NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

COURSE CODE: PHY 409

COURSE TITLE: ELEMENTARY PARTICLE PHYSICS

 Course Code PHY 409
Course Title ELEMENTARY PARTICLE PHYSICS
Course Developer DR. OLORODE, D. E

PHYSICS DEPARTMENT
UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS

