic operating principles
vi. The kinds of data they process.
A. Classification according to Technology used
1 Analog computers
2 Digital computer
3 Hybrid computer.
1. Analog computers:-
An analog computers works with current rather them by the process of counting .Analog
computer works on supply of continuous signal and display continuous speed Thus we conclude
that an analog computer is special purpose computer but cannot give accuracy more than .
2 Digital computers:-
As its name suggest it works with digits i 0s and 1s.in other words digits computers is a counting
device .All the expressions are coded with binary digits is called a bit information is represented
in digital computer in groups of bits .
3 Hybrid computer:-
It is a combination of Analog computers used in continuous system also non-linear discrete
features of a digital computer such as storing values logical operations and switching. These
computers are mostly used with process control equipment in continuous production plants
like all refineries etc. and used at places where signals as well as data are to be entered
B. According to Purpose
On the basic of purpose, computers can be classified into following two types.
a. Special purpose computers
b. General purpose computers
a. Special purpose computers: -
Special purpose computers are those computers which are designed to perform some specific
task or job .For example, computers used for weather forecasting satellite launching medical
diagnostics are special purpose computers.
b. General purpose computers:-
General purpose computers are the computers which are designed, not to perform only specific
tasks, instead they are designed to handle a variety of applications for example, computers used
in schools, colleges and offices are general purpose computers.
C. According to size and storage capacity
On the basis of size and storage capacity, computers can be divided into following four types:-
1. Micro Computers
2. Mini Computers
3. Mainframe Computers
4. Super Computers
1. Micro Computers:-
Micro computers is a digital computer whose processing unit consists of one or more
microprocessors, one or more input / output units and sufficient memory to execute instructions.
They are used in schools, homes, office etc. Some popular micro computer is IBM system 123,
Apple 2 and 3 etc.
2. Mini Computers:-
Mini Computers are medium scale computer in the sense that they are faster than micro
computers. These computers have large storage capacity and can support up to 120 terminals.
Mini computers have operating systems with multitasking and network capabilities enabling
them to serve more than one user e-g 1BM, PDP-1 etc.

3. Mainframe computers:-
Mainframe computers are general’s purpose computers which are designed to handle all type of
scientific and business application with large volume of data instruction and information .These
can have large online secondary storage capacity and can support, variety of peripheral devices
like magnetic taps driver, hard desk drivers, visual display unit and telecommunication terminals
e.g. CDC 600, VAX 8842, IBM 3090/600, IBM 4381
Mainframe Computers are mainly used for the following applications:
1. Railways and Airlines Reservations
2. Banking Application
3. Commercial Application
4. Super computers:-
These computers are characterized by their large size and are very high processing speed and are
generally used for complex and scientific applications these are most powerful computer and are
very expensive .These can execute instructions in the large of 5 billion instructions per second .
e.g CRAY3, NEC-500, PARAM9000, PARAM10000, ANURAG.
These computers are mainly used for following application:
1. Weather forecasting.
2. Petroleum exploration and production.

Classification according to an era in which they were used,

The computer evolution is indeed an interesting topic that has been explained in some different
ways over the years, by many authors. According to The Computational Science Education
Project, US, the computer has evolved through the following stages:
The Mechanical Era (1623-1945)
Trying to use machines to solve mathematical problems can be traced to the early 17th century.
Wilhelm Schickhard, Blaise Pascal, and Gottfried Leibnitz were among mathematicians who
designed and implemented calculators that were capable of addition, subtraction, multiplication,
and division included The first multipurpose or programmable computing device was probably
Charles Babbage’s Difference Engine, which was begun in 1823 but never completed. In 1842,
Babbage designed a more ambitious machine, called the Analytical Engine but unfortunately it
also was only partially completed. Babbage, together with Ada Lovelace recognized several
important programming techniques, including conditional branches, iterative loops and index
variables.
Babbage designed the machine which is arguably the first to be used in computational science.
First Generation Electronic Computers (1937-1953)
These devices used electronic switches, in the form of vacuum tubes, instead of
electromechanical relays.
The earliest attempt to build an electronic computer was by J. V. Atanasoff, a professor of
physics and mathematics at Iowa State in 1937. Atanasoff set out to build a machine that would
help his graduate students solve systems of partial differential equations. By 1941 he and
graduate student Clifford Berry had 5 succeeded in building a machine that could solve 29
simultaneous equations with 29 unknowns. However, the machine was not programmable, and
was more of an electronic calculator.
Second Generation (1954-1962)
The second generation witnessed several important developments at all levels of computer
system design, ranging from the technology used to build the basic circuits to the programming
languages used to write scientific applications. Electronic switches in this era were based on
discrete diode and transistor technology with a switching time of approximately 0.3
microseconds. The first machines to be built with this technology include TRADIC at Bell
Laboratories in 1954 and TX-0 at MIT’s Lincoln Laboratory. Index registers were designed for
controlling loops and floating point units for calculations based on real numbers.
A number of high level programming languages were introduced and these include FORTRAN
(1956),
ALGOL (1958), and COBOL (1959). Important commercial machines of this era include the
IBM 704 and its successors, the 709 and 7094. In the 1950s the first two supercomputers were
designed specifically for numeric processing in scientific applications.
Third Generation (1963-1972)
Technology changes in this generation include the use of integrated circuits (ICs) semiconductor
devices with several transistors built into one physical component, semiconductor memories,
microprogramming as a technique for efficiently designing complex processors and the
introduction of operating systems and timesharing.
The first ICs were based on small-scale integration (SSI) circuits, which had around 10 devices
per circuit (‘chip’), and evolved to the use of medium-scale integrated (MSI) circuits, which had
up to 100 devices per chip. Multilayered printed circuits were developed and core memory was
replaced by faster, solid state memories.
In 1964, Seymour Cray developed the CDC 6600, which was the first architecture to use
functional parallelism. By using 10 separate functional units that could operate simultaneously
and 32 independent memory banks, the CDC 6600 was able to attain a computation rate of one
million floating point operations per second (Mflops). Five years later CDC released the 7600,
also developed by Seymour Cray. The CDC 7600, with its pipelined functional units, is
considered to be the first vector processor and was capable of executing at ten Mflops. The IBM
360/91, released during the same period, was roughly twice as fast as the CDC 660.
Fourth Generation (1972-1984)
Large scale integration (LSI - 1000 devices per chip) and very large scale integration (VLSI -
100,000 devices per chip) were used in the construction of the fourth generation computers.
Whole processors could now fit onto a single chip, and for simple systems the entire computer
(processor, main memory, and
I/O controllers) could fit on one chip. Gate delays dropped to about 1ns per gate. Core memories
were replaced by semiconductor memories.
Large main memories like CRAY 2 began to replace the older high speed vector processors, such
as the CRAY 1, CRAY X-MP and CYBER In 1972, Dennis Ritchie developed the C language
from the design of the CPL and Thompson’s B. Thompson and Ritchie then used C to write a
version of UNIX for the DEC PDP-11. Other developments in software include very high level
languages such as FP (functional programming) and Prolog (programming in logic).
IBM worked with Microsoft during the 1980s to start what we can really call PC (Personal
Computer) life today. IBM PC was introduced in October 1981 and it worked with the operating
system (software) called ‘Microsoft Disk Operating System (MS DOS) 1.0. Development of MS
DOS began in October 1980 when IBM began searching the market for an operating system for
the then proposed IBM PC and major contributors were Bill Gates, Paul Allen and Tim Paterson.
In 1983, the Microsoft Windows was announced and this has witnessed several improvements
and revision over the last twenty years.
Fifth Generation (1984-1990)
This generation brought about the introduction of machines with hundreds of processors that
could all be working on different parts of a single program. The scale of integration in
semiconductors continued at a great pace and by 1990 it was possible to build chips with a
million components - and semiconductor memories became standard on all computers. Computer
networks and single-user workstations also became popular.
Parallel processing started in this generation. The Sequent Balance 8000 connected up to 20
processors to a single shared memory module though each processor had its own local cache.
The machine was designed to compete with the DEC VAX-780 as a general purpose Unix
system, with each processor working on a different user’s job. However Sequent provided a
library of subroutines that would allow programmers to write programs that would use more than
one processor, and the machine was widely used to explore parallel algorithms and programming
techniques. The Intel iPSC-1, also known as ‘the hypercube’ connected each processor to its own
memory and used a network interface to connect processors. This distributed memory
architecture meant memory was no longer a problem and large systems with more processors (as
many as 128) could be built. Also introduced was a machine, known as a data-parallel or SIMD
where there were several thousand very simple processors which work under the direction of a
single control unit.
Both wide area network (WAN) and local area network (LAN) technology developed rapidly.
Sixth Generation (1990)
Most of the developments in computer systems since 1990 have not been fundamental changes
but have been gradual improvements over established systems. This generation brought about
gains in parallel computing in both the hardware and in improved understanding of how to
develop algorithms to exploit parallel architectures. Workstation technology continued to
improve, with processor designs now using a combination of RISC, pipelining, and parallel
processing.
Wide area networks, network bandwidth and speed of operation and networking capabilities
have kept developing tremendously. Personal computers (PCs) now operate with Gigabit per
second processors, multi-Gigabyte disks, hundreds of Mbytes of RAM, colour printers, high-
resolution graphic monitors, stereo sound cards and graphical user interfaces. Thousands of
software (operating systems and application software) are existing today and Microsoft Inc. has
been a major contributor.
Finally, this generation has brought about micro controller technology. Micro controllers are
’embedded’ inside some other devices (often consumer products) so that they can control the
features or actions of the product. They work as small computers inside devices and now serve as
essential components in most machines
TOPIC 2
COMPUTER STRUCTURE
Block diagram of a computer

A computer can process data, pictures, sound and graphics. They can solve highly complicated
problems quickly and accurately.
Input Unit:
Computers need to receive data and instruction in order to solve any problem. Therefore we need
to input the data and instructions into the computers. The input unit consists of one or more input
devices. Keyboard is the one of the most commonly used input device. Other commonly used
input devices are the mouse, floppy disk drive, magnetic tape, etc. All the input devices perform
the following functions.
Accept the data and instructions from the outside world.
Convert it to a form that the computer can understand.
Supply the converted data to the computer system for further processing.
Storage Unit:
The storage unit of the computer holds data and instructions that are entered through the input
unit, before they are processed. It preserves the intermediate and final results before these are
sent to the output devices.
It also saves the data for the later use. The various storage devices of a computer system are
divided into two categories.
1. Primary/Main Storage: Stores and provides data very fast. This memory is generally used to
hold the program being currently executed in the computer, the data being received from the
input unit, the intermediate and final results of the program. The primary memory is temporary
in nature. The data is lost, when the computer is switched off. In order to store the data
permanently, the data has to be transferred to the secondary memory. Very small portion of
primary storage memory is permanent is nature eg. ROM which holds the data permanent even if
power off.
The cost of the primary storage is more or compared to the secondary storage. Therefore most
computers have limited primary storage capacity
2. Secondary/Backing Storage: Secondary storage is used like an archive. It stores several
programs, documents, data bases etc. The programs that you run on the computer are first
transferred to the primary memory before it is actually run. Whenever the results are saved, again
they get stored in the secondary memory. The secondary memory is slower and cheaper than the
primary memory.
Some of the commonly used secondary memory devices are Hard disk, CD, etc.,
Memory Size:
All digital computers use the binary system, i.e. 0’s and 1’s. Each character or a number is
represented by an 8 bit code.
 The set of 8 bits is called a byte.
 A character occupies 1 byte space.
 A numeric occupies 2 byte space.
 Byte is the space occupied in the memory.
The size of the primary storage is specified in KB (Kilobytes) or MB (Megabyte). One KB is
equal to 1024 bytes and one MB is equal to 1000KB. The size of the primary storage in a typical
PC usually starts at
16MB. PCs having 32 MB, 48MB, 128 MB, 256MB memory are quite common.
Output Unit:
The output unit of a computer provides the information and results of a computation to outside
world.
Printers, Visual Display Unit (VDU) are the commonly used output devices. Other commonly
used output devices are floppy disk drive, hard disk drive, and magnetic tape drive.
Arithmetic Logical Unit:
All calculations are performed in the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) of the computer. It also does
comparison and takes decision. The ALU can perform basic operations such as addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division, etc and does logic operations viz, >, <, =, ‘etc. Whenever
calculations are required, the control unit transfers the data from storage unit to ALU once the
computations are done, the results are transferred to the storage unit by the control unit and then
it is send to the output unit for displaying results.
Control Unit:
It controls all other units in the computer. The control unit instructs the input unit, where to store
the data after receiving it from the user. It controls the flow of data and instructions from the
storage unit to ALU. It also controls the flow of results from the ALU to the storage unit. The
control unit is generally referred as the central nervous system of the computer that control and
synchronizes it’s working.
Central Processing Unit:
The control unit and ALU of the computer are together known as the Central Processing Unit
(CPU). The
CPU is like brain performs the following functions:
• It performs all calculations.
• It takes all decisions.
• It controls all units of the computer.
A PC may have CPU-IC such as Intel 8088, 80286, 80386, 80486, Celeron, Pentium, Pentium
Pro, Pentium II, Pentium III, Pentium IV, Dual Core, and AMD etc.
Review Questions
1. List down THREE safety precautions one should observe when entering a Computer
laboratory.
2. Why must foods and beverages be kept out of the computer room?
3. Discuss TWO main causes of fire or accidents in the computer laboratory and give the
precautions that should be taken to guard against them.
4. (a). Give Six safety precautions you should take when handling diskettes.
(b). Where should the arrow on a diskette point when being inserted into the floppy drive.
5. List THREE things that can spoil a Printer if they are not of the correct specification, and
explain what damage may be caused.
6. Why are powder based and water-based fire extinguishers not allowed in the computer room?
7. Identify three facilities that will ensure proper ventilation in a room.
8. Give THREE reasons why it is important to regularly service the computer.
9. Explain precisely how the Keyboard, mouse, and other Input devices should be arranged to
avoid strain while working on the computer.
10. (a). What name is given to alternative sources of power in a computer.
(b). Name any THREE sources of power in a computer system.
11. State two reasons why a computer needs to be connected to a stable power supply.
12. State two functions of the UPS.
13. State two reasons that are likely to cause eye-strain in the computer room.
TOPIC 4
SOFTWARE AND HARDWARE
A Computer system consists (or is made up) of 4 basic elements that are interrelated and work in
unison. The four elements are:

(1). Hardware.
(2). Software.
(3). Liveware (Computer user).

HARDWARE.

Hardware is a term used to describe all the physical & tangible devices that make up a computer
system, i.e. it consists of the parts that can be touched and felt.

Hardware include all mechanical & electronic elements found in the computer, e.g., the System
Unit, Transistors, Diodes, bus systems such as electronic paths (channels), the Input devices
(e.g., Keyboard, Mouse), Output devices (e.g., Monitor) & the Storage devices.

Hardware devices enable the user to enter information into a computer, view the output on
screen, print out our work, store and process the work.

The hardware elements of a computer are generally grouped/ sub-divided into 4 major
categories:-

1). Input devices.

Input devices are used to communicate with a computer. They enable the computer user to
enter data, information & programs into the computer. They also let the user issue
commands to the computer.

An Input device converts the input information into machine-sensible/ readable form.
 Examples.

* Keyboard. * Mouse.

* Key-to-disk. * Key-to-Tape.

* Scanner. * Light pen.

* Trackball * Video digitizers.

* Graphics pads (Tablets). * Joystick / Game paddles.

* Speech Recognition devices. * Digital & Web cameras.

* Voice input devices, e.g. Microphones.

* Document readers, such as, Magnetic Ink Character Reader (MICR), Optical Mark Reader

(OMR) & Optical Character Reader (OCR).

*Point Of Sale terminals, such as, Bar code readers, Kimball Tag readers, Card readers, &

Badge readers.

2). Central Processing unit – CPU (Processor).

The CPU is composed of the Main Memory, the ALU & the Control unit.

The CPU performs the necessary operations on the data held within the memory. It interprets
& processes all the instructions from the Input devices.

The CPU is housed in the computer casing (System Unit), which contains all the major
components of a computer system.

3). Output devices.

Output devices are used to extract/ disseminate processed data from the computer. They
display the results of all the information that has been processed.

They also convert machine-coded output results from the Processor into a form that can be
understood by people.

Examples.

* Screen (Monitor/ Visual Display unit – VDU). * Printers

* Audio Response units. * Graph Plotters.

* Sound output devices, e.g. Speakers. * Microforms.

4). Storage devices.
These are devices used to store data & programs in computers. They include; Hard disks,
Floppy disks, Magnetic tape drives, Cassette Tapes, Optical disks (CD-ROMs), and Random
Access Memory (RAM).

Note. All these storage devices differ in the way (technology) they store data & the
capacities of data they can hold.

Characteristics of Computer Hardware.

1. Hardware consists of parts that one can touch and feel.

2. Hardware determines what software will be used in the computer.
3. Computer hardware is expensive to acquire.
4. Hardware devices can only be made by specialist hardware engineers.
5. Not easy to change particular hardware components.
SOFTWARE.

 These are the programs & data used in a computer system that enable it perform a no. of
specific functions.
 Software is a set of computer programs that guides the computer in each and every
activity that happens inside the computer during data processing operations.
Software also includes the associated documentation (descriptions of the programs).

When used in a computer, Software instructs the computer to carry out specific processing tasks,
e.g. produce the year end Balance sheet.
Characteristics of Computer Software.

1. They are the programs & data used in a computer system.

2. A Computer Program is usually a set of computer instructions written in any of the
computer programming languages, e.g. BASIC, PASCAL, etc.
3. It is not possible to see a program in memory as it exists in magnetic spots, however, you can
see & touch a listing of the program on the computer screen.
4. Software enable computer hardware to operate effectively. In other words, software is meant
to put ‘life’ into the hardware.
5. Software is flexible, i.e., the software used in a particular computer is relatively easy to
change.
6. Software is cheaper compared to hardware devices.
7. Computer software can be written by the user, a Programmer or a Software house.
LIVEWARE

Liveware is a term used to refer to the computer end-user. They are the people who coordinate
the various activities, which are necessary to get a computer system to perform useful tasks.

They include; Data entry operators, Computer Operators, Programmers, System Analysts, Data
Processing Managers, Database Administrators, Computer Librarians, and the other staff directly
or indirectly involved in the running of the system operations.

Apart from the hardware and software elements, the user is also seen as an integral part of the
computer system as shown in the figure below;
 ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS OF A MICROCOMPUTER SYSTEM.

A microcomputer consists of 4 electronic parts:

1). Input devices.

2). Central Processing Unit (CPU), also called the Processor.
3). Output devices.
4). Memory storage devices, which consist of Main memories & Secondary memories.

Control Unit (CU)

- Interprets stored instructions;

- Issues commands to all elements of the

Input device computer Output device

Arithmetic & Logic Unit (ALU)

Input data & Gives out information
instructons (result of data processing)
Performs arithmetc & logic operatons

Main memory (Primary storage)

- Holds data, instructions & results of

Bus Bus
processing

Secondary (Backing) storage

To supplement Main storage

 Bus

Fig. 1.2: A computer model

 Data & instructions to be processed are supplied to the computer memory by the user with
the help of Input devices.
 The CPU performs the desired operations on the data and the results of calculations/
processing are communicated to the user through the Output devices.
 The data and/or instructions not being used immediately by the computer are held
permanently in the Backing storage, for retrieval any time it is required by the user.

INPUT DEVICES.

Before a computer can process any data, it must be given the data & program instructions by use
of an Input device.

Input is a term used to describe all that goes into the computer memory (usually the raw data &
instructions) to await processing.

Input involves entering data & instructions into the computer by use of suitable devices.

FUNCTIONS OF INPUT DEVICES.

An input device performs the following functions/ tasks:

1. Accepts data & instructions from the user into the computer system.
2. Read data from the medium on which it is stored.
3. Converts the human-readable data into electronic/machine-readable form (i.e. a form that can
be understood by the computer)
4. Accepts commands for running, halting or aborting a program from the user.
5. Data input can either be Online or Off-line.
Once the data is entered into the computer, it finally enters the Main storage.

Exercise.

1. Give THREE main functions of a computer input device.

2. State four examples of input devices you know.
Classification of Input devices.

Input devices can be classified according to how they are used to enter data into a computer.
These include.
(a). Keying devices.
(b). Pointing devices such as the Mouse, Trackball, etc.
(c). Scanning and other data capture devices, e.g., Scanners, Digital cameras, etc.
Data capture devices are those devices that automatically capture data from the source.

(d). Speech recognition or Voice input devices such as Microphones.

(e). Touch screen and Digitizers.

KEYING DEVICES.

Type of keying devices

 Traditional keyboard
 Flexible keyboard
 Ergonomic keyboard
 keypad.

POINTING DEVICES.

These are the input devices that enter data or instructions by controlling a pointer on the screen.

Examples of pointing devices are; Mouse, Trackball, Joystick, and Light pen.

MOUSE.

A mouse is a pointing device that rolls on a small ball and is used to control the movement of the
cursor (or, a pointer) on the computer screen.
Types of mouse
 Traditional mouse
 Optical mouse
 Cordless mouse
The mouse is mostly used with Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs). It issues commands to the
computer by activating certain simple graphic images called Icons displayed on the screen.

Advantages of using a Mouse.

1. The mouse is easy to learn & convenient to use. This is because; it is used to select options
(icons) displayed on the screen.
2. It is inexpensive.
3. Most modern software includes an option to use it.
4. It performs operations much easier & much more quickly than a keyboard. It is very fast to
work with as it lets the user provide simple “point” & “click” instructions to the computer.
5. Can be used in art and design work because; it allows diagrams to be drawn & modified
easily.

Disadvantages of using a Mouse.

1. The mouse cannot be used to input text easily.

2. It is relatively slow for selecting menu options. A user who is familiar with the keyboard
commands can select the options more quickly.
3. It is not very accurate for drawing purposes.
4. The mouse requires a flat surface to operate.
TRACKBALL.

A Trackball works just like the mouse, but instead of moving it on a flat surface, it has a ball
fixed on its top which is rolled using the index finger.

As the ball rotates, it moves a pointer on the screen. The user can then click its button to execute
the selected command.

The advantage of a trackball over the mouse is that, a Trackball doesn’t require a flat surface for
movement.

Note. Today some computers come with a trackball on top of a Keyboard and a Mouse.

LIGHT PEN.

A Light Pen is a hand-held device similar in shape to a ball-point pen, and has a light sensitive
point. It consists of a pen-like device called a stylus connected by a cable to a computer
terminal.

A Light pen is used together with a graphic VDU that is able to sense light shining on the screen
using special hardware & software. A Light pen does not emit light but instead, it reacts to the
light emitted by the display using a photosensitive detector at its base.

When the pen is moved across the screen, its position is sensed because of the light it produces.

√ A Light pen provides a direct input mode. It can be used to read data directly from the source
document. It allows the user to point directly to an object on the screen, thus identifying it to
the screen.
√ Light pens can be used to read bar-codes on the different items.
√ It can also be used to select items from a given list of ‘menus’ displayed on the screen by
simply pointing the pen at the item required & then pressing a button on the pen.
√ Light pens are usually used as design aids - they can be used to draw images on the screen,
which can be printed. They can also be used to indicate a point on a screen or pad, for
example, to select options for drawing.
TOUCH-SENSITIVE SCREENS.

A Touch-sensitive screen uses the human finger as the input medium, (i.e. one can select items
or options from a given list by touching the screen with a finger).

This method of input is usually used with a VDU, which is able to sense the touched points on
the screen.

When the user touches the screen with a finger, it blocks out the light emitted from that portion
of the screen. The computer detects the position of the finger. The screen can then determine
which part is being touched, and therefore, which selection is required.

Touch screens are mostly used in public places like banking halls, hotels, in airports (to provide
guidance information), etc.

Notes.

• Both the Light pen & the Touch provide fast input modes.
• There is no typing or printing required; however, they operate under the influence of complex
programs.
JOYSTICKS / GAME PADDLES.

These are hand-held Input devices, which enable the user to interact with a program. They are
used for playing computer games.

A Joystick is an input device that looks like a car gear lever. It is an analogue-to-digital
converter where the input involves moving the control lever sideways, upwards or downwards to
control the movement of the cursor on the screen.

Just like the mouse, it has a button which is used for selecting an item. It is commonly used in
playing video games.

A Game paddle may consist of a button, which can be pressed by the user to input data to the
program. When the program senses that the button has been pressed, it takes the appropriate
action, such as, firing a missile or reversing the direction of a tank.

A Game paddle can also consist of a dial which when rotated; it conveys information to the
program. The program must immediately act on the information supplied by the dial setting, e.g.
a goalkeeper may be moved across the face of the goal to intercept a shot.

Note. Data processing should be very fast.

DIGITIZERS.

The Digitizers are input devices that convert graphical drawings or images on the paper or other
material into digital data and convey them to the computer memory.

Digitizers are slow, but easy to handle and errors are hardly present.

1. GRAPHICS PADS/ TABLETS.

Graphic Tablets are used for entering drawings directly into the computer.

A Graphics tablet consists of a pad or tablet (that is sensitive to touch) & a pointing device,
which is similar to a ball-point pen called a stylus.

A paper is placed on the graphic pad & the user can trace lines and draw pictures using the
pen. As the stylus moves on the tablet, the tablet senses the pressure on it & translates it into
digital signals giving its corresponding position on the screen. It then converts this ‘pressure’
into x-y co-ordinates, which describe what is being drawn. This data is then relayed to the
computer, which can display the drawings on the screen or have them printed.

Uses of Graphic Tablets.

Graphic tablets are mostly used;

(a). In Engineering & Architectural design as it lets the user create his/her own images. It is
very easy for the user to ‘try out’ different designs.
(b). In Computer-Aided Design work as diagrams & maps can be traced or drawn &
transferred into the computer memory to be further worked on using Graphics programs
(c). By Banks & Insurance companies to verify signatures. A signature written on a pad is
compared against another formerly stored in the computer.
(d). Pads are also good at detecting forgeries.
2. VIDEO DIGITIZERS.
These consist of special hardware & software, which converts video signals frame-by-frame
into a digital representation in computer memory, which can be saved on disk, if necessary.
A sequence of frames can have graphics, cartoons, text added, etc.

DIGITAL CAMERAS.

A Digital camera stores its images in digital form. These images can then be streamed (entered)
directly into a computer for editing or printing by connecting the camera to a computer using a
special cable.

There are 2 types of digital cameras; one that can take still (motionless) images, i.e.,
photographs, and another that takes motion pictures (video).
VOICE INPUT DEVICES (Speech Recognition Devices - SRD).

Voice recognition is a type of input method where a Microphone connected to a computer

system (through some extra circuitry) is used to enter data in form of spoken words into the
computer.

The SRD accepts spoken commands & convert them into electronic pulses/ signals, which can be
processed by the computer.

The user must train the system to recognize his/her voice by repeating each word in the
vocabulary several times. Each word is analyzed & filed for identification.

Uses of Voice Input devices.

(a). Voice input is a fast & easier method mostly suitable for the handicapped especially those
with impaired hands.
(b). In Security & Access control – Each person has a unique ‘Voiceprint’ that can be used for
identification. This approach could be used in; -
- Electronic Money transfer.

- House/ Car security using voice activated locks.

- Office security for room access.

(c). In Voice-activated toys & games.

(d). In Quality control & automation (computerization/mechanization) in factories.
A checker whose hands are busy does not have to stop working to make entries in log books,
instead he/she can simply give a running (spoken) comments on the goods he/she is
examining. For example, in Japan, speech input is used to order robots about.

(e). In Automated materials handling – in airports, handler’s give spoken commands that direct
the luggage to the appropriate conveyor belt.
(f). In Computer-Aided Design (CAD) – A designer, e.g. of buildings, working at a terminal can
call up design patterns which are frequently used, instead of having to punch catalogue nos.
into a Keyboard.
Limitations (disadvantages) of Speech Input/Recognition devices found Today.

1. Homophones – some words have same sounds.

2. Word separation.
The speech must be “clipped” i.e. each word must be followed by a short period of silence.
This enables the device to recognize the end of each word. If this is not done, the device
might not be able to tell the difference between ‘Command” and “Come and”, depending on
the accent of the speaker.
3. Speaker variability.
The speed, tone (quality of sound), accent, loudness and pronunciation of an individual
speaker can vary

Voice input is complex to develop, and it does not take care of speech related problems such
as accents and tone. This implies that the device must learn the unique speech of an
individual.

4. Limited vocabulary understood & the no. of speakers they can recognize.
Most speech systems can recognize a limited, standard vocabulary of spoken words. The
simplest SRD can recognize the voice of only one speaker. .

The device must also be ‘taught’ the voice patterns of the speaker. For example, if a device
can store a vocabulary of 25 words, the user will speak the 25 chosen words into the device.
The device then stores the patterns for the spoken words. Later, when the user speaks a
word, the device compares the pattern of the word spoken with those patterns it had
previously stored. If a match is found, the word is recognized. If not, the speaker may be
requested to repeat the word or use a synonym (a word that means almost the same thing).

5. The response rates of these devices are still relatively slow.

When you compare the no. of words in English & the total no. of words that can be said at a
given point, show that speech recognition is slow.

6. Speech input is complex to develop & is still at the early stages of development.
Review Questions.

1. Explain briefly how the following types of devices work.

(a). Speech recognition.
(b). Graphic (digitizing) tablet.
(c). Touch sensitive screen.
(d). Light pen.
2. State TWO advantages and TWO disadvantages of using Speech recognition devices.
SCANNING DEVICES.

These are devices that enter (capture) data into the computer directly.

IMAGE SCANNERS.

A Scanner is used to input pictures or photographs into the computer. This is because a
Keyboard or a Mouse cannot perform these tasks.

Scanners are usually used to capture existing documents in an electronic form into the computer
for further processing or incorporating into other documents.
It converts text & graphics into machine sensible format. Once the text & graphics are scanned,
the images can be manipulated by changing the colors, the sharpness and contrast.

There are 2 main types of Scanners: -

(a). Page scanner:

This is a desktop machine that looks like a small photocopier. It scans a whole page at a
time. An example is the Flatbed scanner.

Using this scanner, one can scan text, a real object or a picture by placing it on a glass plate
exactly the way a photocopying machine works. The text or the picture scanned is displayed
on the screen or saved so that one can edit or print it.

(b). Hand scanner:

A Hand scanner is held in the hand and passed over a document.

Scanners are very useful when large amounts of existing documents need to be converted into
electronic form for feeding into a computer system.

For example, if the contents of the Bible are to be entered into a computer system, you can either
type everything using a Word-processor, or scan each of the pages and import them into a word-
processor, which is faster and also more accurate.

Each character is compared to all known shapes or patterns so that the appropriate code can be
entered into the computer.

DOCUMENT READERS.

A Document reader is an input device, which can read data directly from source documents,
such as bank cheques, & convey it to the computer in form of electronic signals.

Types of codes on documents that can be recognized by a Document reader: -

(i). Marks – short lines made by hand, usually in pencil on a document.

(ii). Characters – hand-written (e.g. on meter-reading) or printed in magnetic ink on cheques.
(iii). Printed lines – e.g. the bar codes.
Document readers can be classified into; Optical readers and Magnetic Readers.

Optical Readers.

Optical readers use the principles of light to sense the document contents or to capture data. A
special type of concentrated beam of light is passed over the object, image or text which needs to
be entered into the computer. The reader converts the data into digital form, and then passes it to
the computer for processing
There are 2 types of Optical readers: Optical Character Reader (OCR) & Optical Mark
Reader (OMR).

Magnetic Readers.

They use the principles of magnetism to sense the document characters that have been written
using magnetized ink.

Example; Magnetic Ink Character Reader (MICR).

OPTICAL CHARACTER READER (OCR).

Optical Character Recognition (OCR) is a data capture technique, which enables the computer
to read printed or hand-written documents directly.

The characters are formed onto the document by a Typewriter or computer Printer using a
special type font. Handwriting can also be recognized if the characters have been carefully/well
formed.

The reading is done by OCR, which can be connected directly to the computer. An OCR is able
to distinguish one character from another by its shape.

As the OCR reads/ scans the document, each character reflects different amounts of light, which
is sensed by the OCR using a photoelectric device & converts the shape sensed into electronic
signals. These signals represent a particular pattern.

Note. The Reader has a memory that stores reference patterns for a given character set or font.

The sensed pattern is then compared with the stored patterns of the characters, which the reader
can recognize. If a match is found, the character sensed is identified; otherwise, the document
may be rejected by the reader.

Uses of Optical Character Recognition devices.

OCR devices are used by companies that do a large amount of processing on a regular basis. For
example, Public utility companies, Insurance companies, Airlines, Banks & the Postal service
(for reading postal codes).

 Public utilities – OCR is used to process documents produced as output and which can be re-
used as input by the computer. For example, an Electricity bill has a returnable slip, which is
printed with all the information required for re-input into a computer, i.e., customer code and
amount owing. If the customer pays the exact amount stated, the returned portion of the bill is
used for direct input to the computer.
 Used in Sales Order forms.
The forms can be printed by the computer with standard data, e.g. Stock codes, Account code,
etc. The Salesman then enters details of the order form and returns it for OCR processing.
 Used in Stock-taking sheets.
The computer can print out stock sheets in OCR characters. The stock checker then enters the
actual stock quantities on the form in careful handwriting. The sheet can then be optically
read into the computer for amending the stock records.

Disadvantages of OCR.

(i). The document should be handled carefully (e.g. it should not be folded or creased) for
accurate reading.
(ii). Document size & type area may be limited for accurate reading.
(iii). It requires special typing & character formation and a paper with the required quality.
The user must make sure that characters are well-formed; if they are not, reading errors may
arise, making output results unreliable.

OPTICAL MARK READER (OMR).

The documents are pre-printed with predefined data positions. These positions can then be
marked by, let say, a pencil.

The OMR detects the presence or absence of a mark on a form by sensing the reflected light of
these positional marks. The reader is then used to convert the marks into computer-readable data
& send the value of the sensed data into the computer in form of electronic signals.

The accuracy of an OMR depends on the marks being made properly. If a mark is too light or
not solid enough, it may be misread, giving rise to errors.

Uses of OMR.

OMR forms are used in situations where the data to be input is simple, or the volume of data is
large enough since using other methods would be more expensive.

 Used in marking Multiple-choice examination papers where the answers are filled in a form
with special pencils.
The OMR can sense the presence of a pen or pencil mark. The person taking the test makes a
pencil mark in the box, which he/she thinks corresponds to the answer. An ‘OMR’ is then
used to ‘read’ the answers given by sensing the marks made. This data is then relayed to the
computer, which can then check the answers given and grade the paper.

 In Insurance premium collection.

 To read marked research questionnaires.
 In Supermarkets for stock recording.
 Traffic surveys.
Comparative advantages of OMR vs OCR.

(i). Speeds up data input. They ensure faster & more accurate processing of data.
They read data directly from the source document & enable data to be given directly to the
computer for processing.

With an OCR it is possible to read up to 10,000 A4 sized documents in 1hr.

(ii). They read data directly from the source document & therefore, no data preparation is
required.
(iii). Errors are easily corrected.
(iv). The documents can be re-used, thus saving on stationery.
(v). The contents of the documents are both human & machine sensible, hence reliable.
(vi). The sensitivity of an OMR can be altered to allow for different surface, pencils and inks.
(vii). OMR has a better recognition rate than OCR.
(viii). With an OCR, no typing or transcription/recording process is involved & therefore, not
prone to transcription errors.
Comparative disadvantages of OMR and OCR.

(i). They are expensive methods of input, because they require specialized techniques &
equipment.
(ii). Verification of marked data is difficult.
(iii). Documents may be difficult to design, understand and fill in.
(iv). The document reader will have to be reprogrammed for each new document design.
MAGNETIC INK CHARACTER READER (MICR).

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) is the machine recognition of characters printed
with Magnetic Ink.

The document characters are typed or printed in ink containing Iron (II) Oxide that gives them a
magnetic property.

After forming the characters onto the document, the inked characters are magnetized by passing
the document under a strong magnetic field.

During the reading process, the magnetized characters cause current to flow through the read
head depending on the magnetized surface area occupied by individual characters.

The reader differentiates characters depending on the magnetic patterns that bring different
amount of currents. The MICR recognizes these patterns & conveys them into the computer in
form of electrical signals.
Uses/ applications of MICR.

 Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) is used in banks to process the many cheques
being written each day.
The MICR mostly uses a font known as E13B, which consists of 14 characters (i.e. digits 0-9,
& four special characters).

A cheque is usually pre-printed with the Identification number of the bank, the Account
number of the customer, Serial number of the cheque, Branch number, using a special ink
containing particles of Iron Oxide (Magnetic Ink). When the cheque is presented for
payment, the amount is written on the cheque in magnetic ink, using a special device. The
cheque can then be read by a MICR. The data read is then transmitted directly to the CPU for
immediate processing, or can be stored on magnetic disk for latter processing.

 In Local Authorities for payment of rates by installment.

Advantages of MICR over OCR.

(i). An MICR can read data faster & accurate since the information on the document is usually
pre-printed.
(ii). Difficult to forge.
(iii). Document can still be read when folded, written on, etc. This means that, MICR is more
‘robust’.
(iv). A wider range of fonts can be used, including hand printing & normal type. However, there
is no standard-type font.
(v). Faster than OCR. It is possible to read about 2,400 A4 sized documents 1 minute.
POINT-OF-SALE (Pos) TERMINALS.

This is a general class of Input devices of which a Bar-code reader is an example.

A POS terminal can be used as an Input device when online processing is required. Data arising
out of a transaction (e.g. the purchase of an item) is entered on the terminal and is immediately
processed by the computer.

POS terminals are widely used in the Banks & computerized Wholesale or retail industries, such
as Supermarkets.

Each item in the store has a code; Universal Product Code (UPC) printed on it, that identifies
the item.

The POS terminal consists of a Numeric keypad & a few Control (Functional) keys for entering
data, a Screen and a Printer to print out the list of items and price for the customer.

The Item code, Quantity & Price of the goods purchased by the customer is entered into the POS
terminal directly by the operator. The terminal produces the customer receipt. The details of the
sales are then entered directly into a backing storage device and the Stock level is also
automatically decreased.

A Bar code reader, a Credit card or a Kimball tag Reader could be attached to a POS
terminal to reduce the data entry.

BAR-CODE READER.

This is a device used to read the bar-codes printed on many items in Supermarkets &
Pharmacies.

Each item is given a code known as Bar-code (a Bar-code is a set of parallel bars of varying
thickness & spaces of varying widths representing a number code). A space represents a “0”
while a bar represents a “1”. The coded data can be read by using the principles of light.

A computer is used to store the code of the items, item description, price, amount in stock, etc.

When a Bar-code reader is moved across the bars by the Cashier, the reader scans the bar codes
printed on the item using a laser beam, which generates electrical pulses corresponding to the
reflected light received. The bar code is then converted to a number (which is the code for the
item).

The interpreted data is sent to the computer memory in form of signals. These pulses are
compared with standard codes stored in the computer and is used to look up the price of the item.
The details of the price & description are printed out on a receipt for the customer. The Store
Inventory may also be updated at the same time.

Bar codes are also used in Library lending Systems. Each user is given a library card, which is
coded with his library User Number. The relevant details of the user; let say, Name, Address,
Telephone number, category of user (e.g., Staff or Student), No. of books borrowed, date of
expiry of the card, etc are stored in a file on a disk.

When the user wishes to borrow a book, a Bar-code reader ‘reads’ his card, and transmits the
code to the computer. The computer uses the code to retrieve the user’s record from disk.

The Library Assistant will then update the user’s record by entering the relevant information
such as the name (or number) of the book, the date borrowed & the date on which it is to be
returned.

Note. Bar-codes cannot be used on goods such as Fresh Fruits & Vegetables.
Advantages of using a Bar-code reader.

(i). They are very fast & accurate provided that the bar-code has been printed clearly. For
example, if the bar-code is soiled by dirty hands or has broken bars, errors may occur when
an attempt is made to read the code.
(ii). It is a cost-saving method.
(iii). Saves time. The prices do not have to be attached to each item in the store because the
items details are already held in a master file.
(iv). Does not require special skills to operate.
(v). It improves customer convenience.
Disadvantages of using a Bar-code reader.

(i). Requires standby facilities.

(ii). Requires very expensive equipments.
(iii). The prices are not stamped on the product, and therefore, high chances of incorrect data
being entered.
Review Questions.

1. (a). What are document readers?

(b). Describe various kinds of document readers.

2. (a). What is the difference between OCR and OMR?

(b). State two advantages & two disadvantages of each.

3. The diagram below shows coded data that could be input into a computer.

(i). What is the name given to the above method of input?

(ii). State TWO applications that would use this method.
(iii). For one of the applications you have given, state TWO items of information that
might be represented by the coded data.
(iv). State what hardware is needed to enter the coded information into a computer and
briefly describe how this hardware works.
4. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of the following:
(i). OCR.
(ii). OMR.
(iii). MICR.
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU) / PROCESSOR.

The CPU is described as the computer’s ‘brain’ that monitors all the computer operations. It is
the unit inside the computer where all software instructions, math and logic operations are
carried out.

In Microcomputers, the CPU is implemented in a single silicon device called a Microprocessor

(Computer chip), which is made by combining a very large no. of transistors together using a
technology referred to as Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI).

Notes.

 The CPU is one of the most expensive components of the Motherboard & also a very
delicate piece of equipment.
 The CPU has a label, such as “486” or “Pentium” to show its type, and the chip
manufacturer’s logo on it.
 It has a large fan (known as the Heat sink) screwed on top of it, that keeps the CPU cool
while the system is on. This is because the CPU gets very hot when it is in operation.
Functions of the Processor (Central processing unit).

1. To control the use of the Main memory in storing of data & instructions.
2. To control the sequence of operations within the computer.
3. To give commands to all parts of the system.
4. To carry out data processing.

Basic features (functional elements) of a Microprocessor system.

The Processor is made up of 3 major/ main components;

(i). Control Unit (CU).

(ii). Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU).
(iii). Main Memory Unit (MMU).
Other components include;

√ Registers.
√ Accumulator.
√ Buses.
Note. The elements making up the Computer system communicate through electronic paths
called Buses. The buses carry data, instructions, information, control commands and power
between the communicating elements.
CONTROL UNIT (CU).

The CU acts as the manager of the computer. Its main work is to control, supervise & co-
ordinate all the activities of the various units of the computer, enabling the machine to perform
useful tasks.

The CU is usually described as the Nerve centre of a computer system. It co-ordinates &
controls the activities of the different components of the computer system in the same way that
the brain directs the actions of the body.

The CU carries out the fetching, decoding & execution of the instructions. It fetches/ selects the
required instruction from Main storage, stores it in a no. of special Registers, interprets the
instructions, and causes the instruction to be executed by sending appropriate signals to the
appropriate hardware devices.

In order to execute an instruction, the CU must do the following:

 Fetch (get) the instruction from the Memory.

 Decode the instruction, i.e., determine what the instruction is saying. For example, whether
to ADD or COMPARE two numbers.
 Get the data required by the instruction. E.g., the two numbers.
 Activate the right circuits for the instruction to be obeyed, e.g. call into action the circuits
which perform addition.
Note. The CU automatically repeats this cycle of operations until either it is instructed to stop or
the last instruction has been executed.

The CU performs 1 step of the instruction in 1 clock pulse. The speed of processing will
depend on:

(i). CPU Frequency, i.e., time duration of 1 clock pulse.

(ii). The no. of steps involved in executing a full instruction.
(iii). The Access time of the computer, i.e., the time required to access any one memory
address.
Functions of the Control unit.

1. It co-ordinates & controls various parts of the computer system, namely; Main memory,
ALU & the Peripheral devices.
2. It maintains order & controls all the operations or activities inside the Processor.
The CU controls the activities of all the other units of the computer by using the appropriate
control signals. For example, it instructs the ALU on which arithmetic or logical operations
are to be performed.

3. It connects the required circuits to enable the ALU to process the data in storage, as specified
by the program.
4. It directs sequence of operations, i.e., it generates synchronization signals & manages
commands exchanged between the ALU, I/O units & the Memory.
5. It retrieves and interprets instructions from the Main storage & makes the computer to
execute these instructions by giving commands to the rest of the computer elements.
6. It controls the transfer of unprocessed data to the Main storage & results from the Main
storage.
7. It stores the results in the memory.
8. It determines the location of the memory that contains the next instruction to be retrieved.
9. It monitors the CPU operations & identifies problems, such as equipment malfunction,
illogical instructions or erroneous data finding its way into the system, and flashes them on
the computer screen.

ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT (ALU).

This is the part of the Processor that performs all the arithmetic operations, such as adding or
multiplying figures, & logical operations needed to solve a particular problem.

For example, if two numbers are to be added or multiplied, this is done by the ALU.

The ALU also performs Logic Functions, e.g., AND, NOT, OR, TRUE, FALSE & IF.

Functions of the ALU.

The ALU has 2 main functions

1. It carries out the Arithmetic operations.

2. It performs logical operations and comparison on data.
Other minor functions include;

√ It performs output of variable (logical) functions.

√ It performs branching of prefixed conditions.
ACCUMULATOR.

 It is a storage device in the A.L.U, where all the answers from both arithmetic & logical
operations are stored temporarily before being transferred to the memory.
 A Register in the ALU in which operands are placed, and in which arithmetical results are
formed.
1. Draw a block diagram for a simple Microcomputer showing its four main parts. Say what
each part does.
2. Describe the functions of each of the following in a Processor:
(a). Control unit.
(b). Arithmetic Logic unit.
(c). Accumulator.
(d). Internal Registers.
3. Draw a carefully well labeled diagram showing the architecture of a typical Microprocessor.

4. Explain in a sentence the function of each of the following components in a Control unit.
(a). Clock.
(b). Program Counter.
(c). Instruction Register.

5. Name the 3 stages/ phases of the computer processing cycle.

OUTPUT DEVICES

When the computer processes the data (or after the computer finds the solution to the problem),
it displays the results (or communicates the solution to whoever posed the question) by use of an
Output device.

The term Output is used to describe all that comes out, from the computer memory, or from the
processing stage of a data processing system to the external environment.

Output therefore, involves receiving information (processed data) from the computer through a
suitable device for external use.

An output device provides the user with the results from the computer.

FUNCTIONS OF OUTPUT UNITS.

1. Transmit the intermediate results & final results to the users.

2. Convey messages, e.g. error messages, to the operators.
3. Provide immediate response to queries/ questions.
4. They are used when writing onto the secondary storage media.
5. Accept the results produced by the computer (which are in coded form & hence cannot be
easily understood) & convert these coded results to human readable form.
The output produced by computers can be put into 2 broad categories: -

(a). Human-readable output, which serves the informational needs of people. This is a form
of output that is readily understandable by human beings, e.g., printed or drawn output.
(b). Machine-readable output, which is required/used for subsequent input to the computer.
In this case, the output may be temporarily stored on machine-readable media.
For example,

In the production of a payroll for a company, a payroll report is produced listing the amount each
employee must be paid. This report can then be used by the person responsible for issuing
cheques.
At the same time, an updated employee file is produced, say, on a tape. The tape will be used as
input to the computer for the next payroll run.

The quality, validity and usefulness of the output is influenced by the output facility used. The
following factors/ considerations determine the choice of output equipment and media.

(i). Suitability of the application.

(ii). The speed at which the output is required.
(iii). Whether a printed version is required.
(iv). The volume of the data.
(v). Cost of the method chosen as compared with the benefits to be derived.
DIVISIONS OF OUTPUT.

Output can further be classified as: -

1. Hardcopy output.
2. Softcopy output.
SOFTCOPY OUTPUT.

This is where the end results are displayed on a screen. The user can see the results, but cannot
touch them.

The output lasts for a short-time only, i.e., it is available only as long as it appears on the screen.

Examples of Softcopy Output devices.

 Visual Display Units (VDU) / Monitor.

 Audio Response Units.
 Speakers.
HARDCOPY OUTPUT.

Hardcopy implies that the output is permanent, i.e. it can be retained for an indefinite period.

The user can see & touch the results.

Hardcopy is desirable if the information or the results of the computer working is to be

maintained for future reference/ use.

Examples of Hardcopy Output devices.

 Printers.
 Graph Plotters.
 Microforms.
Exercise (a).

1. (i). What is the difference between “Hardcopy” and “Softcopy”?

(ii). Name TWO output devices which produce temporary output.

(iii). Name THREE output devices which produce permanent output.

2. What are the factors, which determine the choice of output media and device?

Exercise (b).

1. List FIVE different types of computer Output devices.

COMPUTER SOFTWARE.
Software refers to the various programs & data used in a computer system that enable it perform
a no. of specific functions.
Software instructs the computer on what to do and how to do it.
All programs (software) are written using programming languages.
Programmers usually write programs in Source Language (a language that is like broken
English). The Source language is then converted into Machine language; the language that the
computer can understand.
Machine language is usually in form of bits (series of 0’s & 1’s).

SOFTWARE FLEXIBILITY.
The Software used on a given computer is said to be flexible, i.e. it is relatively easy to change.
For example, in a home computer used for playing games, instead of buying a new machine each
time a new game is needed, you only need to ‘load’ a new program into the machine. Again, it is
relatively easy to change between games at will.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER SOFTWARE.

Computer software can be broadly classified/ divided into 2 categories: -
(1). System Software (programs).
(2). Application software (programs).
Note. Programming languages can also be considered part of software, because they form the
basis of grammar on which the program’s development is based.
The following figure illustrates the computer software family tree.

Exercise (a).
1. (i). What is computer software?
(ii). What are the characteristics of software?
2. What is meant by “Software flexibility”?
3. What is used to write programs?
4. (a). What name is given to the language in which programs are written?
(b). Give the name of the language that is understood by the computer.

Exercise (b).
1. (a). Define software.
(b). Draw a software family tree.
2. State the THREE types of software.
SYSTEMS SOFTWARE.
This is a set of programs, which is developed & installed in a computer system for the purpose of
developing other programs, and to enhance the functional capabilities of the computer system.
System programs control the operation of the various hardware parts & make them available to
the user. They also enable users make efficient use of the computing facilities in order to solve
their problems.
System programs manage the computer resources such as Printers, Memory, disks, etc, automate
its operations & make easier the writing, testing and debugging of users’ programs.
They also control the various application programs that we use to achieve a particular kind of
work.
Notes.
 System software are developed & installed by the manufacturer of the computer hardware.
This is because to write them, a programmer needs in-depth knowledge of the hardware
details of the specific computer.
 Some of the system software are supposed to put initial ‘life’ into the computer hardware and
are therefore, held permanently in the ROM.
Program routines that are permanently maintained in the computer’s memory are called
Resident software/ routines.
 System programs dictate how the programs relate to the hardware, and are therefore said to be
Hardware-oriented.
System programs consist of Operating Systems, Language translators (Assemblers, Compilers),
System utilities, and Device drivers.
System software is further sub-classified as:
(a). Operating system.
(b). System utilities.
EXAMPLES OF SYSTEM PROGRAMS.
(a). FIRMWARE (or Microprogram).
It refers to a series of special program instructions.
The Microprogram is held in the Control Unit (CU), and is used to interpret the external
Instruction set of a computer.
The Instruction set is the list of instructions available to the programmer that can be used to
give direct orders to the computer.
Firmware is fixed into the ROM, and cannot be changed.
Firmware is usually a combination of hardware and software. It deals with very low-level
machine operations, such as moving data, making comparison, etc, and thus acts as an
essential substitute for additional hardware.
(b). OPERATING SYSTEMS.
An Operating System is a set of programs designed to ensure the smooth running of the
computer system.
They are developed to manage all parts of the basic computer hardware & provide a more
hospitable interface to users and their programs.
It controls the way the way the software uses the hardware. This control ensures that the
computer system operates in a systematic, reliable & efficient manner as intended by the
user.
OS are supplied by the computer manufacturer. They are designed to reduce the amount of
time that the computer is idle, and also the amount of programming required to use a
computer.
(c). UTILITY SOFTWARE (Service programs).
Modern OS does a lot more than manage the hardware efficiently. It normally provides the
user with facilities that make the job of developing programs or doing something useful on
the computer much easier.
A Utility program is a program, which performs a generally useful task.
Utility programs are used by end-users to perform many of the routine functions &
operations such as, sorting, merging, program debugging, manage computer files, diagnose
and repair computer problems that occur, etc. They are normally supplied the
manufacturers to enable the computer to run more smoothly & efficiently.
(d). PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES.
A computer usually ‘works’ by executing a series of instructions called the Program. A
Computer Program is simply a sequence of numeric codes (‘0’s & ‘1’s). Each of these codes can
be converted directly by the hardware into simple instructions.

APPLICATION SOFTWARE.
Application programs are written to solve specific problems (or to handle the needs) of the end-
user in particular areas.
They interface between the user & system programs to allow the user to perform specific tasks.
Application software helps to solve the problems of the computer user, and are therefore said to
be user-oriented.
They are designed specifically to carry out particular tasks. For example, they can be used
to type & create professional documents such as letters, solve mathematical equations, draw
pictures, etc.
Notes.
 Application programs can be written by the user, programmers employed by the user, or by
a Software house (a company specializing in writing software).
 Application programs can be written with very little knowledge of the hardware details of a
specific computer, and can run on several different computers with little or no modification.
Application software falls into 2 main categories/groups: -
(i). General-purpose packages (Application packages).
(ii). Special-purpose applications (User programs).
General-purpose packages (Application packages).
They are usually pre-written programs made for non-specialists, in the home or business, and
may be used for a wide variety of purposes.
They are off-shelf programs that are developed & supplied by manufacturers, Bureaux &
software houses at a price.
They provide a general set of facilities that are used in dealing with similar types of tasks, which
arise in a wide variety of different application problems.
The range, quality and variety of the packages are continuously changing.
Examples of Application packages are: -

* Word processors * Spreadsheets.

* Databases * Graphic packages, etc.
Package - a set of fully described & related programs stored together to perform a specific task.
They are developed to solve particular problems in one or more organizations with little or no
alterations.

Advantages of Application packages as compared to other forms of applications.

(i). Packages save a lot time & programming effort, because the company buys the software
when it is ready-made.
(ii). Are relatively cheap to the user. These programs are usually sold in large numbers.
Again, the cost of developing the programs is effectively shared between the purchases.
(iii). They are appropriate for a large variety of applications.
(iv). Most packages are menu-driven, i.e., the user is provided with a set of options displayed on
the screen; hence, they are easy to learn & use, making them suitable for people with little
or no computing knowledge.
(v). Packages are extensively/thoroughly tested & debugged (has all errors corrected), i.e. if it
is a popular package, it is usually tried & approved by a large no. of people. The testing is
done by a pool of professional programmers and analysts.
(vi). Are usually provided with extensive documentation to help the user.
(vii). Relatively quick results are obtained.
(viii). The packages are generally portable. In addition, there is usually a maintenance
agreement between the supplier & the buyer.
(ix). Application packages can be rented, especially by users who might require to use them
only periodically, hence cutting on costs, e.g. maintenance.
Disadvantages (drawbacks) of Application packages.
(i). The package is produced to meet general needs (a wide variety of user’s needs) &
therefore, may not be ideal for a particular customer/ company.
(ii). The purchaser has no direct control over the package, because he/she is not involved in
developing it.
(iii). Packages cannot be modified.
The user may not be free to correct any routines/ functions of the package, because there is
always a maintenance guarantee & the application of the developer’s copyright acts.
(iv). A package may include extra facilities, which are not required by an individual user or
company.
(v). Sometimes, the package will allow only a clumsy solution to the task at hand.
(vi). In the case of Spreadsheet or Database, the user must still develop the application, which
requires a thorough knowledge of the capabilities of the package, which are usually quite
extensive.
(vii). The user must still provide documentation for the particular application that he/she has
created.
(viii). It is quite easy to forget the commands to use the package, especially if it is not
used frequently.
Special-purpose applications (User-developed/ in-house programs).
They are written to meet the specific needs of an organization.
They are usually customized (modified/ tailored) programs written by the user or a Software
house under contract, to perform a specific job.
They are developed by users to solve only the specific processing tasks in one organization,
and may not suit the needs of other organizations, hence the name In-house or Tailor-made
programs.
They are designed for a particular identifiable group of users such as Estate agents, farmers,
Hoteliers, etc.
They are usually aimed at providing all the facilities required for particular class of application
problem such as Payroll / Stock control.
Since the programs are occupation- specific; they sell fewer & tend to be more expensive.

Advantages of Special-purpose applications.

(i). The user gets a well tried & tested program, which he/she is able to use with confidence.
(ii). The user is able to quickly implement the results obtained from the use of the package.
Disadvantages of Special-purpose applications.
(i). Purchaser has direct control over the package, as he is involved in its production.
(ii). Are very expensive.

Factors to consider when buying an Application package.

The following are some of the factors that a buyer who is intending to acquire an Application
package should consider: -
1). Cost of the package in relation to the expected benefits against the cost of developing in-
house programs.
2). Compatibility: - (fitting) of the package with/within the existing computer resources, e.g.,
hardware, software, etc.
3). Whether there is maintenance support from the suppliers.
4). Whether there is accompanying documentation (the descriptions), which helps in using,
maintaining & installing the package.
5). The portability of the package, i.e. whether the package can be used on different families of
computers.
6). A good package is that which is easy to learn & use. This helps to determine the duration of
training that might be involved & the subsequent cost of training.
7). Before buying a particular package, its current users should be interviewed to find out
whether the package is successful and famous in the market.
Exercise.
1. (a). What do you mean by Application software?
(b). Describe the main forms of Application software.

Factors to consider when selecting computer hardware/software

Hardware factors.

Some factors considered when selecting a computer hardware are:

(a). Processor Speed.

Every computer has a clock that drives its operation. The Processor speed is the speed at
which the system Clock synchronizes the operations of the CPU & can be measured in
Hertz or Megahertz (1MHz = 1 million cycles per second).

The processing power of a computer depends on its Processor speed & the amount of data it
can handle at the same time.

(b). Memory capacity (amount of Main memory –RAM).

All computers have some amount of Random Access Memory (RAM). RAM is a section
of the Main memory, which is used for holding data & instructions required immediately by
CPU to perform a task.
(c). Warranty (Service contract/ assurance/ guarantee).
A Warranty is an agreement between the buyer and the seller that spells out terms and
conditions of, after selling a product in case of failure or malfunction.

A Warranty is usually the duration in which your computer is supposed to work without any
problem.

A good warranty should cover the following points:

1. Scope of cover, such as 6 months, 1 year, etc.

2. Callout response and liability agreement. .
3. Preventive maintenance.
(d). Cost of the system.
The cost of a computer system depends on:

1. Its Processing capability.

2. Its Size.
The cost of a computer is directly related to the size. Portable computers are more
expensive than their desktop equivalents, because of the superior technology involved to
manufacture smaller components without losing performance abilities.

3. Whether it is branded or a clone. Branded computers are more expensive that their
equivalent clones. This is because of their reliability and good after sale services.
(e). Upgradeability of the computer.
The type of the computer purchased should be upgradeable, i.e., it should allow upgrading
of the Processor & the Hard disk to make it suit your needs. The RAM memory can also be
upgraded/ increased by simply adding new memory modules into the memory slots on your
Motherboard.

(f). Compatibility of the system.

The hardware facilities of the computer should relate well with the different kind of devices
available. It must also support Plug-and-Play facilities.

This ensures that the computer system operates in a systematic, reliable, & efficient manner
as required by the user.

(g). Portability.
The size of the computer should be small so as to enhance portability. In other words, it
should be sufficiently light & hence easily transportable.

(h). User needs.

The computer hardware selected should be able to accommodate the user programs as well
as any other device which might be added; both hardware and software.
 User needs also determine the type of data that will be processed. Therefore, the type of
hardware chosen should be the most appropriate to satisfy the needs. For example, in a
Supermarket, a special device called a Point of Sale (POS) Terminal is most suitable to
record transactions.

(ix). Popularity of the computer manufacturer.

The computer must be from a well-known manufacturer. This can only be detected by use
of the brand names such as Compaq, Dell, IBM, and Hp.

(x). Availability of hardware spare parts.

The computer spare parts, i.e., Input and output devices, should be readily available.

(xi). Monitor.
Depending on preference, your choice for a monitor may depend on Size, resolution, and
the technology used to make it.

Currently, Flat panel displays have become a new market standard quickly replacing the
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT).

(xii). Multimedia capability.

Multimedia is the combination of video, audio, text, and images to provide an interactive,
creative, and effective way of producing and communicating information.

A multimedia system should have Speakers, CD/DVD drive, Sound card, and a SVGA
monitor. It should also have software that supports multimedia capability.

Software factors.

The following factors should be considered when selecting software:

(a). Authenticity of the software.

The term Authenticity refers to genuineness, validity or legitimacy of an item.

When acquiring software from the vendor, make sure it is the original copy that is
accompanied by the license and certificate of authenticity of the developer.

You should only use software of the major Software houses.

(b). Documentation of the programs.

Documentation refers to the manuals prepared by the developer having details on how to
install, use and maintain the software.

These include; Installation guide, Maintenance guide, User guide, a Reference manual, etc.

This documentation enables the user to work with the software with minimum guidance.
(c). User needs (requirements) of the software.
The needs of the user determine the type of operating system and application programs that
should be purchased..

(d). Reliability and security.

People are more comfortable with software that offers good security to confidential and
private information.

(e). User friendliness of the software.

The software purchased is expected to be “User-friendly”. User-friendliness is a measure
of how easily the user can be able to operate the computer.

Features/characteristics of User-friendly software.

 It should be easy to learn & use and also suit people with little or no computing
knowledge.
 The programs should enable the end-user to perform many of the routine functions &
operations such as, manage computer files, diagnose & repair computer problems that
enable the computer to run more smoothly & efficiently.
 The software should be self-contained, so that the user is not forced into accessing
manuals.
 The amount of effort & the information required for the user to get the software
complete required tasks should be minimal.
 The user should be made to feel in control of what is going on.
 The software should behave in a logical & consistent manner, enabling the user to
reason about what is going on and apply what has been learned.
(f). Cost of the Software.
The software purchased should be relatively cheap, and should be able to meet one’s needs.

Note. One cannot just buy a program because it is cheap. There are many other factors that
may force a person to buy far much more expensive software even with cheaper alternatives
available.

In case the off-the-shelf software does not fit the needs of the users, it would be advisable to
develop in-house software, even though they may be a bit more expensive.

(g). Compatibility and System requirements of the software.

Software compatibility refers to the ability of the computer to run depending on the system
setup (configuration).

Different programs will be loaded to different types of hardware. For example, some
software may only run on a computer that has 32MB or RAM and above. Any computer,
whose configuration is lower than this, is said to be incompatible.
 Therefore, the programs selected should relate (fit) well with/within the existing computer
resources, e.g., hardware facilities and ensure that the computer system operates in a
systematic, reliable & efficient manner as intended by the user.

Some software are not compatible (well suited), e.g. Apple Programs. Otherwise, it is
important that one reads the installation guide and system requirements that comes with the
software in order to avoid disappointment.

(h). Portability of the software.

Portability refers to whether a program can be copied or installed in more than one
computer.

The software should be Portable, i.e. it should also be able to run on several different types
of computers with very little or no modification (without re-writing the code).

Note. Although, most software in the market today are portable, some developers produce
software which can be installed on one machine only. This means that, if one has, say 20
computers, he/she should buy a license for each.

(ix). Standards of the software.

The software should be standardized, i.e. the version of the program should not be too low
or too high.

(x). Popularity of the software.

Before buying particular software, its current users should be interviewed to find out
whether the software is successful and famous in the market.

Exercise (a).

1. Identify and describe 8 hardware and 8 software factors that can be considered when
selecting a computer.
2. State and discuss four factors one would consider when purchasing computer software.
3. What hardware issues would one consider when buying a computer?
TOPIC 5
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Definition.
 An Operating system is a set of programs that is used to manage the basic hardware
resources of a computer.
 This is the main program that controls the execution of user applications, and enables the
user to access the hardware & software resources of the computer.
When the computer is switched on, the OS programs run & check to ensure that all parts of the
computer are functioning properly.

Operating system’s platform.

In a data processing environment, the user sees a computer as a group of application programs
that enable him/her to accomplish specific tasks.
However, application programs do not use the hardware devices directly. They send messages
through the operating system which has the capability to give instructions to the hardware to
perform a particular task.
The user communicates his/her intentions to the OS through the use of a special instruction set
known as Commands.

User

(Runs Applicaton programs)

Application software

(Send users requests to the OS)

Operating system

(Receives & controls executon of

Applicaton programs)

Hardware

(Receives & executes OS commands)

As in this diagram, the OS is a layer of software on top of the bare hardware, and is used to
manage all parts of computer hardware & also act as an interface between the user & the
computer.
The OS monitors & controls computer operations so that the user can do useful work on the
computer, and it also enables Application programs use the hardware in a proper, orderly and
efficient way.
An OS consists of a special program called a Supervisor (Kernel/ Executive), which is stored in
ROM of the Main Memory. The Supervisor/Kernel contains the most necessary commands and
procedures & controls the running of all other programs, each performing a particular service.
NB. The programs that make up the Operating system are too large to fit in main memory at one
time. These programs are usually installed on a direct access backing storage device, such as the
hard disk.
When the Supervisor needs a particular program, it is read from the disk & loaded into the RAM
memory, where it can be executed.

Reasons why an Operating system is needed in a computer (why operating systems were
developed).
i). Modern computer systems are so complex & fast such that they need internal control.
ii). To ensure that the full system software facilities are readily available.
iii). Due to the complexity of systems, jobs need to be controlled in what they are allowed to
do for security.
iv). To increase the throughput, i.e., to increase the amount of data that can be processed
through the system in a given period of time.
v). Improve communication between the user & the computer.
vi). To make complex tasks very simple for the user to carry out.
vii). It helps the computer to correct any problem that might occur.
When an error occurs that can cause the computer to stop functioning, a diagnostic
message is displayed. The meaning of the message is then checked in the computer
operations manual.
viii). Reduces job setup time.
When one job is running, other programs can be read onto the job queue. The
Input/Output devices can also be made ready without delay.
ix). Most computers allow many programs to be run & also many users to use the system at the
same time.
Devices/resources under the control of an Operating System.
A computer is composed of a set of software-controlled resources that enable movement, storage
and processing of data & information.
As a resource manager, the OS manages the following basic resources/ devices: -
1. Processor.
2. Main memory (RAM).
3. Secondary storage devices.
4. Input/Output devices and their Ports.
5. Communication devices and their Ports.
6. Files.
FUNCTIONS OF AN OPERATING SYSTEM.
The OS creates a working environment in which the user can run programs. The general
functions of the operating system are:
1. Processor management.
The processor is a scarce resource. It executes tasks called processes.
A Multi-tasking computer system can run several applications simultaneously. At times,
several tasks may require processing, hence creating competition. However, the CPU can
only execute one program at any one time.
Therefore, access to the CPU must be carefully controlled & monitored. The OS must
decide, which program will be allowed into the system, and for how long.
To do this, the OS arranges the tasks according to priority and has the ability to stop a
particular task to allow the processor to service another task.
2. Memory allocation & loading of programs.
 Programs must be loaded into memory before they can be executed, and moved out of
memory when they are no longer required. Therefore, before processing starts, the OS
ensures that the programs are transferred into the available memory location in the Main
memory from the backing store, e.g. a disk.
 At any one given time, a number of tasks may require the memory so that they can be
accessed & processed by the computer. The computer memory is a scarce resource, and
therefore, the OS must determine which task will remain in memory awaiting for
execution and which one will be sent back to secondary storage to wait.
 The OS keeps track of what parts of memory are in use and by which program, and what
parts are free.
 The OS also handles the data files used by the programs that are being executed by the
CPU.
 In addition, the OS ensures that storage space is provided for data generated by programs
& during data transfer operations such as, disk copying or printing.
3. Input/Output devices & ports management.
 Every computer has many Input & Output (I/O) devices. The OS controls the input from
& output to the various devices. It also tries to monitor the state of each I/O device and
signals any faults detected.
 During the course of their execution, programs will request the use of an Input or Output
device. In a multi-user system, conflicts are likely to occur when one program requests a
device that is being used by another program. Therefore, the OS will control allocation
of I/O devices and attempt to resolve any conflicts that arise.
  Because most input/output devices are slower than the processor, the OS has to control
the flow of data from the time of input to the time the user receives it as information. It
ensures that the right data reaches the processor at the right time.
 The OS also defines the various input/output ports found on the computer, e.g., printer
port.
4. Management of secondary storage devices.
The OS manages the storage & retrieval of data on secondary storage devices. It also utilizes
the free space on hard disks to enhance the performance of the computer by temporarily
holding tasks on it that were in RAM ready for processing but have to wait for sometime
5. Management of communication devices & ports.
Communication refers to how the various devices and programs in & out of the computer
system send & receive messages from one another and from the processor.
The OS controls the communication process between the various tasks & the computer.
To achieve external communication, an external device is usually connected to a
communication port using cables or wireless communication media.

6. File management.
The OS is concerned with the logical organization of the information (the File System) and
provides a means through which files can be sorted, retrieved & shared.
It also provides a means of protecting data files & programs against unauthorized access and
corruption.
7. Job scheduling.
The OS arranges & loads programs in order to provide a continuous sequence of processing
& also provide the appropriate responses to events.
The processor can handle only one task at a time. Therefore, in a situation where more than
one application program is occupying the main storage, the OS has to determine which task
will be processed first and ensures that the one that is currently being processed is closely
monitored to avoid wasting time in the processor.
The jobs are allocated priorities so as to ensure that there is continuous processing until all
the jobs within the memory are executed. This ensures that the CPU does not remain idle at
any given instance.
Some of the job scheduling functions include:
 Controlling the loading & running of programs.
 Communicating directly with users and/or the operator.
 Dealing with user commands to organize files and run programs.
NB: A Job is a group of tasks taken as a unit of work for a computer, e.g., one or more
computer programs, files, & instructions, to the operating system.
8. Job sequencing.
The OS keeps a list of jobs/tasks currently being run and monitors them as they move in &
out of the processor. It also arranges them in a particular order to make it easy for the
processor to execute them and to know how & when to fetch instructions & data for each
task.
9. Resource control and allocation.
The OS controls the selection & operation of hardware devices used for input, output and
storage.
The OS determines which task uses a particular resource and at what time. To do this, it
gives each resource a unique identification number called an Interrupt number so that, when
two tasks request to use a resource at the same time, the one with higher priority interrupt is
granted control.
This prevents an undesirable situation called deadlock that occurs when a particular task
holds a needed resource & refuses to release it for use by other tasks.
10. Error reporting & correction routines.
The OS has many ways of reporting to the user of any errors that occur during program
execution. It does this by monitoring the status of the computer system & performing error
checks on both hardware and software.
When the user makes an error, the OS through the Kernel determines the cause of the error,
and prints diagnostic messages on the screen suggesting appropriate routines of how the error
can be corrected.
In case of a fatal error that cannot be corrected, the program will be suspended permanently.
E.g., the user program will prematurely terminate when it encounters an illegal operation,
such as, dividing a no. by 0 or if it attempts to read a data file that had not been opened.
11. Interrupt handling.
An Interrupt is a break from the normal sequential processing of instructions in a program.
Each hardware device communicates to the processor using a special number called the
Interrupt Request number (IRQ). Therefore, when an interrupt occurs, control is passed to
the Kernel, which determines the cause of the interrupt. The processor stops executing the
current program to wait for the corrective response of the user. Control is returned to the
program that was interrupted once corrective action has been taken.

Some causes of Interrupt.

i). An Interrupt caused by Power failure.
The Kernel saves vital information using the dying power supply so that it can be
restarted when power is returned.
 ii). Arithmetic or logic errors.
When the ALU detects that an error has occurred, (e.g., the output may be requested to
a non-existent device) it generates a signal that causes an interrupt. Control is
transferred to the Kernel, which indicates the appropriate error correction routines.
iii). Hardware malfunction, e.g. parity errors.
The I/O control for each device & its associated hardware normally takes care of parity
checking. If a parity error is detected, the Kernel is notified by an interrupt.
Device driver - a software that the OS uses to control a specific piece of hardware.
12. Interfaces the user to the system’s hardware.
The OS provides quick means of communication between the computer user & its programs.
The user requests the services of the OS by use of commands & the OS communicates the
messages regarding the processing to the user through, either the screen or printer. Thus, a
form of ‘conversation’ is established between the OS & the computer user.

13. Logging & accounting.

The OS keeps records (internal logs) on how the computer’s resources, e.g., CPU time,
memory usage, & the peripherals are being used. It also keeps a complete record of all that
happens during processing (usually in the form of a printed log)
14. The OS protects hardware, software & data from improper use. They ensure that application
programs use the hardware in an efficient way.
Examples of operating systems
 DOS (Disk Operating System).
 Windows operating system.
 MacOS (Macintosh).
 Unix.
 Linux.
Characteristics of an operating system.
An OS should have the following characteristics:

a). Reliable.
The OS should be at least as reliable as the hardware on which it runs. If a software or
hardware error occurs, the system should be able to detect the error and either try to correct
the problem or try to minimize the damage to the users of the system from the error
b). Protected.
A user doesn’t want other users to interfere with him. Therefore, the system should protect
users from being affected both by errors of other users and by malicious attempts at
tampering.
c). Efficient.
The OS is usually a complex program that uses a large part of the hardware resources for its own
functions. The resources consumed by the OS are not available for users.
Therefore, the system itself should be very efficient, & should manage user’s resources to
minimize their idle time.
d). Convenient.
Systems should be designed keeping users in mind.
Therefore, an OS should be flexible & convenient to use. In addition, in order to allow the
sharing of resources, the OS must be in complete control of the allocation of the computer
resources.
e). Predictable.

User demands on the system are generally unpredictable. At the same time, users prefer to get
service that does not vary widely over extended periods of time. An estimate as to when the user
will get his input should be given.

Revision Questions
1. Name two major reasons why it became necessary to use an Operating system.
2. (a). Identify FOUR resources that the Operating system should manage.
(b). What function should the Operating system perform to manage each of the resources
above?

3. List and explain any five general functions of an operating system.

4. What is meant by the term Job in computer studies?
5. Name four examples of operating systems.

CLASSIFICATION OF OPERATING SYSTEMS.

The OS determines determine the type of processing that a computer system is able to perform,
since it controls the allocation & use of the computer resources.
Operating systems can be classified according to:
1. Number of tasks that the system can perform concurrently.
 Single-tasking (program) operating system.
 Multi-tasking operating system.
2. Number of users the system can support at the same time.
 Single-user operating systems.
 Multi-user operating systems.
3. Human Computer interface (i.e., how the user & the computer interact).
 Command line.
 Menu driven interface.
  Graphical user interface (GUI).
Classification according to tasks handled concurrently.
Single-tasking OS.
Single-tasking OS allows only one user-program in the main memory to be processed at a
particular time.
This means that, the user can only run one interactive program at a time. The user must then exit
from the program before loading & running another program.
Example of a single user OS;
 MS-DOS.

Multi-tasking (Multiprogramming) OS.

A Multi-tasking OS allows a single CPU to execute/process more than one program, all of which
are in memory, at the same time.
Each program is allocated a time-slice. In this case, the programs take turns at short intervals of
processing time. The CPU switches its attention between programs as it receives requests for
processing, executing statements from one program, and then from another.
The programs to be run are loaded into the memory and the CPU begins execution of the first
one. When the request is satisfied, the second program is brought into memory and execution
starts on the second program, and so on.
Note. In multi-programming, the computer is able to work on several programs at the same time.
It works on the programs on sequence, one after the other, and that at any given instant it
executes instructions from one program only. However, the computer works so quickly that it
appears to be executing the programs simultaneously.

Classification according to number of users.

Single-user OS.
A single-user OS is designed to be used by only one person. It allow only one user/person to
operate the machine at a time in an interactive, conversational mode, and runs only one user
program at a time, e.g. MS-DOS.
Multi-user (or multi access) OS.
A multi-user OS allows more than one user ( many people) to interactively use/access the
computer at the same time.
Examples;
 UNIX,
 Novell Netware,
 Ms-Windows 2000,
 Ms-Windows NT,
 Linux, etc
Classification according to Human Computer Interface (HCI).
The term Human Computer Interface (HCI) refers to the method of interaction between the
computer & the user, and determines how easily the user can operate the computer.
The HCI enables communication to & from between the user and the computer.

User-friendliness.
HCI is expected to be “user-friendly”, i.e., it should be one that the end-user finds helpful, and
easy to learn & use.

Features/characteristics of a user-friendly HCI.

i). It should be relatively easy for the user to try to start using the system.
ii). The system should be self-contained, so that the user is not forced into accessing manuals.
iii). The amount of effort & the information required for the user to get the system complete
required tasks should be minimal.
iv). The system should be robust & reliable, i.e., the user should be protected from unexpected
system actions, including system failures.
v). The system should be able to adjust to different levels of expertise between users & also as
users grow in competence.
vi). The user should be made to feel in control of what is going on.
vii). The system should behave in a logical & consistent manner, enabling the user to reason
about what is going on and apply what has been learned.
Types of User interfaces.
There are different types of Human Computer Interfaces: -
1. Command driven interface.
2. Menu driven interface.
3. Graphical User Interface (GUI).
Command driven interface.
This is an interaction between the user & the computer that requires the use of commands
The user types a command at the prompt found on a command line. The computer then reads
instructions from the command line and executes them.
Example;
To copy a file called Fruits.Dat from Hard disk C to Floppy disk A using MS-DOS; type
C:\ >COPY Fruits.Dat A:\ (press the Enter key for the command to be executed).
Commands enable the user to quickly instruct the computer what to do.

Command-driven software is more flexible, but it is more difficult to learn. The user must know
what commands are available, what they do & how they should be typed. For this reason,
commands are most popular with experienced technical persons, such as computer Operators,
Programmers or in situations where the end-user continually works with the same program and
has therefore mastered the commands.
To make commands more user-friendly, the following points need to be observed: -
1. The command words used should be descriptive VERBS that clearly convey the intended
action, e.g., PRINT, COPY, RENAME, DELETE, etc.
2. Unique abbreviations should be provided for more experienced users, e.g., PRI, COP, REN,
DEL, CHKDSK, etc.
3. Multiple items on a single command line should ALWAYS be separated by blank spaces.
E.g., PRINT can be used in the following ways: -
 PRINT Report1 – prints the named document on the default printer.
 PRINT Report1 Report2 Report3 – prints the three documents on the default printer
Examples of Command line interfaces:
 MS-DOS,
 Early versions of PC-DOS, OS/2, and UNIX.
Disadvantages of using command driven interface
 They are more difficult to learn.
 The user must know the command to type.
 It is less user-friendly.
 It is not easy to use, i.e., one is required to master the command format/syntax.
Menu driven interface
This type of interface provides the user with a list of program commands displayed on the screen
to choose from & a simple means of selecting between them.
To activate a choice in the menu, one can use the Enter key, or move the cursor until it is
positioned at the desired choice & then press the activation key so that the system can start acting
upon the information given.
This interface is suitable for beginners and infrequent users who may have difficulties in
remembering commands.
There are 2 types of menus: -
(a) Pull-down menus – are special types of menu used mostly in Windows.
(b) Pop-up menus & Pop-down menus. These menus are made to appear above or below an
item on the screen in order to elicit/obtain a choice from a user.
Later versions of DOS have a menu driven interface called the DOS Shell or DOS Editor
Advantages of Menu driven interfaces
 Menus provide many options to select from.
 The user is presented with a choice and therefore, does not need to master any commands.
 They are easier to use.
Graphical User Interface (GUI).
This is an interaction between the user & computer that involves issuing of commands to the
computer by activating certain small graphic images displayed on the screen called Icons.
To issue a command, the icons can be selected using a pointing device like a Mouse.
GUI is mostly found on Workstations or PCs fitted with graphic adapters able to support high-
resolution graphics.
Examples of GUI based OS;
 Presentation manager of OS/2,
 Ms-Windows,
 Linux,
 Apple Macintosh.
Features of a graphical user interface. (2 marks)
 Programs are represented graphically by use of Icons.
 Commands are selected and issued using pointing devices, e.g., Mouse, trackball.
 There is use of pull-down menus.
 Programs open by displaying windows.
Advantages of using GUI based OS
 They are user friendly.
 Easy to learn & use.
Revision Questions
1. What criteria are used to classify types of operating systems?
2. (a) Differentiate between multi-user and multitasking operating systems.
(b) State any computer software that can be classified as a Multi-user operating system.
3. Name three types of user interfaces employed by different commercial Operating systems.
4. (a) Differentiate between command-line interface and graphical user interface operating
systems based on the way commands are entered.
(b) State two main advantages of GUI interfaces.
TOPIC 5

STORAGE MEDIA

MEASURING THE MEMORY SIZE OF A COMPUTER.

The size of a computer’s memory is the no. of ‘units of storage’ it contains. The unit of storage
can be a Bit, a Byte, or a Word.

A Bit is the smallest unit of storage & can be used to store a 0 or a 1

A Byte is the amount of storage needed/ required to store 1 character.

A Character is any letter, digit or symbol, which can be obtained by pressing a key on the
Keyboard.

Note. 1 Byte can be used to store 1 character.

A Word is a collection of bits. It can also be described as a group of bits or characters

considered as an entity and capable of being stored in one storage location.

The no. of bits in a word is called the Word Size. The most common Word sizes are 16, 32 &
64.

On a given computer, a Word is the amount of storage normally needed to store an instruction.

Memory sizes.

Characters

1 Byte A group of 8 bits 1

3
1 Kilobyte (KB) 1,000 (a thousand) bytes 10 1,024
6
1 Megabyte (MB) 1,000,000 (a million) bytes 10 1,048,576
9
1 Gigabyte (GB) 1,000,000,000 (a billion) bytes 10 1,073, 741,824
12
1 Terabyte (Tera) 1,000,000,000,000 (a trillion) bytes 10 1,099,511,627,776

A computer memory is made up of many storage cells called Bytes. Each cell (byte) is capable
of storing 8 bits (binary digits) and has a unique numeric address.

Generally, the memory size of a computer is usually measured in Bytes. The prefix K is taken
to be 1,024 bytes.
For example, when the size of a computer memory is quoted as being, say, 256 Kbytes, this
implies that, there are 262,144 memory cells or the computer has (256 x 1,024) = 262,144 bytes
of memory.

Exercise (a).

1. How is information stored in a computer?

2. (a). Differentiate between a ‘Bit’ and a ‘Byte’.
(b). How many bytes would be required to store the following statement?

COMPUTERS ARE FUN TO USE!

3. Define the term ‘Character’ as used in computing.

4. (a). What is a Megabyte?
(b). How many Kilobytes and how many characters make a Megabyte?

5. The size of a computer memory is quoted as being 256 Kbytes.

(a). How many bytes can that computer hold in its memory at a particular time, if K is
taken to be 1,024 bytes?
(b). Calculate the precise number of characters that could be stored in the computer.
Explain your answer.

Exercise (b).

1. What is a Byte?
2. Name 2 standard 8-bit codes used internationally to represent information in computers.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER MEMORY.

Computer storage is divided into 2:

1. Main memory (Primary memory).

2. Secondary storage (Backing/ Auxiliary storage).
MAIN MEMORY.

It can also be described as the Primary storage, Internal Memory, Immediate Access storage,
Semi-conductor memories, Core memory, etc.

This is the storage (memory) found within the computer itself.

It is used to hold data, programs & instructions required immediately (or currently being used)
by the Processor.

A computer can only obey data and program instructions that are stored in the Main memory.
General features/ characteristics of the Main memory.

(i). Its operation is wholly electronic, and therefore, very fast, accurate and reliable.
(ii). Data must be transferred to the Main storage before it can be acted on by the Processor.
(iii). It provides direct data access, i.e., data is instantly accessible from the Main memory & the
Processor can act directly on the data.
(iv). It is of low/ limited storage capacity.
The Internal memory of the computer is designed in such a way that it reaches a capacity
beyond which it cannot extend.

(v). It is volatile.
For example, the RAM (the section of the Main memory that stores the user programs,
application data, instructions and intermediate results during processing) loses its contents
immediately when the power is switched off.

The Main memory is therefore, used to store temporary programs and data.

(vi). The speed of the processor depends on the Main memory.

(vii). It is very expensive, due to the technology involved & the elements used in making them.

Question. Identify the advantages and disadvantages of Primary storage.

Functions of the Main memory.

1. It stores data awaiting processing.

2. It stores instructions waiting to be obeyed.
3. It holds the program instructions & the data currently being processed.
4. It stores intermediate results of processing awaiting transfer to the output devices, i.e. it
stores data awaiting output.
5. The size of the Main memory affects the speed, power & capability of the computer.
6. All inputs & outputs are transmitted through the Main memory.
Ideally, the Main memory is used to store all data requiring processing in order to achieve
maximum processing speed.

Classification of Primary Memory.

The Main memory can be classified into 3 different sections:

(i). The fast Microprocessor Internal Registers.

(ii). Read-only memory (ROM).
(iii). Random Access memory (RAM).
READ-ONLY MEMORY (ROM)

This is a memory that can only be read, but cannot be written to, i.e., the user can only read the
information in it.

ROM provides permanent storage of data, i.e., the contents in ROM cannot be changed at will.
This is because the program instructions and the associated data stored in the ROM are
developed & installed during the manufacture of the computer hardware by the computer
manufacturers & therefore, they cannot be changed during normal computer operations; thus the
term “Read only”.

ROM is a Non-volatile memory - its contents are retained (remain intact) when power is
switched off. Therefore, it cannot be affected by switching the computer on & off.

ROM forms a small proportion of main storage – it contributes to about 30% of Internal
memory.

ROMs are used in situations where the data or instructions must be stored/ held permanently. It
is used to store vital data & programs, which need to be held in the Main memory all the time.

For example, they are used to store essential files especially those the computer uses while
booting (starting) up.

Common uses of ROMs.

The main functions of the ROM are:

(i). It stores Firmware (bootstrap programs) –i.e., the essential files the computer uses while
booting (starting) up.
(ii). It stores the system data & instructions that are necessary for the normal functioning of the
computer system hardware.
For example, it stores the Operating system program, which is necessary for the initial co-
ordination of the hardware & the other OS programs.

(iii). It stores Control programs, used for the operation of the computer & peripheral devices.
For example, the BIOS is stored on ROM because the user cannot disrupt the information.

(iv). It stores Translation programs (Code converters), used for converting a user’s program
into Machine language.
E.g., TURBO PASCAL, which translates Pascal programs written by users.

(v). It stores Special functions (facilities) peculiar to a given machine.

(vi). It stores Character generators for Printers and Video displays.
(vii). It stores ROM Lookup tables.
Types of ROM memories.

1. Masked ROM.
2. PROM (Programmable Read only memory).
3. EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read only memory)
Masked ROM.

This is a ROM that can only be produced by the manufacturer.

The bit patterns corresponding to the desired contents of this memory must be supplied by the
user in a standard format. .

Programmable ROM (PROM).

This is a ROM that can be programmed or “customized” directly by the user using a special
PROM programmer to suit the needs of a particular task.

Customizing is the process by which a standard product is adapted for use in a particular
situation.

Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM).

This is a ROM that can be reprogrammed a no. of times

There are 2 main types of EPROMS:-

(a). The UV-Erasable Programmable ROM.

(b). Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM).

It is also called Flash BIOS. This ROM can be rewritten through the use of a special
software program, that uses electrical pulses.

Note. This is the way Flash BIOS operate, allowing users to upgrade their BIOS.

RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM).

It is a type of main memory, which is used by the computer to store data & programs temporarily
during the times when they are needed in the Main memory

The term “Random Access” means that, data in any area of the RAM can be reached or accessed
in the same amount of time.

RAM provides “Read and write” facilities, i.e., it allow instructions to be written & read out,
and also to be changed at will. Therefore, the computer user/ programmer can control or
manipulate the data stored in RAM.
For example, it is this memory that is accessed during installation of programs; deleting, moving
& copying of files.

Read refers to the retrieving (recovering) of information from memory, while Write refers to the
storing of information in memory.

RAM is a Volatile memory, i.e. the contents of RAM are usually lost (rubbed off) when the
power supply or the computer is switched off.

RAM forms the major proportion of Main storage – it contributes about 70% of the Internal
memory. It is the memory used in large quantities in Main memory, and every computer must
specify its size.

Uses of RAM.

The functions of the RAM are:

(i). It stores data & instructions awaiting processing.

(ii). It also stores the instructions which are being obeyed or whose parts have been obeyed by
the computer.
(iii). Stores the intermediate results - the results of computer working/ calculations, before they
are communicated to the users through the Output units.
Note. The RAM are usually stores Application programs (computer user developed instructions
for solving specific tasks), such as Word processing or Spreadsheets.

It also stores user data, to be manipulated by the computer using the user input Application
programs. Therefore, the RAM of the Internal memory serves the user.

Types of RAM

(a). Static RAM (SRAM).

A Static RAM is able to maintain its data as long as power is provided to the memory chips.

It does not need to be re-written periodically. In fact, the only time the data on the memory
is refreshed or charged is when an actual “Write” command is executed.

SRAM is very fast & is currently being used in the Main Processor as a small amount of
high-speed memory called the Cache memory.

(b). Dynamic RAM (DRAM).

A Dynamic RAM uses capacitors to store information. The information is stored in the
Capacitors as a charge. Like any charge, the electrical charges in individual memory
capacitors of a DRAM will drive away (leak) causing the data to either be lost or changed
within a few milliseconds.
 This means that, unlike SRAM, a DRAM must undergo the Refreshing process, i.e., it must
be re-written continually in order for it to maintain its data. This is done by placing the
memory on a Refresh circuit that re-writes the data several hundred times per second.

Refreshing involves reading the information out of, and then writing it back into the
memory, thus restoring a full charge.

DRAM is used widely for most computer memories because it is cheap & small.

Advantages of Static RAM over Dynamic RAM

(i). SRAM is much faster than DRAM & it able to keep pace with the Main Processor.
(ii). It doesn’t require refresh cycles like DRAM – can retain its data forever.
Disadvantages of Static RAMs.

(i). They are of low data density, i.e. it stores less data bits.
(ii). SRAM chips are physically large & much more expensive than DRAM chips.
Advantages of Dynamic RAM over Static RAM

(i). DRAM has a much higher packing density than SRAM, i.e., a DRAM chip is able to store
more information than a SRAM chip of the same size.
(ii). DRAM chips are small in size.
(iii). A DRAM can store a lot of information in a very small space, and therefore cheaper (less
expensive) that SRAM. This is the main reason why DRAM is the memory used mostly (or
in large quantities) as the Main memory in Microcomputers.
Disadvantages of a Dynamic RAM.

(i). It is much slower than SRAM & is not able to keep pace with the Main Processor.
(ii). It requires refreshing in order to retain the information in its memory cells.
The charge stored in the capacitor of a DRAM leaks & most of the charge cannot be retained
for long or may be lost within a few milliseconds. To preserve the information, the charge
must be refreshed every 1 or 2 milliseconds by use of a Refresh circuit, which can be
incorporated within the CPU.

Exercise (a).

1. Outline THREE characteristics of Main storage.

2. (a). What are the functions of the Main memory of the computer?
(b). Why do we say that the Main memory slows down the computer’s processing speed?

3. Distinguish between the two types of Primary memory, stating clearly where each one is
used.
4. (a). What is a RAM? What is it used for?
(b). State 3 important facts about RAM.

(c). What is meant by “Random access?”

 (d). Briefly describe the two types of RAM, and state where each one is used.

5. (a). What does ROM mean? What is it used for?

(b). Give 3 important facts/characteristics of ROM.

(c). What programs are stored in ROM?

6. Define the term “Volatile” in the context of computer memory.

7. Identify THREE reasons why Dynamic RAMs are the most widely used memories in
microcomputer systems compared to Static RAMs.
8. Define and explain the following terms:
(i). RAM.
(ii). ROM.
(iii). PROM.
(iv). Co-processor.
Exercise (b).

1. Identify the TWO types of Primary memories found in the Central Processing unit.
2. State how RAMs and ROMs are used in the computer system.
3. Carefully distinguish between ROM, PROM and EPROM.
4. What type of memory is used to store the boot up program (the first program to be executed
on switching on a computer)?
6. State the main differences between Main memory and Backing storage.
Since the memory chips are too small, they must be combined and put on a medium that can be
worked with and added to a system. To achieve this, the designers place the memory chips on a
small fiberglass card to create the SIMM (Single Inline Memory Module) or DIMM (Double
Inline Memory Module).

These cards are placed in a socket on the motherboard, and then fastened/ bolted in. This design
eliminated problems of the past, and made upgrading memory a simple task.

SECONDARY STORAGE (also called Auxiliary or Backing memory).

Secondary memory is used by the computer to hold programs, data files & backup information
that is not needed immediately (not currently in use) by the Processor.

However, contents in a secondary storage media can be quickly transferred into the computer’s
Main memory for processing when required.

It is also used by the computer to supplement the computer’s main (internal) memory in case of
mass storage purposes.

This storage is provided by less expensive devices such as:

(i). Magnetic disks (Hard disks &Floppy diskettes).

(ii). Winchester disks.
(iii). Magnetic tapes.
(iv). Cassette tapes.
(v). Punched cards.
(vi). Zip disks.
(vii). Optical disks, which include CD-ROMs & WORM (Write once Read Many) disks,
and
(viii). Digital Video Disks (DVDs), which can be connected to the computer.
Most of these storage media are magnetic based, i.e., they use the principles of magnetism to
store data and instructions in form of binary.

The data is stored permanently in Disk drives. The disk drives can either be fixed inside the
computer, as in the case of Hard disks, or inserted anytime you want to read or write in them.

What is a Disk drive?

 A Disk drive is a computer device for reading or writing data from or into a storage media.
 A Disk drive is a hardware on which files can be stored.
 A Disk drive is a unit that houses a disk.
Examples;

 Hard disk drive (HDD or drive C:).

 Floppy disk drive (FDD or drive A:).
 CD-ROM drive.
 DVD-ROM drive.
 Tape drive.
 Zip drive.
A Disk drive can be used as an Input device, Output device or Secondary storage device.

Characteristics of Secondary storage devices.

(i). They provide slow access of information – they process data very slowly compared to
primary storage.
Modern secondary storage devices normally operate in milliseconds. It can take between
25 – 50 milliseconds to locate information in a disk drive.

(ii). They have high data storage capacity.

Disks & Tapes can store large amounts of data and instructions; however, the amount of
storage is limited by the no. of disk packs or tapes you buy.

(iii). The devices are cheap.

(iv). They are non-volatile. Secondary storage units store data
permanently.
(v). Used for mass storage of data & program files not currently being operated on, but which
will be transferred to the main storage when required.
Question. Identify the advantages of secondary storage
devices.
THE NEED FOR SECONDARY STORAGE IN COMPUTERS.

1. The amount of storage needed on a typical Microcomputer system might be greater than the
storage space available in the Main memory. This requires the use of backing storage
devices, which can be used to store large quantities of information.
2. Whatever is in memory is lost when the computer is switched off. Thus, there is a need to
store programs & data in secondary storage devices from which it can be retrieved when
needed.
3. Primary storage is expensive, thus the need for secondary storage devices which are cheaper.
FUNCTIONS OF SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES.

(i). Used to store backup data & instructions that is not needed immediately (or not currently
in use) by the CPU. This helps in creating space for another data to be stored in the
memory.
(ii). Used for transportation & distribution of data & software, i.e., for transferring files from
one machine to another.
(iii). Used to back up files (keep copies of data & programs) for safe-keeping.
Whatever is in memory is lost (or can be corrupted) when the computer or the power
supply is switched off. Disks can therefore be used to store programs & data, which can be
retrieved when needed.

(iv). Used to install new software.

Exercise (a).

1. (a).What is meant by ‘Secondary Storage’?

(b). Explain 3 reasons why it is necessary for a computer system to have secondary storage
facilities.

(c). Outline 3 basic characteristics of Secondary storage devices.

2. (a). State THREE differences between Primary storage and Secondary storage.
(b). Give TWO reasons for using secondary storage devices instead of using Primary
storage.

3. (a). Give two examples of secondary storage devices.

(b). State 4 functions of secondary storage devices in computer systems.

Exercise (b).

1. Explain the salient features of computer secondary storage.

2. Why do we need secondary storage on a computer system?
3. (a). State any four advantages of secondary storage over main memory.
(b). State one primary storage device and one secondary device.
TOPIC 6

DATA MANAGEMENT AND SECURITY

Introduction

Data management is the development and execution of architectures, policies, practices and
procedures in order to manage the information lifecycle needs of an enterprise in an effective
manner.

Data & Information must be protected against unauthorized access, disclosure, modification or
damage. This is because; it is a scarce & valuable resource for any business organization or
government. It is mostly used in transactions, it can be shared, and has high value attached to it.

Data & Information security:

Data security is the protection of data & information from accidental or intentional disclosure to
unauthorized persons.

Data & Information privacy:

Private data or information is that which belongs to an individual & must not be accessed by or
disclosed to any other person, without direct permission from the owner.

Confidential data or information – this is data or information held by a government or

organization about people. This data/information may be seen by authorized persons without the
knowledge of the owner. However, it should not be used for commercial gain or any other
unofficial purpose without the owner being informed.

Review Questions

1. Differentiate between private and confidential data.

2. Why is information called a resource?
3. (a) Explain the term ‘Information security’.
(b) Recently, data and information security has become very important. Explain.

SECURITY THREATS TO DATA & INFORMATION

1). COMPUTER VIRUSES

 A computer virus is a destructive program that attaches itself to other files when the files
are opened for use, and installs itself on the computer, without the knowledge of the user.
 A computer virus is a program designed specifically to damage other programs or
interfere with the proper functioning of the computer system.
A virus is a computer code usually designed to carry out 2 tasks:
(a) To copy itself from one computer system to another.
(b) To locate itself within a computer system enabling it to amend/destroy program & data
files, by interfering with the normal processes of the operating system.
Types of computer viruses.

1. Boot sector viruses – they destroy the booting information on storage devices.
2. File viruses – they attach themselves to files either erasing or modifying them.
3. Hoax viruses – they come as e-mails with an attractive subject & activate themselves
when the e-mail is opened.
4. Trojans – they appear to perform necessary functions, but perform other undesirable
activities in the background without the knowledge of the user.
5. Worms – viruses that stick in the computer memory.
6. Backdoors – may be a Trojan or Worm that allows hidden access to a computer system.
Types of destructions/damages caused by a virus attack

 Delete or modify data, information & files on storage devices (disks) or memory during
normal program execution, e.g., may attack the format of a disk making any program or
data on it impossible to recover.
 Systematically destroy all the data in the computer memory.
 Might lock the keyboard.
 Can change keystroke values or data from other I/O devices, e.g., change the effect of
SHIFT key.
 Delete characters displayed on a visual display.
 Uses up computer memory/space, hence slowing down its performance or causing the
system to crash.
 Changes colour of the display.
 Cause boot failure.
Sources of viruses.

a) Contact with contaminated systems:

If a diskette is used on a virus infected computer, it could become contaminated. If the
same diskette is used on another computer, then the virus will spread

b) Use of pirated software:

Pirated software may be contaminated by a virus code or it may have been amended to
perform some destructive functions which may affect your computer

c) Infected proprietary software:

A virus could be introduced when the software is being developed in laboratories, and
then copied onto diskettes containing the finished software product

d) Fake games:
Some virus programs behave like games software. Since many people like playing
games on computers, the virus can spread very fast.
e) Freeware and Shareware:
Both freeware & shareware programs are commonly available in Bulletin board
systems.

Such programs should first be used in controlled environment until it is clear that the
program does not contain either a virus or a destructive code.

f) Updates of software distributed via networks:

Viruses programs can be spread through software distributed via networks.

Symptoms of viruses in a computer system.

The following symptoms indicate the presence of a virus in your computer:

 Boot failure.
 Files & programs disappearing mysteriously.
 Unfamiliar graphics or messages appearing on the screen, e.g., the virus might flash a
harmless message such as “Merry Christmas” on the computer terminal.
 Slow booting.
 Gradual filing of the free space on the hard disk.
 Corruption of files and programs.
 Programs taking longer than usual to load.
 Disk access time seeming too long for simple tasks.
 Unusual error messages occurring more frequently.
 Frequent read/write errors.
 Disk access lights turning on for non-referenced devices.
 Computer hags anytime when running a program.
 Less memory available than usual, e.g., Base memory may read less than 640KB.
 Size of executable files changing for no obvious reason.
Control measures against viruses.

i). Install up-to-date (or the latest) antivirus software on the computers.
ii). Restrict the movement of foreign storage media, e.g., diskettes in the computer room.
If they have to be used, they must be scanned for viruses.

iii). Avoid opening mail attachments before scanning them for viruses.
iv). Write-protect disks after using them.
v). Disable floppy disk drives, if there is no need to use disks in the course of normal
operation.
vi). Backup all software & data files at regular intervals.
vii). Do not boot your computer from disks which you are not sure are free from viruses.
viii). Avoid pirated software. If possible, use the software from the major software houses.
ix). Programs downloaded from Bulletin Boards & those obtained from computer clubs
should be carefully evaluated & examined for any destructive code.
2). UNAUTHORIZED ACCESS
Data & information is always under constant threat from people who may want to access it
without permission. Such persons will usually have a bad intention, either to commit fraud,
steal the information & destroy or corrupt the data.

Unauthorized access may take the following forms:

a). Eavesdropping:
This is tapping into communication channels to get information, e.g., Hackers mainly
use eavesdropping to obtain credit card numbers.

b). Surveillance (monitoring):

This is where a person may monitor all computer activities done by another person or
people.

The information gathered may be used for different purposes, e.g., for spreading
propaganda or sabotage.

c). Industrial espionage:

Industrial espionage involves spying on a competitor so as to get or steal information
that can be used to finish the competitor or for commercial gain.

The main aim of espionage is to get ideas on how to counter by developing similar
approach or sabotage.

d). An employee who is not supposed to see some sensitive data gets it, either by mistake or
design.
e). Strangers who may stray into the computer room when nobody is using the computers.
f). Forced entry into the computer room through weak access points.
g). Network access in case the computers are networked & connected to the external world.
Control measures against unauthorized access.

i). Enforce data & information access control policies on all employees to control access to
data.
ii). Keep the computer room closed when nobody is using it.
iii). Reinforce weak access points, e.g., doors & windows with metallic grills & burglar
alarms.
iv). Use file passwords to prevent any person from getting access to the electronic files.
v). Enforce network security measures, e.g., use of firewalls.
vi). Encrypt the data & information during transmission.
vii). Perform frequent Audit trails to identify threats to data & information.
3). COMPUTER ERRORS & ACCIDENTAL ACCESS
Errors and accidental access to data & information may be as a result of:
  Mistakes made by people, e.g., one may print sensitive reports & unsuspectingly give them
to unauthorized persons.
 People experimenting with features they are not familiar with. E.g., a person may
innocently download a file without knowing that it is self-installing or it may be dangerous
to the system.
Control measures against computer errors & accidents.

i). Restrict file access to the end-users and technical staff in the organization, i.e., deny
access of certain files & computers to certain groups of end-users.
This is because; accidental access mistakes occur if the end-users have too much
privilege that allows them to access or change sensitive files on the computer.

ii). Set up a comprehensive error-recovery strategy in the organization.

4). THEFT
The threat of theft of data & information, hardware & software is real. Some information is
so valuable such that business competitors or some governments can decide to pay somebody
a fortune so as to steal the information for them to use.

Control measures against theft of information, hardware, & software.

i). Create backups & store them in locations away from the main computing centre.
ii). Reinforce weak access points, e.g., the windows, doors, & roofing with metallic grills
and strong padlocks.
iii). Put burglar proofs in the computer room.
iv). Employ guards to keep watch over data & information centres and backups.
Review Questions

1. Explain any three threats to data and information.

2. Give two control measures one would take to avoid unauthorized access to data and
information.
3. Explain the meaning of ‘industrial espionage’.
4. (a) Define a computer virus.
(b) Give and explain two types of computer viruses.

(c) List three types of risks that computer viruses pose.

(d) List and explain five sources of computer viruses.

(e) Outline four symptoms of computer viruses.

(f) Explain the measures one would take to protect computers from virus attacks

5. How can one control the threat of user’s errors to data and information?
COMPUTER CRIMES

 A computer crime is a deliberate theft or criminal destruction of computerized data.

 The use of computer hardware, software, or data for illegal activities, e.g., stealing, forgery,
defrauding, etc.
 Committing of illegal acts using a computer or against a computer system.
Types of computer crimes.

The following are the major types of computer crimes:

1. Trespass.
2. Hacking.
3. Tapping.
4. Cracking.
5. Piracy.
6. Fraud (Theft of money)
7. Sabotage.
8. Alteration of data.
9. Theft of computer time / Theft of service.
10. Theft of data, information or programs.
11. Damage of software.
Trespass.

 Trespass refers to the illegal physical entry to restricted places where computer hardware,
software & backed up data is kept.
 It can also refer to the act of accessing information illegally on a local or remote computer
over a network.
Trespass is not allowed and should be discouraged.

Hacking.

Hacking is an attempt to invade the privacy of a system, either by tapping messages being
transmitted along a public telephone line, or through breaking security codes & passwords to
gain unauthorized entry to the system data and information files in a computer.

Reasons for hacking.

 To copy or corrupt the information.

 As a hobby to test their expertise. Some people like the challenge & they feel great after
successful hacking.
 Some do it for computer & software producing companies that want to secure their systems by
reducing weaknesses discovered after professional hacking.
Hacking is done by skilled programmers referred to as Hackers. Hacker is a person who gains
unauthorised access to a computer network for profit, criminal mischief, or personal gain.
Such people are able to break through passwords or find weak access points in software. They
are involved in propagating computer viruses.

Tapping.

Tapping involves listening to a transmission line to gain a copy of the message being
transmitted.

Tapping may take place through the following ways:

a) A person may send an intelligent program to a host computer that sends him/her
information from the computer.
b) Spying on a networked computer using special programs that are able to intercept messages
being sent & received by the unsuspecting computer.
Cracking.

Cracking is the use of guesswork by a person trying to look for a weakness in the security codes
of a software in order to get access to data & information.

These weak access points can only be sealed using sealed using special corrective programs
called Patches, which are prepared by the manufacturing company.

A program patch is a software update that when incorporated in the current software makes it
better.

NB: Cracking is usually done by people who have some idea of passwords or user names of the
authorized staff.

Piracy.

Software, information & data are protected by copyright laws. Piracy means making
illegal copies of copyrighted software, data, or information either for personal use or for re-
sale.

Ways of reducing piracy

i) Enact & enforce copyright laws that protect the owners of data & information agaist piracy.
ii) Make software cheap enough to increase affordability.
iii) Use licenses and certificates of authenticity to identify originals.
iv) Set installation passwords that prevent illegal installation of software.
Fraud.

Fraud is the use of computers to conceal information or cheat other people with the intention of
gaining money or information.

Fraud may take the following forms:

a). Input manipulation:
Data input clerks can manipulate input transactions, e.g., they can create dummy (ghost)
employees on the Salary file or a ghost supplier on the Purchases file.

b). Production & use of fake documents:

E.g., a person created an intelligent program in the Tax department that could credit his
account with cents from all the tax payers. He ended up becoming very rich before he was
discovered.

Fraudsters can either be employees in the company or outsiders who are smart enough to defraud
unsuspecting people.

Reasons that may lead to computer fraud.

 For economic gain (i.e., to gain money or information).

 To gain respect (self-worth)
Security measures to prevent fraud:

i) Careful recruitment of staff.

ii) Set up a clear & firm management policy on crimes & frauds.
iii) Restrict access to computer room or terminal.
iv) Use transaction & fill logs to monitor access to sensitive areas of the system.
v) Monitor & investigate error logs and reports on regular basis.
vi) Carry out risk analysis to examine the exposure of the organization to possible fraud.
Sabotage.

Sabotage is the illegal or malicious destruction of the system, data or information by employees
or other people with grudges with the aim of crippling service delivery or causing great loss to an
organization.

Sabotage is usually carried out by discontented employees or those sent by competitors to cause
harm to the organization.

The following are some acts of saboteurs which can result in great damage to the computer
centres:

 Using Magnets to mix up (mess up) codes on tapes.

 Planting of bombs.
 Cutting of communication lines.
Alteration.

Alteration is the illegal changing of stored data & information without permission with the aim
of gaining or misinforming the authorized users.
Alteration is usually done by those people who wish to hide the truth. It makes the data
irrelevant and unreliable.

Alteration may take place through the following ways:

a). Program alteration:

This is done by people with excellent programming skills. They do this out of malice or
they may liaise with others for selfish gains.

b). Alteration of data in a database:

This is normally done by authorized database users, e.g., one can adjust prices on Invoices,
increase prices on selling products, etc, and then pocket the surplus amounts.

Security measures to prevent alteration:

i) Do not give data editing capabilities to anybody without vetting.

ii) The person altering the data may be forced to sign in order for the system to accept altering
the information.
Theft of computer time.

Employees may use the computers of an organization to do their own work, e.g., they may
produce publications for selling using the computers of the company.

Theft of data (i.e., commercial espionage).

Employees steal sensitive information or copy packages and sell them to outsiders or competitors
for profit.

This may lead to a leakage of important information, e.g., information on marketing strategies
used by the organization, research information, or medical reports.

Review Questions

1. (a) Define the term ‘Computer crime’.

(b) State and explain various types of computer crimes.

2. Differentiate between Hacking and Cracking with reference to computer crimes.

3. What is a program patch? Why are patches important?
4. Give two reasons that may lead to computer fraud.
5. How can piracy be prevented in regard to data and information.
6. What is data alteration? Explain its effects on data.
7. Explain the meaning of Tapping while dealing with computer crimes.
DETECTION & PROTECTION AGAINST COMPUTER CRIMES

The following measures can be taken to detect & prevent computer crimes, and also seal security
loopholes
Audit trails

This is a careful study of an information system by experts in order to establish (or, find out) all
the weaknesses in the system that could lead to security threats or act as weak access points for
criminals.

An audit of the information system may seek to answer the following questions: -

1. Is the information system meeting all the design objectives as originally intended?
2. Have all the security measures been put in place to reduce the risk of computer crimes?
3. Are the computers secured in physically restricted areas?
4. Is there backup for data & information of the system that can ensure continuity of services
even when something serious happens to the current system?
5. What real risks face the system at present or in future?
Data encryption

Data being transmitted over a network faces the dangers of being tapped, listened to, or copied to
unauthorized destinations.

To protect such data, it is mixed up into a form that only the sender & the receiver can be able to
understand by reconstructing the original message from the mix. This is called Data
encryption.

The flow diagram below shows how a message can be encrypted and decrypted to enhance
security.

Black
Black Black
kcalB

Cyphertext

Plain text Plain text

Encryption key Decryption key

The message to be encrypted is called the Plain text document. After encryption using a
particular order (or, algorithm) called encryption key, it is sent as Cyphertext on the network.

After the recipient receives the message, he/she decrypts it using a reverse algorithm to the one
used during encryption called decryption key to get the original plain text document.
This means that, without the decryption key, it is not possible to reconstruct the original
message.

Log files

These are special system files that keep a record (log) of events on the use of the computers and
resources of the information system.

Each user is usually assigned a username & password or account. The information system
administrator can therefore easily track who accessed the system, when and what they did on the
system. This information can help monitor & track people who are likely to violate system
security policies.

Firewalls

A Firewall is a device or software system that filters the data & information exchanged between
different networks by enforcing the access control policy of the host network.

A firewall monitors & controls access to or from protected networks. People (remote users) who
do not have permission cannot access the network, and those within cannot access sites outside
the network restricted by firewalls.

LAWS GOVERNING PROTECTION OF INFORMATION

Laws have been developed that govern the handling of data & information in order to ensure that
there is ‘right of privacy’ for all people.

The following rules must be observed in order to keep within the law when working with data
and information.

1. Data & information should be kept secure against loss or exposure.

2. Data & information should not be kept longer than necessary.
3. Data & information should be accurate and up-to-date.
4. Data & information should be collected, used & kept for specified lawful purposes (i.e., it
should not be used for unlawful gain).
5. The owner of the data has a right to know what data is held by the person or organization
having it.
6. Data should not be transferred to other countries without the owner’s permission.
7. Do not collect irrelevant and overly too much information for a purpose.
Review Questions

1. What do the following control measures against computer crimes involve?

(i) Audit trail.
(ii) Data encryption.
(iii) Log files.
(iv) Firewalls.
2. Give four rules that must be observed to keep within the law when working with data and
information.
TOPIC 7

BASIC COMPUTER NETWORKING

Definition of terms used in Networking

Network

A Network can be defined as a collection of independent entities that are arranged in such a
manner as to exchange data, information or resources.

Examples of networks:

 Road network: - this is the interconnection of roads in a country, continent or throughout the
world. Road networks facilitate the transfer of goods & services from one area to another.
 Telephone network (voice networks): - it includes the many lines that criss-cross a country,
and enables people to communicate.
 Railway network.
 Nervous system.
Computer Network

A computer network can be defined as a collection 2 or more computers connected together

using transmission media (e.g., telephone cables, or Satellites) for the purpose of communication
and sharing of resources.

Usually there can be from 2 to hundreds or even thousands of computers on the network. Apart
from computers, other devices such as Printers, plotters, fax machines, modems, etc can also be
connected to the network.

The term Transmission media refers to any physical or non-physical link between 2 or more
computers, and in which a signal can be made to flow from source to destination.

Network Server.

Computer networks usually have one computer reserved as the “Mother” of all the other
computers on the network.

A Server is a powerful computer that provides services (shared resources) to the other computers
on the network. It enables information, resources & network devices to be shared by users on a
computer network.

Network servers;

i). Have a higher hard disk & main memory (RAM) capacity than the other computers on the
network.
ii). Store & run a special program called the server software (network operating system), which
controls computers on the network.
Clients (workstations)

Clients (also referred to as Workstations) are Personal Computers (PCs) attached to the network,
on which the network users do their work. They are used by network users to send their requests
to the server.

Clients;

i). Are usually less powerful than the server, and use the resources provided by the Server.
ii). Have their own operating systems and files.
The PCs can be IBM or compatible running MS-DOS, OS/2, Windows, etc.

The figure below shows a server on a network.

TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

Computer networks are usually classified according to size. The three most common types of
networks are:

1. Local Area Network (LAN).

2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN).
3. Wide Area Network (WAN).
Local Area Network (LAN)

This is a computer network that is formed whenever computers are connected together in a
relatively small geographical area, e.g., in one building or a school.
LAN is the smallest size of network & it normally covers an area within the radius of 10M – 3
Km.

LAN is usually owned by one organization. However, one LAN can be connected to other
LANs over any distance via data transmission lines or wireless media.

A LAN connects several Personal Computers to a Server computer. The server computer makes
available the resources requested by the other computers (workstations) on a network.

In most LANs, each workstation has its own CPU which it uses to execute programs, but still the
workstation user can also access data & devices anywhere on the network.

Advantages of LANs.

1). They enable many users to share expensive devices such as Laser printers, as well as data.
However, the no. of computers that can be connected & the distance to be covered is limited.
2). Have Low cost (requires less expensive equipment).
3). Enable users to communicate with each other, by sending messages or engaging in chat
sessions.
4). LANs transmit data at very fast rates. They are much faster than data transmitted over
telephone lines.
5). Small error counts (low error rates).
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN).

A MAN is made up of many LANs connected together.

It covers a metropolitan (medium-sized geographical) area, e.g., a town or an entire city, within
a radius of 5 – 50 Km.

Characteristics of MAN

- Larger than LAN.

- Slower than LAN, but faster than WAN with data rates of 100MBps & above.
- Are more expensive than LANs, since special equipment is needed to connect the different
networks together.
- Prone to few errors (moderate error rates).
Wide Area Network (WAN).

This is the largest size of network.

A WAN covers a large geographical area such as an entire country, a continent, or even the
whole world.

It consists of many LANs and MANs connected together to form one large network such as the
Internet.
Characteristics of WAN

 They cover an unlimited (a very large) geographical area, e.g., can cover the whole world.
 They are expensive to build since it requires special equipment for connection.
 Their transmission links are also expensive.
 Long distance transmission.
 Have low data transfer rates compared to LANs (i.e., they are slower than LANs & MANs)
 More prone to errors (very high possible error rates compared to LANs and MANs).
Differences between a Local Area Network and a Wide Area Network.

1. LAN is limited to a small geographical distance.

2. Data transmission speed in LANs is higher.
3. Cost of data transmission in LANs is small.
4. There are less transmission errors in LANs.
PURPOSE OF NETWORKING

Some of the reasons for setting up computer networks include:

1). Resource sharing

A Network resource refers to any component that can be attached to the network for access
by users.

Some of the shared resources include:

i). Application programs. vii). Network Printers

ii). Data and information. viii). Fax machines
iii). Messages. ix). Modems
iv). Graphics. x). Storage devices (optical drives).
v). Files. xi). Communication ports.
vi). Computer processing power. xii). Disk space
Users whose computers are connected to a network can, for example, share their files,
exchange mails, send faxes, schedule meetings, and print documents from any point on the
network. This centralized access to data & information leads to less waste of time, and hence
greater productivity.

2). Remote communications

Remote communication refers to the transmission of data signals between two
communication devices located at different geographical locations.

E.g., using remote communication, one can work from home just as if he/she is in the office.

It is mainly through remote communications that people can be able to share ideas, and pass
messages over the Internet.
 A computer that tries to access resources from another computer on the network is called a
remote client, while the computer being accessed is called a remote host.

Remote communication has been made possible by use of wireless transmission media such
as radio waves, microwave, and satellite.

3). Distributed processing facilities

Distributed processing refers to the act of running the same programs or databases on
different computers, which are on the same network but placed in separate locations.

Each computer has its own local peripherals, e.g., disks, printers, terminals, etc.

For example;

In a large organization, each branch office has its own server that stores data, information,
and other resources required for their daily operations.

This implies that, files reside on the user’s computer rather than on a central computer, and
are only transmitted periodically to update the central computer.

Advantages of distributed processing.

1. Failure of the central computer does not affect the operations of the other terminals.
2. Processing load is shared equally; hence, no time wastage.
3. There is faster access of data as each machine can process & store its data.
4. It doesn’t need powerful and expensive servers for data storage.
5. It can accommodate users with variety of needs.
Disadvantages of distributed processing.

1. It is more susceptible to virus, as any user could introduce an infected file and spread it
throughout the network.
2. Developing an effective back up plan is more difficult when users store data in their
individual systems.
3. File management (organization) is difficult as the files are stored in different locations.
4). Cost effectiveness
The initial cost of purchasing and laying down of networks components may be expensive.
However, the savings experienced and the value added to service delivery make networks
cost effective.

 Networks greatly increase the efficient use of scarce resources. E.g., a large organization
with many stand alone computers will need a printer for each computer. However, if the
computers are networked, only one printer is used.
 Computer networks have also enhanced daily communication, i.e., they have made the
flow of information from one place to another easy. Users can send mails (e.g., e-mails)
to each other, without having to bear the cost of stamp duty or delivery charges.
 Similarly, company executives can hold electronic video conferences, thus reducing the
traveling costs.

5). Reliability
A computer network is reliable especially when communicating or accessing information:

i). Data can be transferred with minimum errors from source to destination.
ii). Incase one computer breaks down; the user can still access data & information from the
other computers using another computer on the network.
LIMITATIONS (DISADVANTAGES) OF NETWORKING

1). Security issues

Data & information held on a network is open to many people across the world, and can
easily be accessed illegally. In addition, when information is sent over the network from one
place to another, it can be tapped or listened to by unauthorized parties.

2). High initial cost

The initial cost of buying network hardware & software is very high.

3). Moral and cultural effects

Large networks such as the Internet have chat rooms and messaging services. These enable
underage children to meet peers and adults on the net, some of whom may have bad
intentions.

Access to pornographic and other negative material on the Internet has made the fight against
social problems such as HIV/AIDS, bad sexual behaviour, and drug abuse more complicate

4). Spread of terrorism and drug trafficking

The Internet makes it easy for terrorists and drug traffickers to operate. This is because; they
use information networks for their business communications.

5). Over-reliance on networks.

Most organizations have done away with manual operations. This means that, all business
processes, and the society depend on computer networks. Therefore, if by any chance the
network fails or goes down, then many systems in the society will stop working.
TOPIC 8

COMPUTER SECURITY

COMPUTER SECURITY

What is Computer security?

 Safeguarding the computer & the related equipments from the risk of damage or fraud.
 Protection of data & information against accidental or deliberate threats which might cause
unauthorised modification, disclosure, or destruction.
A computer system can only be claimed to be secure if precautions are taken to safeguard it
against damage or threats such as accidents, errors & omissions.

The security measures to be undertaken by the organization should be able to protect:

i) Computer hardware against damage.

ii) Data, information & programs against accidental alteration or deletion.
iii) Data & information against hazards.
iv) The computer against unauthorised use.
v) Data, information & programs against piracy or unauthorised copying.
vi) Data & programs used by the computer system against illegal or unauthorised modification.
vii) Storage media, e.g., diskettes, tapes, etc against accidental destruction.
viii) Policies of the organization.
ix) Buildings.
x) Accidental interruption of power supply or communication lines.
xi) Disclosure of confidential data or information.
xii) Ensure that both hardware & software have longer life span.
Environmental threats to computers & Information systems.

1). Fire.
Fire destroys data, information, software & hardware.

Security measures against fire:

 Use fire-proof cabinets & lockable metal boxes for floppy disks.
 Use of backups.
 Install fire fighting equipments, e.g., fire extinguishers.
 Have some detectors.
 Training of fire-fighting officers.
 Observe safety procedures, e.g., avoid smoking in the computer rooms.
 Have well placed exit signs.
 Contingency plans.
2). Water, floods & moisture.
This causes rusting of the metallic components of the computer
 Security measures against water, floods & moisture:

 Set up computer rooms on higher grounds to avoid floods & humidity.

 Avoid installing computer components in the basement.
 There should be adequate drainage system.
 Use water-proof ceilings & floors.
3). Lightening, electricity & electrical storms.
This causes power failure that can cause damage to data, which has not been transferred to
permanent storage devices.

Security measures:

 Install facilities to control power fluctuations, e.g., use of Uninterrupted power source
(UPS)
 Use power stabilizers.
 Have standby power generators/sources.
 Have lightening arresters in the building.
4). Excessive Heat or Temperature.
Excessive heat or temperature from the computer itself or from the surrounding environment
can destroy computer storage media or devices.

Security measures:

 There should be efficient ventilation system.

 Use a cooling system in the computer rooms, e.g., cooling fans & air conditioners.
5). Computer virus attack.
A virus is a rogue software program that spreads rampantly through computer systems,
destroying data or causing the system to break down.

Security measures against computer virus:

 Make backup copies of software, and store the copies off-site.

 Restrict access to programs & data on a ‘need-to-use’ basis.
 Check all programs regularly for change of size, as this could be a sign of virus infiltration.
 Be careful with ‘Shareware’ and ‘Freeware’ programs, as they are the major entry points
for viruses.
 Make sure all purchased software is in its original sealed-disk containers.
6). Smoke and Dust.
Dust and Smoke particles settle on storage devices and may scratch them during Read/write
operation.

Security measures:

 Have dust mats or carpets to prevent entry of dust.

 Fit the computer room with special Curtains to reduce entry of dust particles.
 Cover the devices with Dust covers when cleaning the room.
  Remove shoes before entering the room to prevent dust.
7). Terrorist attack.
This includes activities such as:

 Political terrorists,
 Criminal type of activities,
 Individuals with grudges, or
 People intending to cause general destruction.
Security measures:

 Hiring of security guards to control physical access to the building housing the computer
room.
 Activities that can cause terrorism should be avoided, e.g., exploitation of workers.
 Have double door & monitoring devices.
 Use of policies.
 System auditing / use of log files.
 Use of passwords.
 Punitive measures.
 Encryption of data.
 Use of firewalls.
 Consult & co-operate with the Police and Fire authorities on potential risks.
8). People.
People threats include:

 Carelessness.
 Clumsiness.
 Accidental deletion of data, information or programs.
 Vandalism, i.e., theft or destruction of data, information or programs & hardware.
 Piracy of copyrighted data & software.
Security measures against Carelessness & Clumsiness:

 Better selection of personnel.

 Have a good office layout.
 Improve employee training and education.
 Limit access to data and computers.
 Regular backups.
 Use of Undelete & Unformat utilities.
Security measures against Vandalism:

 Should have a sensitive attitude to office behaviour.

 Tighten security measures, e.g., install alarm systems, burglar-proof doors/windows, &
roofs).
 Limit access to sensitive company information.
 Use Keyboard lock on terminals used by authorised users.
 Use of disk locks.
  Punitive measures.
9). Earthquakes.
Review Questions

1. (a) What is Computer security?

(b) Mention various threats to computer security.

2. Discuss the environmental problems affecting the operation of computers.

CAUSES OF DATA LOSS IN COMPUTERS

1. Power failure:
Momentary interruptions or fluctuations of electrical power may cause:

 Crashing of computers.
 Loss of data or information that had not been saved before the power disruption.
 Damage to computer’s secondary storage media. This may result to loss of data &
Application software stored on the media.
The main cause of power disruptions are:

 Amplitude fluctuations,
 Power line noise,
 Low voltage sages,
 High voltage surges,
 Voltage outages,
 Voltage spikes,
 Waveform distortions,
 Power frequency variations.
Precautions against data loss due to Power failure:

a) Regular saving of documents.

Frequent saving of documents ensures that minimum data is lost in case of any power
failure.

Some application packages have an AutoSave feature, which should be activated to

automatically save work after a specified time interval.

b) Use of Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS).

To eliminate any power quality defects or fluctuation, use power correction equipment
such as a Stabilizer or Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS). These equipments ensure a
steady flow of input power to the computer system.

2. Computer viruses:
A computer virus destroys all the data files & programs in the computer memory by
interfering with the normal processes of the operating system
 Precautions against computer viruses:

a) Anti-virus software.
Use Antivirus software to detect & remove known viruses from infected files.

Some of the commonly used Antivirus software are: Dr. Solomon’s Toolkit, Norton
Antivirus, AVG Antivirus, PC-Cillin, etc

NB: The best way to prevent virus is to have a memory-resident antivirus software,
which will detect the virus before it can affect the system. This can be achieved by
installing a GUARD program in the RAM every time the computer boots up. Once in
the RAM, the antivirus software will automatically check diskettes inserted in the drives
& warn the user immediately if a disk is found to have a virus.

 For an antivirus to be able to detect a virus, it must know its signature. Since virus
writers keep writing new viruses with new signatures all the time, it is recommended
that you update your antivirus product regularly so as to include the latest virus
signatures in the industry.
 The Antivirus software installed in your computer should be enabled/activated at all
times.
 You should also perform virus scans of your disks on a regular basis.
 Evaluate the security procedures to ensure that the risk of future virus attack is
minimized.
Review Questions

1. Describe two ways of preventing data loss due to power outage.

2. (a) What is a Computer virus?
(b) What are Anti-viruses? Explain how they detect and remove viruses.

3. Accidental erasure:
Commands such as DELETE & FORMAT can be dangerous to the computer if used
wrongly.

Both commands wipe out the information stored on the specified secondary storage media,
e.g., formatting the Hard disk (drive C:) will destroy all the software on that system.

Precautions against Accidental erasure:

a) Use of Undelete utilities.

Use the Undelete facilities in case you accidentally delete your files.

There are two Undelete facilities depending on the operating system you are using.

 MS-DOS 6.0 Undelete facility:

To undelete at the DOS prompt, change to the drive & directory whose files were
deleted, then type, e.g.,
 C:\>UNDELETE <directory that contain the deleted file>

A list of all deleted files will be displayed with the first letter missing. Type in the
first letter and the file will be recovered.

 Norton utilities & PC Tools:

Norton utilities & PC Tools also have an undelete facility, which is similar to the
DOS Undelete facility.

 Windows Recycle Bin:

The Recycle Bin temporarily stores all deleted files & can be used to recover your
files.

1. Double-click the Recycle Bin on the desktop.

2. Click on the files you want to undelete.
3. Click on File, choose Restore.
The Recycle Bin will restore all selected files to their original folders and disks.

NB: If you delete a file accidentally, don’t copy any files or install any applications
to the disk that contains the deleted file. If you write anything to the disk, you might
destroy parts of the deleted file, making it unrecoverable.

b) Use of Unformat utilities.

MS-DOS 6.0 has an Unformat facility which can be used to recover information stored
on disks that have been accidentally formatted.

c) Use of Backups.
All data must be backed up periodically either on diskettes, tapes or CDs so that in case
of any accidental loss, the backed up copy can be used to recover the data.

For small files, use the Copy command to make a copy of the data on a diskette. For
larger amounts of data, use the Backup command to copy the data to several diskettes or
to a tape drive.

Review Questions

1. Name two commands that can erase the information from a disk.
2. Define ‘Data backup’ and state its importance.
4. Crashing of hard disks:
When a hard disk crashes, the data or information on the disk cannot be accessed. The effect
is the same as formatting the hard disk.

Crashing of a hard disk can occur due to the following reasons:

i) Mishandling of the computer system, e.g.,

  Moving the system unit while the computer is on.
 Accumulation of dust.
ii) Computer virus attack.
iii) Physical damage to the System unit caused by dropping or banging when being moved.
Precautions against crashing of Hard disks:

a) Use of Backups.
All data must be backed up regularly. In addition, all application programs & operating
system software should also be kept safely so that in case of a complete system crash,
everything can be re-installed/restored.

b) Use of Recovery tools.

System tools such as Norton Utilities, PC Tools, QAPlus, etc can be used to revive a
disk that has crashed.

Review Questions

1. List two possible causes of a hard disk crash.

5. Unauthorised access:
Unauthorised access refers to access to data & information without permission.

Computer criminals can do the following harms:

 Steal large amounts of funds belonging to various companies by transferring them out of
their computer accounts illegally.
 Steal or destroy data & information from companies, bringing their operations to a
standstill.
 Spread destruction from one computer to another using virus programs. This can cripple
the entire system of computer networks.
 Spread computer worm programs. Worm programs are less harmful in the beginning, but
render the computer almost useless in the long-run.
Precautions against Unauthorised access:

a) Restrict physical access.

Physical access to computer systems should be restricted to ensure that no unauthorised
person gets access to the system.

Some of the ways of restricting physical access include:

 Locking of doors.
 Use of personal identification cards.
 Use of fingerprint identification.
 Use of special voice-recorders. They analyse the voice of a trespasser & checks
against the database containing the voice patterns of valid users.
 b) Password protection.
Install a password to restrict access to the computer system.

A Password is a secret code that can be used to prevent unauthorised access of data in a
computer.

Passwords can be put in at various levels:

 At the point of switching on the computer – to restrict access to the computer.

 On folders/directories – to restrict access to entire folders/directories.
 On files – to restrict access to individual files within a directory.
 On database systems – to restrict access to individual data elements.
When a valid password is entered, the user gets access to the computer system. Usually,
the user is allowed three (3) attempts to get the password correct. If an invalid password
is entered, access is denied after the 3 attempts.

Some computer security systems may generate an alarm if someone tries to use a fake
password.

NB: You should never use passwords that can easily be linked to you, e.g., your name,
birth date, or names of people close to you.

Review Questions

1. State and discuss four causes of data loss in a computer system.

2. (a) Discuss two methods used to restrict unauthorised access to computer systems.
(b) What is a Password? Give its main importance.
TOPIC 9

INTERNET

Why Study about the Internet?

√ To understand what the Internet is, the services that it offers, what is required in order to get
connected, as well as to establish a connection and log out of the Internet.
What is the Internet?

 It is a large no. of connected computers (or a large set of computer networks) linked together
that communicate with each other, over telephone lines.
 It is a worldwide computer network connecting thousands of computer networks, through a
mixture of private & public data using the telephone lines.
 It is a worldwide (global or an international) network of computers that provide a variety of
resources and data to the people that use it.
 Internet refers to a global inter-connection of computers and computer networks to facilitate
global information transfer. It is an interconnection of computers throughout the world,
using ordinary telecommunication lines and modems.
The Internet uses VSATS (Very Small Aperture Telecommunication Systems) such as
Telephone lines, Satellite.

The other names for the Internet are:

- The Net.
- Information Superhighway.
- Cyber space.
Internet is a facility that links the Internet users to the actual Internet documents. Therefore, it is
a system that links together many kinds of information all over the world. This technology
allows computers equipped with telecommunication links to exchange information freely, and as
such, the Internet has enhanced what is being referred to as a global village.

Internet enables companies, organizations, individuals, schools and governments to share

information across the world.

A computer on the Internet can be located anywhere in the world. The Internet enables the
computer to communicate with any other computer.

HISTORY (DEVELOPMENT) OF THE INTERNET.

The Internet was started by the U.S Department of Defence in 1969 as a network of 4 computers
called ARPANET. Its aim was to connect a set of computers operated by several Universities
and Scientists doing military research so as to enable them share research data.
The original network grew as more computers were added to it. By 1974, 62 computers were
already attached.

In 1983, the Internet split into 2 parts; one dedicated exclusively (solely/only) to military
installations (called Milnet), and the other dedicated to university research (called the
Internet), with around 1,000 host computers.

In 1985, the Canadian government developed the BITNET to link all the Canadian Universities,
and also provided connections into the U.S Internet.

In 1986, the U.S National Service Foundation created NSFNET to connect leading U.S
universities. By the end of 1987, there were 10,000 host computers on the Internet and 1,000 on
BITNET.

In 1987, the National Science Foundation leased (acquired/rent) high-speed circuits to build a
new high-speed backbone for NSFNET. In 1988, it connected 13 regional internal networks
containing 170 LAN’s and 56,000 host computers.

The Canadian Research Council followed in 1989, replacing BITNET with a high-speed network
called CA*net that used the Internet protocols. By the end of 1989, there were almost 200,000
host computers on the combined U.S and Canadian Internet.

Similar initiatives (plans/projects) were undertaken by other countries in the world, such that by
the early 1990s, most of the individual country networks were linked together into one
worldwide network of networks.

Each of these individual country networks was different (i.e., each had its own name, access
rules, and fees structure), but all the networks used the same standard as the U.S Internet
network. So, users could easily exchange messages with each other.

By 1990s, the differences among the networks in each of the countries had disappeared, and the
U.S name; Internet began to be used to mean the entire worldwide system of networks that used
the Internet TCP/IP protocols.

A Protocol - a set of rules and standards that computers use to communicate with each other
over a Network.

Features of the Internet.

(i). The Internet is a collection of networks; it is not owned or controlled by any single
organization, and it has no formal management organization. However, there is an Internet
Society that co-ordinates and sets standards for its use.
In addition, Networks have no political boundaries on the exchange of information.
(ii). Networks are connected by Gateways that effectively remove barriers so that one type of
network can “talk” to a different type of network.
(iii). To join the Internet, an existing network will only be required to pay a small registration fee
and agree to certain standards based on TCP/IP.
The costs are low, because the Internet owns nothing, and so it has no real costs to offset.
Each organization pays for its own network & its own telephone bills, but these costs
usually exist independent of the Internet.

(iv). Networks that join the Internet must agree to move each other’s traffic (data) at no charge to
the others, just as it is the case with mail delivered through the International Postal system.
This is why all the data appear to move at the cost of a local telephone call, making the Net
a very cheap communication media.
FUNCTIONS OF THE INTERNET.
The Internet carries many kinds of traffic, and provides users with several functions. Some of
the most important functions are:

1. Communication.
Many people all over the world use the Internet to communicate with each other.

Internet communication capabilities include; E-mail, Usenet Newsgroups, Chatting and

Telnet. You can send e-mails to your friends anywhere in the world, chat with your friends,
send instant messages, etc.

2. Information retrieval.
The Internet is a library. Thousands of books, magazines, newspapers and encyclopedias can
be read on the Internet.

3. Easy-to-use offerings of information and products.

You can find information for your school assignments, buy books online, check what the
weather is like anywhere in the world, and much more.

INTERNET SERVICES.
The following are some of the services offered by Internet:

(i). Electronic mail (e-mail).

(ii). Fax services.
(iii). Conference services.
(iv). Online chatting.
(v). Downloading of programs.
(vi). Online shopping.
(vii). File transfer.
(viii). Entertainment (Games, Music and Movies).
(ix). Free information retrieval (e.g., Educational information).
(x). Formation of Discussion groups, e.g. Usenet Newsgroups.
(xi). Video Conferencing.
(xii). Access & Use of other computers
Electronic Mail (E-mail).

An E-mail is a system that enables sending & receiving of messages electronically through
computers. It is used for communication between organizations or departments in the same
organization.

E-mail is a quick, cheap, efficient & convenient means of communication with both individuals
and groups. It is faster than ordinary mail, easy to manage, inexpensive and saves paper.

With Internet mail, it is possible to send and receive messages quickly from businesses, friends
or family in another part of the world. An E-mail message can travel around the world in
minutes.

Fax services.

Fax services enable individuals & businesses to send faxes through e-mail at a lower cost
compared to the usual international Fax charges.

Conference services.

Conferencing on the Web can be defined as the dynamic exchange of all kinds of information –
text, graphics, audio, video, etc – in a situation whereby the conversations are organized by item
and allows a participant to contribute spontaneous responses to any item in the conversation.

Application of Conferencing on the Web.

The conversation can:

 Provide important information that can assist in decision-making.

 Provide any required technical support.
 Help in community-building, project management & distance learning.
 Help to organize electronic meetings, etc.
The Internet also allows you to have access to various types of information you might require to
make accurate and informed decisions, E.g., it provides information on business, education,
sports, politics, etc.

Chatting.

Internet Relay Chat (IRC) is a chatting system on the Internet that allows a large no. of people
from various locations of the world who are on the computer to chat (i.e., simultaneously hold
live and interactive electronic conversations) among themselves

You can join discussion groups on the Internet and meet people around the world with similar
interests. You can ask questions, discuss problems and read interesting stories.
Anyone interested in chatting can join a discussion forum on one of the listed topics. Only
people who happen to be signed on at the same time are able to talk because messages are not
stored.

This discussion can be an effective business tool if people who can benefit from interactive
conversation set a specific appointment to meet and talk on a particular topic.

Disadvantage.

(i). Usually, the topic is open to all without security; so intruders can participate.
Information retrieval.

The Internet is a voluntarily decentralized network with no central listing of participants or sites.
Therefore, End-users, usually working from PCs are able to search & find information of interest
located in different sites assisted by special software and data stored in readily usable formats.

The Internet gives you information on almost any subject. This is because of the Worldwide
Web (www).

The World Wide Web is a global (an international) system of connected Web pages containing
information such as, text, pictures, sound and video. The WWW is hypertext based (i.e., it is
able to access text and graphical data formatted for easy search, retrieval and display).

With the WWW, you can review Newspapers, magazines, academic papers, etc. In addition,
Governments, colleges, universities, companies and individuals offer free information on the
Internet. E.g., you can inquire (find out) about universities in Britain or America.

Note. Its major problem is finding what you need from among the many storehouses of data
found in databases and libraries all over the world.

Dowloading of Programs.

There are thousands of programs available on the Internet. These programs include; Word
processors, Spreadsheets, Electronic cards, etc.

You can therefore, look for the latest software over the Internet, e.g., you can get the latest Anti-
virus software, and in addition, retrieve a free trial issue.

Entertainment.

There are hundreds of simple games available on the Internet. These include; Chess, Football,
etc. The Internet also allows you review current Movies and hear Television theme songs.
Online Shopping

You can order goods and services on the Internet without leaving your desk. E.g., you can view
a catalogue of a certain clothes shop over the Internet and fill in an online Order form.

Commercial enterprises use the Web to provide information on demand for purposes of customer
support, marketing and sales.
File Transfer.

Data in the form of files can be transferred across the Internet from one site to another using the
File Transfer Protocol (FTP). FTP software is needed at both ends to handle the transfer. It is
through FTP that the two pieces of software manage to ‘understand’ each other.

Discussion Groups.

A Discussion group is a collection of users who have joined together to discuss some topic.

There are many discussions on different topics including Cooking, Skydiving, Politics,
Education, recreational, scientific research, etc.

Two of the commonly used discussion groups for business are;

 Usenet newsgroups.
 List Servers.
Electronic Commerce.

Many people are actively using the Internet for Electronic Commerce (i.e., doing business on the
Internet).

The use of the Internet in E-commerce is not necessary for making money as such, but mainly to
find information, improve communication and provide information.

Many people automatically focus on the retail aspect of e-commerce, i.e., selling products to
individuals. However, this is just one small part of e-commerce. The fastest group and the
largest segment of e-commerce is business-to-business settings.

There are 4 ways in which the Web can be used to support E-commerce;

(i). Electronic Store.

Electronic Store is a Website that lists all the products or services a business wishes to sell,
thus enabling customers to purchase them by using the Internet itself.

E-store sites provide physical goods and services.

 The cost of providing information on the Web is low (unlike a Catalog, in which each page
adds to the cost), and therefore, electronic stores can provide much information. In
addition, electronic stores can also add value by providing dynamic information.

E-mail can also serve the purpose of E-store. This is because, e-mail is essentially a
collection of e-stores. The mail usually provides all the computer information needed for e-
commerce, and advertises the mail to potential customers. In return, the stores pay the mail
a monthly fee or some percentage of sales.

(ii). Electronic Marketing.

E-marketing sites focus on the products or services of one company with aim of increasing
sales.

This type of site supports the sales process, but does not make actual sales. The goal is to
attract and keep customers.

By doing so, such sites provide a wealth of information about the firms and products
complete with technical details and photos. Customers can review these but cannot buy
over the Web. The idea is to encourage the user to visit a local dealer, who will then make
a sale.

Computers also use e-marketing sites to provide newsletters with information on the latest
products and tips on how to use them. Other companies enable potential customers to sign
up for notification of new product releases.

E-marketing is cheaper in many ways than traditional marketing (radio, direct marketing,
TV or print media). This is because while it costs the same to develop these traditional
media, it costs nothing to send information to the customers. It is also easier to customize
the presentation of information to a potential customer, because the Web is interactive. In
contrast, the other media are fixed once they are developed, and they provide the same
marketing approach to all who use it.

(iii). Information / Entertainment provider.

The Information/Entertainment provider supplies information (in form of text or graphics)
or entertainment. These providers provide information from many sources with an aim of
helping the users.

Several radio and TV stations are using the Web to provide broadcast of audio and video.
The Web also offers new forms of real entertainment e.g., enables new multiplayer
interactive games, which are not available in any other media. The information /
entertainment providers generate revenue by selling advertisement printouts.
(iv). Customers Service sales.
This provides a variety of information for customers after they have purchased a product or
service – to allow customers access most commonly needed information 24 hrs a day.

Many software companies post updates that fix problems so that customers can download
for themselves.

Customer service sites benefit both the company and the customers. They enable customers
to get a 24 hr support and easy access to needed information.

They often reduce the no. of staff needed by automating routine information requests that
previously had to be handled by an employee.

Information Superhighway.

A term coined by U.S Clinton administration referring to advanced information infrastructure

accessible to individuals, groups and firms.

In general, the Information superhighway can be defined as;

 A facility that provides a global electronic data interchange between computer users at a
higher rate of message exchange, and at cheaper costs. E.g., the Internet that allows
researchers, businesses, and electronic media to exchange information.
 An Information Communication Technology (ICT) network, which delivers all kinds of
electronic services – audio, video, text, and data to households and businesses.
The communication services on the superhighway can be one-to-one way (Telephones, e-mail,
fax, etc); one-to-many (Broadcasting, interactive TV, video conferencing, etc), many-to-many
(typified by bulletin boards and forums on the Internet).

Origin.

Information superhighway is a mass technology project aimed at creating a National Information

Infrastructure (NII) in the U.S.

The concept emerged as the brainchild (idea) of U.S vice president Al Gore. It is an alliance
between the Federal government and a no. of industries.

The Information superhighway describes networks of Optic fiber and Coaxial cable linked by
sophisticated switches that can deliver voice, data, image, text, and video signals all in the same
digital language.

In the U.S, it has been proclaimed (declared) as the foundation for a national transformation to an
information-based society, and a key element in the national efforts to sustain leadership in the
world economy.
Governments and industries are developing a new method of competition, which will enable
telecommunications, cable television, computer hardware and software companies, and
entertainment corporations to work together to create and operate information superhighways.
These activities will finally result into a wide range of electronic services including electronic
Shopping malls, collaborate electronic Education and distance learning, electronic Libraries,
Multimedia information, messaging, and entertainment.

Importance of services provided on the Internet.

The services offered by the Internet can be used as important tools in various ways:

1). As a research tool:

To learn about new developments or products, competitors, market news and customer opinions.

2). As an advertising / trading tool:

To help in selling goods or delivering information through the Web pages to customers on a 24-
hour basis.

3). As a communication tool:

To support communication with customers, suppliers or staff through Electronic mail (e-mail).

4). As an Entertainment channel:

Most of the Games, Movies, and Television theme songs are available for free on the Internet.

In addition, you can have live, interactive conversations with people around the world including
celebrities.

Users of the Internet.

Considering the facilities & the various tools offered, the Internet has attracted among others the
following users;

 Researchers can get information.

 Writers and Scientists use the Internet to compile, compare and analyse their work.
 Individuals use the Internet for their work or to communicate with each other.
 People with the same interests can share ideas.
 Large organizations use the Internet to communicate with each other, and also to keep in
touch with subordinate (subsidiary) companies or their suppliers.
 Students can communicate and gather information.
 Business people can advertise, communicate and sell their goods.
 Sales people use the Internet to keep in touch with their home offices.
 Buyers can do their shopping online.
Exercise (a).

1. (a). What do you understand by the term Internet?

(b). What are the other names of the Internet?
2. Describe the Functions of the Internet.
3. List 6 services that are offered on the Internet.
4. Identify 6 categories of people who can benefit through the use of the Internet.

Exercise (b).

1. Define the Internet.

2. Briefly describe six services offered by the Internet.
3. Discuss the growth of Internet in recent days.
4. Explain the importance of Information superhighway (Internet).
5. Write short notes on the following:
(a). E-commerce.
(b). Webcasting.
(c). Telnet.
(d). Information Superhighway.

CONNECTING (LOGGING ON) TO THE INTERNET.

Log On -To identify yourself & gain access to a computer. To log on, type a user name & a
password.

Facilities Needed.

To use the Internet, you must have access to it. In order to get connected to the Internet and
access the World wide Web, you will require the following facilities:

1). A Computer.
The computer to be used must have the following desirable elements;

(i). A Fast processor, e.g., Pentium 1 & above - to quickly access and download
information & programs from the Internet.
(ii). RAM memory of 32 MB & Above.
(iii). Hard disk capacity of at least 400 MB.
(iv). A high-quality Colour Screen – to enable you view the various graphics and images.
(v). Free disk space on which to download the information or programs from the Internet.
2). Web Browsers.
Web browsers are application programs that are used to retrieve Web pages from the
Internet onto your Personal Computer.
 One of the most popular Web browsers is Internet Explorer from Microsoft.

Each Web page in the World Wide Web is based on an HTML (HyperText Mark
Language) file. A Web browser decodes the information in an HTML file and displays a
Web page on your computer screen according to its instructions. This process is called
Downloading.

 Downloading is the process of copying files from one computer to another by using a
Modem or a network connection. You can also download files from the Web to your
hard disk.
 HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) -The language used to create Web pages. To
view HTML documents, use Web browsing Software.
3). Telephone lines.
4). Modem (Modulator/Demodulator).
On the Internet, computers exchange information through Telephone lines. Therefore, to
use the Internet, you need a Modem & a Telephone line.

A Modem is a device that enables you to connect to the Internet, and access information.

As a Transmitting modem, it translates computer information (which is in digital form) into

analogue form (the form that can transmit over telephone lines). This process is called
Modulation.

As a Receiving modem, it translates the information back into digital form (a form that your
computer can understand); a process called Demodulation.

The Modem must be fast. This helps to reduce the amount of time spent waiting for Web
pages, files, or messages from the Internet.

Modem speeds are expressed in Bits per second (bps). The typical speeds are 9,600 bps, 4.4
Kbps (Kilobits per second), 28.8 Kbps, 56 Kbps, etc.

5). Internet Service Provider (ISP).

When connecting to the Internet using a modem, you need to sign up with an Internet
Service Provider (ISP).

 Internet Service Provider (ISP) is a commercial organization (or a company) that

provides Internet connections, along with a set of support services usually for a fee. It
maintains a Server that is directly connected to the Internet.
 Internet Service Provider - A company or organization that provides Internet Access,
usually for a fee. To connect to your ISP, use a modem.
Most people and organizations connect to the Internet over a Telephone line through an ISP.
However, some larger businesses and institutions (such as universities) have their own
Internet connections.
 An ISP usually has a no. of Host computers. These host computers usually provide space
for the storage of user’s electronic mail messages, storage of user’s Web sites and a set of
related facilities such as, advice, support software and appropriate security.

Examples of the local ISPs include;

 Africa Online, Kenya Web, ISP Kenya, Swift Kenya, and Inter-Connect.
Connecting to an ISP involves calling the provider and setting up a PPP account. When you
open an account with an ISP, you will be provided with a User name and a Password.

(i). Username – Every time you get connected, you require a name to identify yourself on
the Internet.
(ii). Password – This is needed for security purposes. It ensures that your Internet account
is secure.
Note. ISPs charge for the services rendered.

6). Website.
This is an area in the Internet where information of a particular organization is kept. The
Website must be updated on daily basis

Content Provider - A business that uses the Internet to supply you with information such as
news, weather, business reports & entertainment.

ACCESSING THE INTERNET.

There are 3 common ways in which an individual user can access the Internet:

(a). Through a connection already setup through the computer in your organization.
Typically, the service is accessed in a similar way to other services on a LAN.
(b). Through paying for an account with an Internet Service Provider (ISP).
In order to access an ISP directly, the user will need a Personal Computer, a Modem, a
Telephone line & a suitable software in order to connect to the service. Most ISPs give help
and advice on how to connect.

(c). Through a Bulletin Board Service (BBS), e.g. CompuServe. BBS are commercially run
information providers, each with its own information services and normally offering access
to Internet services.
The BBS companies normally sell some form of start-up package.

Logging out from the Internet.

Purpose.

√ As long as you are connected to the Internet, you continue to incur Telephone and account
usage charges. This can prove to be expensive in the long run.
 It is recommended that you disconnect or log out from the Internet soon after you have
finished with a session. This is to avoid incurring extra or unnecessary charges.

1. Right-click the Connection Indicator icon on the Taskbar.

2. From the shortcut menu that appears, click Disconnect and you will automatically be logged
out.

When you log out, the Connection Indicator icon is disabled.

Note. Some browsers or ISPs automatically disconnect you from the Internet when there is

Intranets and Extranets.

What is an Intranet?

 An Intranet is an internal corporate network used in organizations to enable the sharing of

documents among coworkers. It supports users inside one organization (usually on a LAN).
 Intranet - A private network within an organization. It can connect all types of computers
within an organization.
Intranet has a private Web Server, which can be made available to the entire organization,
individual department or to specific departmental workgroups.

An Intranet uses the infrastructure and standards of the Internet and can be connected to the
Internet.

Note. Intranet applications are usually combined with the normal Web application of other
organizations, but are hidden from those outside the organization.

Extranet:

An Extranet works in much the same manner as an Intranet, but provides information to selected
users outside the organization.

E.g., a certain university can have an Internet library containing millions of articles, but only
make it available to staff and students at colleges and universities within the country.

To access the library, you must provide a password when you connect to the Internet site.

Web Browsers (Web browsing software).

A Web browser is a program that lets the user browse through information on (or surf) the Web.

Information on the Web is structured into pages. Each page has a specific address that is used to
locate and access information on that page.
A WWW browser program enables the user to either search for data by name or by specifying
locations known as Uniform Resource Location (URL).

The two common Web browsers are:

- Internet Explorer from Microsoft.

- Navigator from Netscape.

Browsing the Web.

This is also known as Navigating or ‘Surfing’ the Web.

 To Browse is to navigate the Internet or the contents of your computer.

 Browsing can also be defined as moving around and between Web pages.
Using a Web browsing software you can read documents, listen to music, watch videos, make
purchases, participate in surveys, advertise products, do research, share interests and download
files on the Web.
EXPLORING / BROWSING THE INTERNET.

Use the Internet Explorer on your Windows desktop to browse the Web.

There are several ways in which you can browse the Web pages or “surf the net”.

(a). When viewing a Web page, you can navigate the Internet by clicking Links, Underlined text
or special features that cause you to jump to another Web page.
Hyperlinks

A Hyperlink is a coloured or underlined text or a graphic that you click to ‘jump’ from one
location to another. The hyperlinks enable the user to ‘jump’ to another file, or to another
location in the same file.

All Web pages have hyperlinks. These links:

(i). Connect one part of a Web page to another part of the same Web page. This is useful
if the Web page is large.
(ii). Connect one Web page to another Website somewhere on the Web.
(iii). Connect a page to a file, such as a sound clip, video, a Spreadsheet or a Word
document.
The links can connect to objects stored anywhere on the Internet.

Hypertext links are indicated by underlined text highlighted usually in blue. Hyperlinks can
also be represented by buttons, graphics or pictures.
 To find hyperlinks on a page, move your mouse pointer over the page and where there is a
hyperlink, the mouse pointer will change into a hand with a pointing finger. When you
click a link, another Web page appears.

As you browse the Web, Internet Explorer stores the sites and pages that you visit.
Usually, the hyperlinks you previously selected are colored differently. Internet
Explorer does this to remind you that you have already visited the page identified by this
link.

(b). You can also use the Standard toolbar buttons in the Internet Explorer to move between
Web pages, or to search the Internet.
History

Internet Explorer remembers the Websites and Web pages that you have visited. It keeps
record of each Web page as it is downloaded. This is the History feature.

You can therefore, easily return to the page you have visited. To redisplay the page you have
just left, click on the Back button. To move to the next page (available only if you have moved
back), click the Forward button.

Web Hosting.

A World Wide Web Server is a computer with programs that answer requests for documents
from Clients (browsers) over the Internet. Files containing Web sites are placed on these
servers.

A Host computer is any computer connected to the Internet and stores information that has been
made available to the Web.

ISPs also use host computers to store user’s electronic mail messages, Web sites and other
related facilities such as, support software and appropriate security.

Web Address (Uniform Resource Locator – URL).

An Address is the location of a file.

Each Web page in the world has a unique Internet address or location. Internet addresses are
also called the Uniform Resource Locator (URL). E.g., the general URL for Microsoft is
http://www.Microsoft.com./

You can use addresses to find files on the Internet & your computer. You can instantly display
any Web page if you know its URL. E.g., http://www.compaq.com.

AutoComplete - A feature in the Address Bar. When you begin typing a previously used
address, this feature finishes it as you type.
How the Web Works.

Each Client computer needs an application software package called a Web browser, such as
Navigator, Internet Explorer.
Each Server on the network needs an application software package called a Web Server. There
are many different Web servers, such as those produced by Netscape, Microsoft and Apache.

In order to get a page from the Web, the user must type the Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
for the desired page, or click on a link that provides the URL. The URL specifies the Internet
address of the Web Server, the directory and the name of the specific page required. If no
directory or page is specified, the Web server will display whatever page has been defined as its
Home page. If no server name is specified, the Web browser will assume that the address is on
the same server and directory as the last request.

In order for the Web server to understand requests from the Web browser, they must use the
same standard protocol. If there was no standard, then each Web browser would use a different
way to request pages. This means that, it would be impossible for a Web browser from Netscape
to communicate with a Web server from Microsoft.
The standard protocol for communication between a Web browser and a Web server is the
HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP). An HTTP request for a Web browser to a Web server
st
has 3 parts, but only the 1 part is required, the other two are optional.

 The Request Line, which starts with a command (e.g., GET), provides the URL, and ends
with HTTP version number that the browser understands.
 The Request Header, which contains a variety of optional information such as the Web
browser being used (e.g., Internet Explorer), the date, the User ID and Password for using
the Web pages as password protected.

 The Request Body, which contains information sent to the Server, such as information from
a firm.

Note. Every Web user must provide the Internet address of the receiving computer, otherwise,
the server would not know where to send the requested page.
Some browsers also provide the requestor’s e-mail addresses as well. Most Web servers keep a
record of Internet addresses of all the requests (and the e-mail address, if provided by the
browser). Some companies use this information to make a follow up with prospective
customers.

An HTTP response for a Web server to a Web browser also has 3 parts, but only the last part is
required, the first two are optional.

 The Response Status, which contains the HTTP version number the server has used as
status code (e.g., 200 means ‘OK’, 404 means ‘Page not found’), and reason phrase (i.e., a
text description of the status code).

 The Response Header, which contains a variety of optional information such as the Web
server being used, the date, the exact URL of the page in the response body, and the format
of the body (e.g., HTML).

 The Response Body, which is the Web page itself.

Internet Addresses.

Internet addresses are strictly regulated, otherwise, someone could add a computer to the Internet
that had the same address as another computer.

Each address has 2 parts; The computer name and its domain.

The Domain is the specific part of the Internet to which the computer is connected (e.g., Canada,
Australia, etc).

The general format of an Internet address is therefore: computer.domain. Some computer

names have several parts separated by periods. For example, the main university Web server of
an imaginary University like Yairobi can be www.Yairobi.edu, while the college of Humanities
and Social Sciences server can be www.chss.Yairobi.edu.
Each domain has an address board that assigns address for its domain. The boards ensure that
there are no duplicates.

Finding Web pages (information) on the Web.

There are 3 ways you can use to find interesting and useful Web pages on the Web;

1). You could get the Web address from an advertisement.

Many businesses include their Web addresses in their Television and Print advertisements.

2). You click a link that will enable you jump from one page to another.
Many industries or organizations, magazines and topic experts maintain pages that provide
links from page to page.

3). Use of Search Engines.

Search Engines / Search Services.

 A Search engine is software that helps in locating information in the Web.

 Search engine is a tool that searches the Web for information that you want to find.
Purpose.

√ If you want to get some information concerning an area or subject of interest over the Web
but you do not know where to find it, you can use a Search engine to locate sites that contain
the information.
√ Locate particular information in a Website, e.g., if you wish to read the Sports news you can
load a Web site like http://www.cnn.com/, and then use a search engine within that site to
locate information on Sports.
The following are the various search engines:

1). Yahoo – www.Yahoo.com.

2). AltaVista – www.altavista.digital.com.
3). Excite – www.excite.com.
4). Meta Crawler – www.metacrawler.com.
5). Infoseek.
6). Lycos.
These search engines offer different kinds of searching capabilities. However, they differ in the
way they organize information in response to your request.

Downloading Web pages and programs from the Internet.

Purpose.

√ To enable the user to view Web pages without being connected to the Internet.
√ To be able to browse a site in a location that does not provide any network access.
√ In order to free your telephone lines.
Downloading a Web page.

1. Load the Web page you want to download, e.g., http://www.nationaudio.com.

2. Access all the links that you would like to read offline. Make sure that the whole Web page
is fully loaded before moving to the next one.
3. On the Favorites menu, click Add to Favorites.
4. Select the option Yes, notify me of updates and download the page for offline viewing.
5. Click OK, and then Logoff.
Downloading a program.

√ Programmers and software houses like Microsoft usually develop programs and may decide
to send a test copy to their existing clients or to publish it on the Internet for interested users
to test it for a specified period of time.
To test such software, a user will have to download the program onto the hard disk. A user
can also download a movie clip or games, etc, and view it offline to save on costs.

1. Locate a site from which you wish to download a program, e.g.,

http://softwarenow.iboost.com.
2. Select the category of programs you want to download, e.g., Games.
3. Select a game category, e.g., Racing Games.
4. Select a game you want to download.
Note. The window lists the properties of the program, e.g., version, file size. Ensure that you
understand the licence agreement, i.e., whether the program is freeware or shareware.

Freeware is a program that is absolutely free, while Shareware program is available for a
limited period of time.

5. To download the program, click on the download link, e.g., Download Cars & Brix.
6. From the File Download dialog box, select Save this program to disk option, then click
OK.
7. In the Save As dialog box, select the folder in which you wish to store the downloaded
program, then click Save.
Once the program is loaded, you can access the folder it was saved in and load it without
being connected to the Internet.

ELECTRONIC MAIL (E-MAIL).

About e-mail.

Electronic mail (also known as e-mail) is one of the common services provided by the Internet.

 E-Mail is a worldwide system for sending & receiving electronic messages from one
computer to another.
 E-Mail (Electronic mail) refers to electronic messages sent over the Internet or a network.
E-mail can contain both text & files.
With e-mail, users can create and send messages to one user, several users, or all the users on a
distribution list.

Most e-mail software enable users to send text messages. In addition, users can attach files from
Word processors, Spreadsheets, Reports, production data, etc, and then send them by e-mail.

Most E-mail packages allow you to do the same things you do with regular paper mail. You can
file messages in electronic file cabinets, forward copies of messages to other users, send “carbon
copies” of messages, and so on. The E-mail packages also allow you to filter or organize
messages by priority. E.g., all messages from a particular user (e.g., your boss) could be given
top priority, so that they always appear at the top of your list of messages.

However, E-mail is a much faster, economical & convenient way of sending messages to family,
friends and colleagues than the paper mail (usually called “Snail mail”). Messages can be sent
or received 24-hrs a day. With “Snail mail” a message or a letter is sent to the recipient through
the Post office and takes days or weeks before reaching the destination.

Components required.

For one to be able to communicate using e-mail, the following components are needed:

1). A Computer - where you will send or receive the e-mail messages.
2). An E-mail program.
Your computer must be installed with an e-mail program that lets you send, receive and
manage your e-mail messages.

Examples of E-mail programs;

 Microsoft Outlook, Outlook Express, & Microsoft Exchange from Microsoft.

 Communicator from Netscape.
 Lotus Notes.
 Eudora.
3). E-mail address of the sender & the address of the receiver.

4). An Internet Service Provider (ISP) - company who will deliver your message to the
receiver.
Once you send a letter or a message, it travels from your computer through a Modem, which
connects your computer to the Internet using the Telephone network. The Mail passes through
various computers, until it reaches the final destination.

How E-mail Works.

The figure below shows how an e-mail message can travel over a Wide Area Network (WAN)
such as the Internet.
Each Client computer in the Local Area Network (LAN) runs an e-mail software package called
User Agent, e.g., Eudora, Lotus Notes, Outlook Express, Microsoft Outlook, etc.

The user writes the e-mail messages using one of the User Agents, which formats the message
into 2 parts;

(i). The Header, which lists the source and destination e-mail addresses.
(ii). The Body, which is the message itself.

The User agent sends the message header & body to a Mail Server that runs a special
application package called a Message Mail Transfer Agent. The Message Mail Transfer Agent
in the Mail Server reads the envelope & then sends the message through the network (possibly
through dozens of Message Transfer Agents) until the message arrives at the Mail Server of the
receiver.
The Message Transfer Agent on this server then stores the message in the receiver’s mailbox on
the server.

When the receiver accesses his/her e-mail, the User Agent on the receiver’s Client computer
contacts the Message Transfer Agent on the Mail Server, and asks for the contents of the user’s
mailbox. The Message Transfer Agent sends the e-mail message to the client computer, which
the user reads using the user agent.

E-MAIL STANDARDS.
Several standards have been developed to ensure the compatibility between different e-mail
software packages.

The 3 commonly used standards are:

1). Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP).

2). X-400.
3). Common Messaging Calls (CMC).

All the 3 e-mail standards work in the same basic fashion.

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP).

SMTP is the most commonly e-mail standard used on the Internet.

SMTP defines how Message Transfer Agents operate and how they format messages sent to
them. As the name suggests, SMTP is a simple standard that permits only the transfer of text
messages. Non-text files such as graphics or Word processing documents are not permitted.

However, several standards for non-text files have been developed that can operate together with
SMTP. They include; Multi-Purpose Internet Mail Extension (MIME), Unencoded & Bin
Hex.

A different standard called Post Office Protocol (POP) defines how User agents operate and
how messages to & from the Mail Transfer Agents are formatted.

POP is gradually being replaced by a newer standard called Internet Mail Access Protocol
(IMAP).
The main difference between POP & IMAP is that, before a user can read a mail message with a
POP user agent; the e-mail message must be copied to the client’s hard disk and deleted from the
mail server. With IMAP, e-mail messages can remain stored on the mail server after they have
been read. Therefore, IMAP is beneficial to users who read their e-mail from many different
computers (e.g., at home, in office & in computer labs), because all e-mail is stored on the server
until it is deleted.

X-400

The X-400 e-mail standard was developed in 1984. It is a set of seven (7) standards that define
how e-mail is to be processed by the User agents and the Mail Transfer Agents.

Common Messaging Calls (CMC).

The CMC standard is a simpler version of the X-400 standard.

It was developed in 1994.
It is more popular than X-400, because it is simple & it is also supported by a large no. of leading
vendors/sellers.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP).

FTP enables you to send and receive files over the Internet. FTP requires an application program
on the client server and an application program on the FTP Server. Many application packages
use the FTP standard (e.g., WS-FTP).

Almost anyone can establish a FTP server, which permits anyone on the Internet to log in, send
and receive files.

There are 2 types of FTP sites;

(i). Closed.
(ii). Anonymous.

Closed FTP site.

A Closed site requires users to have permission before they can connect and gain access to the
files. Access is granted after the user provides an Account name with a secret password.
For example, a Network Manager would write a Web page using software on his/her client
computer and their user FTP to send it to a specific account on the Web Server.

Anonymous FTP site.

Anonymous is the most common type of an FTP site.

It permits any Internet user to log in using the account of anonymous.

When using the anonymous FTP, you will still be asked for a password. You can enter your
Internet e-mail address as the password.

Many files and documents available via FTP have been compressed to reduce the amount of disk
space they require.
Note. If a file that you want has been compressed by a compression program that is not in your
computer, you cannot access the file until you get the decompression program it used.

Using Lotus Notes.

One of the problems with e-mail is that, it lacks a structured way to support an ongoing
discussion. Each mail message is a separate item, unrelated to the other messages. Usually, you
can group and file e-mail messages into separate file folders, but it not possible to combine them.

Using Lotus Notes (a document database of text and graphics), documents with different
sections can be organized into a hierarchical structure of sections, documents and folders.

Lotus Notes can be used as a computer Bulletin board to support ongoing discussions. Several
topics and sub-topics can be created, and everyone or selected individuals in the organization can
be given access.
Lotus Notes can also be used to organize a discussion among certain people such as a Project
team working to improve manufacturing quality. It might reduce the amount of time the team
spent in face-to-face meetings, because many of the issues might be discussed before the meeting
actually starts.

Lotus Notes also could be used to replace standard Word processors in preparing reports. Each
team member could use Lotus Notes to write a portion of report, which could then be passed to
other team members for editing or comments.

Lotus Notes can also automate certain document-based processes (called Workflow
automation). For example, insurance claims require people from several different parts of an
Insurance company to work together to process the claim. One person might handle the initial
claim, which would then be passed to an Insurance adjuster to finish a report. Another person
would process the payment. All this paperwork could be replaced if Lotus Notes were used to
prepare and pass the documents from one person to another.

Note. Lotus Notes has the ability to replicate. Replication is the automatic sharing of
information among servers when information changes. E.g., Lotus Notes servers can be set to
replicate information they contain within any other Lotus Notes server on the network, so that a
change to a document on the server will automatically be shared with all other servers that
contain the same document.

Setting up (adding) an E-mail or News account.

To set up an e-mail account, use an e-mail program such as Outlook Express. Outlook Express
is a Web browsing software that can help you exchange e-mail messages with colleagues and
friends on the Internet or join newsgroups to trade/share ideas and information.

You will need the following information from your Internet Service Provider (ISP) or Local Area
Network (LAN) administrator:

♣ For e-mail accounts, you'll need to know;

- The type of Mail server you use (POP3, IMAP, or HTTP)
- Your Account name and Password.
- Name of the incoming mail server and,
- If you are using POP3 or IMAP, the name of an outgoing mail server.

♣ For a news account, you'll need to know;

- The name of the news server you want to connect to and, if required, your account name
and password.
To add a mail or news account.

1. On the Start menu, point to Programs, then click Outlook Express.

2. On the Tools menu, click Accounts.
3. In the Internet Accounts dialog box, click the Add button.
4. Select either Mail or News to open the Internet Connection Wizard, and then follow the
instructions to establish a connection with a mail or news server.
Tips.

 After you set up your account, just double-click the Outlook Express icon on the desktop to
begin sending and receiving e-mail.
 You can get a free mail account from Hotmail, which uses HTTP servers.

E-mail addresses.

Each user has his own e-mail address (or mailbox) in form of computer storage space to receive
messages. The mailbox is accessed via a computer terminal within the system. In addition, each
user has a password to protect access to his/her own mailbox.

Messages are drawn to the user’s attention when they enter the system.

Components of an E-mail address.

An e-mail address consists of two parts separated by the @ symbol. For example, if your e-mail
address is [email protected]:

st
(i). The 1 part of the address to the left side of the @ symbol refers to the person’s identity or
login name. It is the name or identifier of the specific individual or organization, e.g.,
“drg”.
 nd
(ii). The 2 part following the “@” symbol is the computer address. It is usually made up of 2
to 3 sub-parts to further identify the individual, organization, ISP or a country. In this
case:
 “tropicalheat” identifies the business.
 “.com” is the extension, which identifies the type of the organization.

The table below shows some extensions and what they represent: -

Extension Represents
.org A non-profit making organization
.edu An educational institution or organization
.com A commercial organization
.net Network
.mil Military
.gov Government

Sometimes, the name of the country is included in the e-mail address. E.g.,
[email protected] or [email protected].

In this case, “.co.uk” refers to a company in the United Kingdom, while “.co.ke” refers to a
company in Kenya.

Examples of E-mail addresses;

[email protected]

[email protected]

[email protected]

[email protected]

[email protected]

[email protected] (free e-mail address)

[email protected] (free e-mail address)

Exercise.
1. (a). What is E-mail?
(b). Give TWO examples of e-mail software.
(c). Give an example of an e-mail address.
2. Identify institutions whose e-mail addresses end with the following extensions:
(i). .org
(ii). .gov
(iii). .edu
(iv). .com
(v). .net
(vi). .mil
3. Identify the parts of the following e-mail address:

[email protected]

A B C D

B
C

Reading E-mail Messages.

Purpose.

√ Once an e-mail message that has been sent to you arrives at your computer, to read the
contents you must open it using the program you have installed for sending e-mail, e.g.,
Microsoft Outlook or Outlook Express.

1. Open the e-mail program, e.g., Outlook Express from the Start menu or a shortcut on the
desktop.

The Choose Profile dialog box appears to allow you to select your profile.

Note. A User Profile is a group of settings that define how the e-mail program is set up for a
particular user. It also defines through the information services how a user can send, store,
and receive messages.

2. Select your profile by clicking the down arrow on the Profile Name box, and then click OK.

Usually, all incoming messages are stored in the Inbox when you connect to Outlook
Express. The Inbox displays all the e-mail messages that you have received.

3. To open and read e-mail messages, click the Inbox icon either on the Outlook bar or on the
Folders list, and then choose the message that you want to read.
♣ To view the message in the preview pane, click the message in the message list.
♣ To open the message in a separate window, double-click the message in the message list.
The lower grid of your screen will have the full message.

4. When you have finished reading a message, you can close the window. Choose Exit on the
File menu. This will take you back to the Outlook Express window. If there are any e-mails
in the Outlook that have not been sent, a message will appear prompting you to send the e-
mail(s) at that particular time or you can send it later.

Tips

 After Outlook Express downloads your messages, you can click the Send/Recv button on
the toolbar, to read messages either in a separate window or in the preview pane.

 To view all the information about a message, such as when it was sent, click the File menu,
and then click Properties.

 As you read the items in your items in your Inbox, you can reply to, forward, or file them in
other folders that you create.

 To save the message in your file system, click Save as and then select a format (mail, text or
HTML) and location.

Reply to E-mail Messages.

Purpose.

√ If you have read a message, you may want to send a reply to the original sender.
√ If the original message that you are replying to was also copied to a no. of other people, you
may want to send a reply to all of them.

When replying to a mail message, you can choose to reply with or without the original message
insertion. The original message, sometimes referred to as the History, appears in the body of the
message, and is used for reference purposes.
Reply with the original message insertion.

1. Open the message you want to reply.

2. Click the Reply button in the Mail window. The Reply message window appears containing
the message you are replying to at the bottom.
3. Type the reply where the insertion point is.
4. When you have finished typing and editing the reply, click the Send button (if you
are online) to send the message.

Note. If you click the Send button while you are offline, the mail will be placed in the Outbox
folder and will automatically be sent the moment you are online.

Reply without the original message insertion.

To remove the original message, select the text, and then press the DELETE key or set options
in the Options dialog box.

1. On the Tools menu, click Options.

2. Click the Reading tab.
3. Under When replying to a message box, click the down arrow, then select Do not include
original message, then click OK.
4. Follow the procedure used to reply a message with the original message insertion.
This time, the Reply message window will not contain the message you are replying to at the
bottom.

Note. After replying to an e-mail, the E-Mail icon will indicate a checkmark showing that the
mail has been replied to.
Creating and sending an e-mail message.

Purpose.

√ To communicate with another user who has an e-mail address. This is cheaper than sending
fax or using the telephone especially for long distance calls.
√ It is also faster to send e-mail than to post a letter.
E.g., to send a letter around the world using e-mail takes some few minutes as compared to
the weeks ordinary mails take.

1. Start the Microsoft Outlook window.

2. On the toolbar, click the New Mail Message button.
The message composition window is displayed.

3. In the To… and/or Cc… boxes, type the e-mail addresses of each recipient.
♣ If you want to sent copies of the message to other people, type in their e-mail addresses
in the Cc… box, separating the addresses with a semicolon (;).
♣ To add e-mail names from the Address Book, click the book icon in the New Message
window next to To, Cc, and then select names.

♣ You can also send a Blind Carbon Copy (Bcc). In this case, the recipients entered
receive the message but their names are hidden from other recipients of the message.
To use the Bcc box, click the View menu, and then select Bcc field.
4. In the Subject box, type a message title.
5. In the lower grid of the message composition window, type in the message that you want to
send.
You can format the e-mail message using the formatting tools like, Bold, Font size,
Underline, etc.

6. When you have finished typing the message, editing, and spell checking, click the Send
button on the New Message toolbar.
Notes.

 To save a draft of your message to work on later, click the File menu, then click Save. You
can also click Save as to save a mail message in your file system in mail (.eml), text (.txt), or
HTML (.htm) format.

 A message that returns to the sender because it cannot reach its destination is referred to as a
Bounced message.

Checking the spelling in mail messages.

Before sending a mail message, you can spell check it to correct any spelling mistakes in the
mail.

Outlook Express uses the spelling checker provided with Microsoft Office 97 programs, such as
Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, and Microsoft PowerPoint.

1. In the New Message window, click the Spelling button on the toolbar, (or click the Tools
menu, and then choose Spelling).
2. The Spelling dialog box appears. The misspelt words are highlighted and shown in the
dialog box. Choose the correct word by selecting it, and then click the Change button.
If the word or phrase is correct but is not in the dictionary, click Ignore.

3. Once spell checking of the mail is complete, and a dialog box appears, click OK.

Formatting e-mail message text.

To add special emphasis or structure to message text-such as bold, color, or bulleted lists, and
also to add graphics and links to Web sites in your mail messages, use Hypertext Markup
Language (HTML) - the standard language for formatting text for the Internet.
To use HTML formatting on all outgoing messages.

 When you create messages using HTML formatting, only mail programs that support
HTML can read the formatting. If the recipient's mail or newsreading program does not
read HTML, the message is displayed as plain text with an HTML file attached. The
recipient can view the attached file by opening it in any Web browser.

To send the message in HTML formatting;

1. In the main window, click the Tools menu, click Options, then click the Send tab.
2. In the Mail Sending Format or News Sending Format sections, click HTML.

To use HTML formatting on an individual message.

In an e-mail message window, make sure HTML formatting is turned on, i.e., Click the Format
menu, then choose Rich Text (HTML). A black dot appears by the command when it is
selected.

To change the font, style, and size of text.

You can change the way the text looks for all your messages or you can make changes to
selected text within a message.

To change the text style for all messages.

1. On the Tools menu, click Options.

2. Click the Compose tab, then click the Font Settings button.
To format text within individual messages.

1. Select the text you want to format. To change the font for an entire message, click the Edit
menu, then click Select All.
2. On the Formatting toolbar, click the buttons for the options you want.

To format a paragraph.

1. Click anywhere in the paragraph, or select the text you want to format.
2. Use either the Formatting toolbar or the commands on the Format menu to change the text.

To Do this

Change the indentation of a paragraph Click the Increase Indent or Decrease

Indent button on the Formatting toolbar.

Add a horizontal line Click where you want the line to appear, and
then click the Insert Horizontal line button
on the Formatting toolbar.

Format text written in Rich Text (HTML) mode Click the Format menu, point to Style, and
then choose an option.

To create a numbered or bulleted list.

1. In your message, click where you want the list to start.

2. On the Format menu, point to Style, then click either Numbered List or Bulleted List.
3. Type the first item in the list. When you press ENTER, another list entry is started on the
next line.
To end the list, press ENTER twice.
Inserting items in a message.

To insert a Business card in all messages.

1. On the Tools menu, click Options, then select the Compose tab.
2. In the Business Cards section, select the Mail or News check box, and then select a business
card from the drop-down list.

Notes.

 To change information in a business card, click the Edit button.

 To add a business card or signature to an individual message, in a message window, click

the Insert menu, then click either Signature or My Business Card.

To include a sound in a message.

1. Click anywhere in the message window.

2. On the Format menu, point to Background, and then click Sound.
3. Enter the name of the file you want to include and the number of times you want the file to
play.

To insert a picture in a message.

1. In the message, click where you want the image to appear.

2. On the Insert menu, click Picture, then click Browse to find the image file.
3. Enter Layout and Spacing information for the image file as needed.
Notes.

 If message recipients are not able to view your inserted images, click the Tools menu, and
then click Options. Click the Send tab, click HTML Settings, and then make sure that
Send pictures with messages is selected. Then resend your message.
 To insert a background picture in your message, in the message window, click the Format
menu, point to Background, then click Picture. Click the Browse button to search for the
file you want to use.

Attaching files to e-mail messages.

Purpose.

√ You can attach a copy of any type of file such as a document, spreadsheet, graphic image or a
presentation to your e-mail messages.

1. Click the New Message button.

2. In the Message Composition dialog box, enter the e-mail address and type in the message to
be sent.
3. Click where you want the file attachment to appear, then click the Insert File button to
display the Insert File dialog box.
4. Locate the folder that contains the file you want to attach, and then click the file.
To select multiple files, hold down the CTRL as you click each of the files.

5. Click the OK button.

The attached file is displayed as an icon in the body of the message. The icon indicates the
file type and name. e.g., Sales Results.xls

6. Click the Send button.

To open or view the attached file.

Documents that contain file attachments display a paper clip image in the view or folder next to
the document file.

Once the document is open, Microsoft Outlook displays an icon representing the attachment.

Note. You must have the application in which the attachment was composed in order to open it.
The MIME (Multi-purpose Internet Mail Extension) type of file enables Internet browsers to
access an Internet mail file without prompting the user to specify the program used to create the
attached file.

1. In the Inbox, select the e-mail message that contains the attachment.
2. Double-click the e-mail message to open it.
3. Double-click the icon that represents the attachment.

Deleting an attachment.

1. Open the e-mail message that contains the attachment.

2. To delete the attached file, click the file icon, then press the Delete key.

Organizing E-mail messages.

Purpose.

√ You can use Outlook Express to organize your incoming messages and make it easy to send
mails.

To use your online time efficiently, use Outlook Express to find messages, automatically sort
incoming messages into different folders, keep messages on a mail server, or delete them
entirely.

Organizing the Inbox.

You can organize the messages in your Inbox quickly by sorting them.
To quickly sort messages by Subject, Sender or the Date received, click on the respective column
header. E.g., to sort your messages in alphabetical order by sender, click on From in the column
header.

To create a Mail folder.

1. On the File menu, click New, then choose Folder.

2. Enter the name of the folder in the Name box, e.g., My Own.
3. Select the Inbox folder so that the mail folder created will become a subfolder of the Inbox.
4. You can add details, such as a description of the folder in the Description box, then click
OK.

To move or copy a message to another folder.

1. In the message list, select the message (s) you want to move or copy.
2. On the Edit menu, click Move to Folder or Copy to Folder, then select the folder you want
to move or copy the message to.

To delete a mail message.

1. In the message list, select the message.

2. On the toolbar, click the Delete button (or press the Delete key).

Notes.

 To restore a deleted message, open the Deleted Items folder, and then drag the message back
to the Inbox or other folder.

 If you don't want messages to be saved in the Deleted Items folder when you quit Outlook
Express,
1. Click the Tools menu, then click Options.
2. On the Maintenance tab, select the checkbox labeled Empty messages from the
'Deleted Items' folder on exit.
 To manually empty all deleted items,

1. Select the Deleted Items folder.

2. On the Edit menu, click Empty Deleted Items Folder.

Sending a Web page by e-mail.

Purpose.

√ You may find some interesting and useful material on the Internet that you would like to
share with friends and colleagues.

You can send Web pages by e-mail to other people even if the recipients are not connected to
the Internet.

1. Access the Web page you want to send.

2. Click the File menu, point to Send, then click Page By E-mail or Link By E-mail.
3. If necessary, choose the correct profile to use from the Profile dialog box, i.e., Outlook
Express, and click OK.
4. In the Message dialog box, enter the address of the recipient, then click the Send button.

Note. You must have an e-mail account and an e-mail program set up on your computer.

Blocking Unwanted messages.

You can control the mail and news messages you get in Outlook Express . You can block certain
people from sending you mail, you can hide conversations that don't interest you, and you can
guard against being sent damaging code in mail by setting security levels.

To block messages from a sender or domain.

You can block messages from a particular sender or domain.

 The Domain is the name following the @ symbol in an e-mail address.

 Domain - A group of networked computers that share information & resources.

When you block a sender or domain, no e-mail or news message from that sender or domain will
arrive in your Inbox or in the news messages you read.

E-mail from blocked senders goes directly into your Delete folder while Newsgroup messages
from blocked senders are not displayed.

1. From your e-mail Inbox or the list of messages in a newsgroup, select a message from a
sender you want to block.
2. On the Message menu, click Block Sender.
The e-mail address of the sender will appear in the Address box. You can type a different
address or domain in the Address box if you wish.

3. Select the blocking option you want: mail, news, or both kinds of messages.

Important. Blocking a sender applies to standard POP mail only. It does not apply to HTTP
mail (Hotmail) or IMAP messages

Differences between E-mail and General Post office mail.

1). E-mail is computerized, while Post office mail is manually operated.

2). Post office mail is slow, while E-mail is fast & has a wide area of coverage.
3). E-mail is more secure.

Advantages of E-mail.

Electronic mail has several advantages over regular mail.

(i). It is cheap & economical.

It costs almost nothing to transmit an e-mail message over the network, i.e., there is no
need for stamps, envelopes, etc.
(ii). It is secure, i.e., access to a user’s mailbox can be restricted by use of a password.
(iii). It is faster, i.e., mails can be sent instantly.
The delivery of an e-mail message normally takes seconds or minutes, depending on the
distance to the receiver.

(iv). It is efficient, i.e., a message prepared only once can be sent to several people.
(v). It is convenient.
With E-mail, you can send your messages when it is convenient for you and your
recipients respond at their convenient times.

(vi). E-mail is cheaper in terms of the time invested in preparing the message.

The expectations and culture of sending & receiving e-mail are different from that of
sending regular letters. Regular business letters & inter-office memos are expected to be
error-free and formatted according to certain standards. In contrast, most e-mail users
accept less well-formatted messages and slight typographical errors are overlooked. So,
less time is spent perfecting the appearance of the message.

(vii). E-mail can act as a substitute for the Telephone calls, thus allowing the user to avoid
telephone tag (i.e., the process of repeatedly exchanging voice mail messages because
you or the other person may not be available when the other calls).
E-mail can often communicate enough of a message so that the entire “conversation” will
take less time than a phone call.

E-mail is particularly effective for multinational organizations, which have people working in
different time zones around the world.

Disadvantages of E-mail.

(i). The initial installation cost is higher.

(ii). Messages may be lost before they are read due to virus infections.
(iii). Messages may not be kept for future reference due to the high cost of storage, i.e., it
requires regular deletion of messages from the hard disk.

Exercise.
1. How does one send an e-mail message?
2. What is the advantage of filing e-mail messages when you can leave them in the Inbox and
still have them for future reference?
3. List THREE levels of importance one can set on an e-mail message.
4. Lucille has received an e-mail message that contains an attachment. Can she use any
application to open the attached file? Explain.
5. What are the advantages of e-mail over the ordinary post office mail.
6. Give THREE differences between electronic mail and the Post office mail?

Using the Address Book.

Purpose.

√ The Address Book is a directory of personal details, including e-mail addresses, for the
people to whom you send messages (called Contacts).

It is used to store/keep track of e-mail addresses, mailing addresses, phone numbers, and
other information about your friends and also provides space for notes.

You can store such addresses in the Address Book so as to address mails more easily, i.e.,
each time you want to send e-mail messages, you simply select the names from the list of
addresses.

This will save the time used to enter lists of e-mail addresses as well as help maintain their
accuracy. E.g., an e-mail address like [email protected] can be difficult to
remember. In addition, one can easily make a typing error when typing the address.

The Address Book is accessible from Internet Explorer, Outlook Express and NetMeeting,
thus enabling you to keep one list of addresses that are accessible by various programs.

To add a contact to the Address Book.

1. To open the Address Book, click the Address Book button.
There can be several types of address books in the Address Book dialog box including the
Global Address list and Personal Address Book.

2. In the Show names from the box, select the type of address book you want to use.

The Global Address list is the address book that contains all e-mail addresses for users,
groups, and distribution lists in your organization that you can address messages to. The
Administrator creates and maintains this address book.

The Personal Address Book is the address book used to store personal distribution lists you
frequently address messages to, such as a list of your friends.

3. Click the New Entry button.

4. Specify the entry type of the contact, i.e., whether it is an Internet address or an entry for
a distribution list.
5. Type in the display name for the address as well as the full e-mail address.
6. Complete the dialog box with the rest of the contact details using the other tabs, e.g.,
Business or Phone Numbers, then click OK.
The contact address is added to the Address Book.

To edit a contact in the Address Book.

1. Open the Address Book.

2. Select the contact that you want to edit.
3. On the File menu, click Properties.
4. Make the necessary changes to the information, then click OK.

To create a contact from a mail message.

When you receive a mail message, you can add the sender’s details (name and e-mail address) to
your Address Book.
1. From the Inbox, right-click a message.
2. Select Add sender to Address Book, from the shortcut menu that appears.

To delete a contact from the Address Book.

1. Open the Address Book.

2. Select the address that you want to remove from the Address book.
3. Click the Delete button (or press the Delete key).
4. Click Yes to confirm that you want to delete the name or entry.

To create a distribution list.

If you send mails to the same group of people frequently, you can create a group address list.
Group address lists are known as Distribution lists.

When you address a message to that group, each individual in the group receives it.

Note. You must have a Personal Address Book set up in order to be able to create a personal
distribution list.

1. Open the Address Book.

2. Click the New Entry button.
3. In the Select the entry type box, click Personal Distribution List, and then click OK.
4. In the Name box, type a name for the group, e.g. Sales Dept., then click the Add/Remove
Members button.
5. To add members to the group, select a contact or name from the left hand list box, then click
the Members button (or double-click on a name) to move the name to the right list box.
The contact is copied to the Personal Distribution List box.

6. Repeat step 5 until you have all the names you want in your group in the Personal
Distribution List, then click OK.
The group or distribution list is usually listed in the Address Book.

To send a message using the Address Book or distribution list.

1. In the Microsoft Outlook window, click File then select the New Mail Message.
2. Click the To… button to open the Address Book.
3. Select the contact names from the list or select the distribution list, then click on To ->.

Note. To see the full e-mail addresses, select the name of the person from the lists and click
on Properties button.

4. Click OK to return to the message composition dialog box.

5. Type out the rest of the message and click on Send.

Exercise.

1. What are the advantages of using the Address Book as opposed to typing e-mail addresses
each time you send e-mail?

READING MAIL MESSAGES OFFLINE.

Once you have opened the E-mail program, it is not necessary for you to be connected directly so
that you can read & write your e-mail messages. You may choose to work offline to save on
costs.

When you are offline, Outlook Express downloads mail messages to your local computer.
When you connect (or choose to work online) again, messages in your Outbox are sent,
messages you marked for deletion are removed, and all other actions taken offline are completed
at once.

There are 2 situations where it is beneficial to use Outlook Express offline:

(i). If your ISP charges you by the hour or if you have only one phone line. Under
these conditions, you might want to reduce time spent online.
(ii). If you use a Laptop to read your messages while you are traveling or any other time you
are not connected to the Internet.

To set up Outlook Express to reduce online time.

1. On the Tools menu, click Options.

2. On the Connection tab, select Hang up after sending and receiving.
If you connect to an IMAP or HTTP server, click the server name in the folder list, and then
make sure that the items you want to view offline are checked.

This procedure can be used to set up Outlook Express so that it automatically disconnects after
you select Send and Receive from the Tools menu.

You can then read and compose messages offline without incurring charges or tying up a phone
line.

Note. To reconnect to send or receive messages, click the Tools menu, point to Send and
Receive, and then select the option you want.

To read messages while you are away from your Internet connection.

1. On the Tools menu, select Options, then click the General tab.
2. Under the field labeled If my computer is not connected at this time, select Connect only
when not working offline.
If you connect to an IMAP or http server, click the server name in the folder list, make sure

that the items you want to view offline are checked, and then click Sync Account.

3. On the File menu, click Work Offline.

Note. To check the type of account you have, click the Tools menu, and then click Accounts.
Select your e-mail account and then click Properties. The account type is listed on the
Advanced tab.
Viewing and posting to Newsgroups.

What are newsgroups?

A Newsgroup is a collection of messages posted by individuals to a News server (a computer

that can host thousands of newsgroups).

Some newsgroups are "owned" by someone who reviews the postings, can answer questions,
delete inappropriate messages, etc.

Anyone can post messages to a newsgroup. This is because, Newsgroups do not require any kind
of membership or joining fees.

To use newsgroups in Outlook Express, your Internet Service Provider must offer links to a
news server. After you set up an account for the server you want in Outlook Express, you can
read and post messages in any of the newsgroups stored on that news server.

To switch between mail and news reading.

 In the Folders list, click Inbox to go to your e-mail, or click a news server name or specific
newsgroup to visit newsgroups.

To find newsgroups of interest.

1. In the Folders list, click a server name, then click the Newsgroups button.
2. In the Display newsgroups which contain box, type the words you want to search for.
To subscribe to a newsgroup.

Subscribing ensures that the newsgroup is included in your Folders list for easy access.

You can subscribe to a newsgroup in any of the following ways:

(a). When adding a news server, Outlook Express prompts you to subscribe to newsgroups on
that server.

(b). Click a news server name in your Folders list, and then click the Newsgroups button. Select
the newsgroup that you want to subscribe to, and then click the Subscribe button.

Note: When you double-click a name in the Newsgroup list, a subscription is automatically
generated.

(c). When you click a newsgroup, its name appears in your Folders list. Right-click the name,
and then click Subscribe.
Tips. To cancel your subscription to a newsgroup,

1. Click the Newsgroups button, click the Subscribed tab, select the group you want,
and then click the Unsubscribe button.
-Or-

Right-click the newsgroup in your Folders list, then click Unsubscribe.

To view a newsgroup without subscribing to it.

To find out if a specific newsgroup is right for you, read some of the messages in it.
1. From the Tools menu, select Newsgroups to open the Newsgroup Subscriptions dialog box.
2. Select the news server you want in the Accounts list. All of the newsgroups on that server
appear on the All tab.
3. Select the newsgroup you want to view, and then click Go To.

Note. The first time you view a newsgroup, it may take several minutes to download the
messages. The next time you go to that newsgroup, it downloads faster, because Outlook Express
downloads only new messages.

To read newsgroup messages.

Go to a newsgroup and look through the message list for a message you want to read (you may
need to scroll).

 To view the message in the preview pane, click the message once.

 To view the message in a separate window, double-click the message in the message list.

To read and send international messages.

Outlook Express can usually display messages in the language in which they were sent.
However, some messages, particularly those from newsgroups, often do not have enough
information (or the information is incorrect) in the header file to display the correct language.

To change the language encoding for a message you are reading.

 In the message window, click the View menu, point to Encoding, and then click the language
encoding you want to use.

To set the default encoding for reading messages.

1. On the Tools menu, click Options. On the Read tab, click Fonts.
2. Select a language at the top, and then click the Set as Default button.

Posting messages to newsgroups.

There are several ways that you can post messages, depending on whether you are posting a
new message or replying to one and how widely you want it distributed.

1. In the Folders list, select the newsgroup you want to post a message to.
2. On the toolbar, click the New Post button.

Note. To send your message to multiple newsgroups on the same news server, click the icon next
to Newsgroups in the New Message dialog box. In the Pick Newsgroups dialog box, hold down
the CTRL key to select multiple newsgroups, and then click Add.

3. Type the Subject of your message. Outlook Express cannot post a message that does not
contain a subject.
4. Compose your message, and then click the Send button.

To reply to a newsgroup message.

1. In the message list, click the message you want to reply to.
2. To reply to the author of the message by e-mail, click the Reply button on the toolbar.
To reply to the whole newsgroup, click the Reply Group button on the toolbar.

3. Type your message, and then click Send.

Note. To view information about a newsgroup message, such as when it was sent, select the
message, click the File menu, and then click Properties.

To prevent newsgroup messages from automatically downloading.

On the Tools menu, click Options.

On the Read tab, clear the following check box: Automatically download messages when
viewing in the Preview Pane.

To view newsgroups efficiently.

View only unread news messages in a newsgroup.

1. Open the newsgroup, click the View menu, point to Current View, and then click Hide
Read Messages.

View the replies to a particular message in a newsgroup.

1. Click the plus sign ( + ) next to the message. The replies to that message appear below it. A
message with its replies is called a "conversation."

To watch a conversation.

In both mail and news, you can watch a conversation that is of particular interest you. A
conversation is an original message and all its replies.

1. In your Inbox or newsgroup message list, select the conversation you wish to watch.
2. On the Message menu, click Watch Conversation.
If your message list's Watch/Ignore column is turned on, the watch icon will appear next to
all the messages of a watched conversation.

READING NEWSGROUP MESSAGES OFFLINE.

Offline newsreading enables you to read newsgroup messages without being connected to the
Internet, saving connection costs.
To do this, you must subscribe to the newsgroup whose messages you want to read offline, mark
it to specify whether you want to see headers or whole messages, and then transfer them to your
computer (synchronize). Once this is done, you can log off from the Internet and then read the
messages at your leisure.

Reading message headers only, gives you the subject, author, and size of the message.

To set up newsgroups for offline news reading.

For newsgroups you subscribe to, you can set up Outlook Express to make messages or headers
available offline by synchronizing. This enables you to read them at your leisure when you are
not connected to the Internet.

1. From the Folders list, select a news server.

2. In the main window, select one or more newsgroups you subscribe to whose messages you
want to read offline. (To select multiple newsgroups, hold down the CTRL key while you
click the newsgroups.)
3. Click the Settings button, and then click to mark what you want transferred from the server
to your computer during synchronization:
 All Messages,
 New Messages Only (new to the server since you last synchronized), or
 Headers Only (subject, author, date, and size of message).
4. Click the Sync Account button.

Exercise.

1. (a). When can you work offline?

(b). Why should you work offline?

Methods of Accessing Computer and Locating Files.

(1). Gopher:
 This is a client/server tool that enables the user to locate almost all textual information
stored on Internet servers through a series of easy-to-use or understand, hierarchical menus
that provide point-and-click interfaces.

The Internet has thousands of Gopher server sites throughout the world. Each gopher site
contains its own system of menus listing related topics, local files, and other relevant
gopher sites.
To search for a specific topic or select a related item from a menu, activate the gopher
software. The server will automatically transfer you to the appropriate file on that server or
the selected server wherever it is located in the world. Once on the distant server, you are
presented with more menus of files and Internet addresses of other gopher site servers that
might interest you. You can then move from site to site locating information that you want
anywhere in the world. After finding the information or files you want, you are free to
browse, read them online, or download them onto your own computer for searching for text
that appears in gopher menus.

(2). Archie:

This is a tool for locating data on the Internet that performs keyword searches of an actual
database of documents, software, and data files available for downloading from servers
around the world.

An individual Archie database can list only a small percentage of the files in the world.
However, clicking on the relevant listing from one Archie server will bring you to another
computer system where relevant files are stored. While on the other computer, the Archie
server may provide other relevant references, allowing you to continue your search for
related files, moving from database to database, library to library, until you locate what
you need.

Archie database searching uses the subject keywords entered such as “telecommuting” or
“inflation” to display a list of sites that contain files on that topic. Once you find the files
you want, you may use a file transfer program to download them.

(3). WAIS (Wide Area Information Servers):

This is a tool for locating data on the Internet that require the name of the databases to be
searched based on keywords.
Once you specify specific database names and key identifying words, WAIS searches for
the keywords in all the files in those databases. When the search is completed, you are
given a menu listing all the files that contain your keywords.

(4). The Word Video Web:

 The Web is another information retrieval tool similar to gophers, Archie, and WAIS. It is
widely used for commercial purposes on the Net due to the fact that, it is attractive, easy to
use, and helpful in publishing or providing information to anyone interested.

(5). Home Page:

Anyone willing to offer information through the Web must first establish a Home Page (a
WWW text & graphical display that welcomes the user and explains the organization that
has established the page). The Home page will lead the user to other pages.
All the pages of an organization are known as a Website.

Home pages combine text, hypermedia, graphics and sound, unlike the other methods of
locating information on the Net, which are text-based. This means that, home pages can
handle all types of communication, while making it easy to link resources that are far apart.

Graphics allow organizations to communicate more effectively, making their own material
more appealing to the eye, more informative, and easy to understand.

Hypermedia provides a point-and-click connection to related information within the same

document, between documents on the same computer, or to documents located on another
computer anywhere in the world (as long as the computer is connected to the Net, and the
hypermedia connection has been programmed in).

Sound allows some of the Web displays to talk or play music.

Note. The specific hypermedia technology used in the Web is known as Hyperlinks.
Within any web document, there are certain words or graphics that are highlighted (usually
appear bold, in a different colour, underlined, or a combination of these). The highlighted
objects have hyperlinks embedded within them that contain the path to another location
within the same document, a document on the same computer, or a document on another
computer.
Hyperlinks allow the user to move with ease within complex documents or across the
network. If the reader of the document wants more information on the highlighted word,
he/she double-clicks the word, and quickly that other information will be displayed, even if
it is stored in another part of the world.

Advantages of Hyperlinks.

(i). It is easy to use.

(ii). The user is free to jump from place to place following his/her own logic and interest,
and does not have to move according to a static, pre-programmed, linear sequence.
The user moves around almost as easily as a book reader might follow keywords and
jump around an encyclopedia.

To navigate the Web requires a graphics Computer to link to the Internet. The user must also
have a special software tool to navigate the Web known as Web Browser.
BENEFITS FROM THE USE OF THE INTERNET.

1). Reduces the Cost of Communication.

Before the Internet, organizations had to build their own Wide Area Networks or subscribe
to Value-Added Network (VAN) service.
Many organizations find the Internet more cost-effective than building their own networks or
paying VAN subscription fees. Organizations use the Internet to fulfill a wide range of
communication needs. This lowers other communication costs, including their network
management expenses, telephone and Fax costs.
Reduced communication costs are beneficial particularly to small businesses because it
sometimes enables them to compete with larger companies in the markets that would
otherwise be closed to them.

2). Enhances Communication & Co-ordination.

Global companies use the Internet as an important instrument for coordinating their
activities. Such companies have set up internal Web sites to keep employees informed about
company developments. Through the Web, employees are able to see a company Calendar,
the employee Policy manual, product Brochures, interactive Training tools, and even stock
quotes.

The Internet has made it easier and less expensive for companies to co-ordinate small staffs
when opening new markets or working in isolated places, because they do not have to build
their own networks.

3). Accelerates the Distribution of Knowledge.

To speed product development and also to react to an emerging problem, information

gathering must be quick and easy.

The Internet is very useful in the modern society, which is increasingly dependent on
knowledge. Organizations are using E-mail and the availability of databases all over the
world to gain access to information in such areas as Business, Science, Law, and
Government. The Internet can quickly link a computer user sitting at a computer screen to
mountains of data (including Graphics) all over the world, which would otherwise be too
expensive and too difficult to get.

4). Improves Customer service and satisfaction.

Organizations can also use the Internet to communicate efficiently to make product
information, ordering and technical support easier and immediately available.
 A company can establish a Website on the Internet in order to distribute useful product
information to its customers and product users. It can also use the Internet to give
engineering support to its customers without the involvement of engineering staff.

5). Facilitates Sales and Marketing.

The Internet provides opportunities for firms to market and sell their products in a way that
does not offend others. This is because, the Internet is a passive instrument, i.e., it requires
potential customers to seek out offerings by companies rather than having those companies
actively reach out to potential customers, as is the case in most marketing and advertising.

Retailers update their Web page offerings frequently as required. Suppliers can also update
technical materials used by customers easily. Therefore, the Internet assist buyers and sellers
make contacts.
Firms use their Websites to distribute more marketing information. A firm can include its
Web address in product advertisements and design their site for visitors to browse
information on pricing, press releases on new products, technical manuals and sales
brochures.

PROBLEMS FACING THE INTERNET.

1). Lack of Security.

Lack of security is one of the reasons why the Internet, while being widely used to
facilitate transactions, is still in limited use to carry out transactions.
When large amounts of data are stored in electronic form, they are exposed to more kinds of
threats/dangers than when they exist in manual form.

Through data communication networks, information systems in different locations on the

Internet are interconnected. The potential for unauthorized access, abuse or fraud is not
limited to a single location but can occur at any access point in the Internet.

Internet Hackers have found ways of stealing passwords as they pass through one site and
use them to break into computer system at other sites all over the world.

The hackers can get access to company’s strategic business plans, profit reports, product
development information, pricing data, marketing plans, sales contracts, and scientific
research data. Such information is too sensitive and companies are unwilling to have it
accessed by unauthorized people.

2). Technology Problems.

(a). The Internet lacks standards for accessing the net and sending e-mails. A no. of
incompatible ways for accessing the net exist, allowing specific users to perform certain
functions but not others.
 (b). The lack of standards also affects the ability of organizations to establish a stable link to
the Internet. As the traffic on the Internet becomes more complex, it can bring
problems if it does not have good technical support.

(c). Many people and organizations are sending so much data through the Net, much of it in
graphics form, such that telecommunication links are already overloaded. Frequent
users are unable to access the net, while those who use the graphics-based Web
regularly find connecting to the intended Server very slow or even almost impossible
during busy times.

(d). Moreover, the growing need for bandwidth due to graphics will only expand as the
transmission of sound and full-motion video expands. All this is raising the cost of
using the Net. Some firms are already discovering that they need more expensive
telecommunications connections, Workstations or higher speed computers with
improved graphics capability, and even Information system specialists with skills
related specifically to the Internet.

(e). Individuals and organizations in less developed countries with poor Telephone lines,
limited hardware and software capacity or Government controls on communication will
not be able to take full advantage of Internet resources.

(f). Due to the fact that there is no a comprehensive method of locating and keeping track of
pages in the World Wide Web (www), Internet users often spend a lot of time in futile
(unsuccessful) searches, despite the many new tools and planned indexes to the Web.
There is no good technology enough to filter/sort out irrelevant information while
allowing people to access the specific information they need.

3). Legal Issues.

Until a greater clarity on several legal issues is obtained, doing business on the Internet will
become unreliable.

Laws governing E-commerce are mostly non-existing or are just being written.
There are several open questions that still exist such as, the legality of E-mail contracts, the
role of electronic signatures, and the application of copyright laws to electronically copied
documents.

4). Anti-Commercial culture.

Initially, the Internet was a scientific and academic tool. As it grew, a strong anti-
commercial culture grew with it.
Internet users have shown themselves unwilling to accept the Internet mail. Many
commercial users also fear that allowing commercial organizations to add very many
unasked for marketing messages will make the Internet E-mail difficult to manage.
 Thus, while businesses remain free to use the Internet for E-mail, research, and other forms
of information exchange, they will have to learn new ways to do their marketing on the
Internet; ways that do not offend the other users.

Exercise I.

1. State the various methods of accessing computer and locating files.

2. Describe the main benefits from the use of the Internet.
3. Give a brief view of the main problems of the Internet.

Exercise II.

1. Briefly describe four advantages of using Internet to disseminate information compared to

other conventional methods. (8 marks).
2. One of the problems of using Internet for business is insecurity. What are some of the other
problems and what controls should be put in place in order to solve the problems?. (4 marks).
3. Your manager wishes to be connected to the Internet. He already has a powerful Personal
Computer (PC), a Printer and access to a Telephone line. However, he understands that he
will need a Modem.

Required:

(a). State why a Modem is required to connect him to the Internet. (2 marks).
(b). Suggest any four application areas in which you would expect a Supermarket retail
manager to use the Internet. (4
marks).
4.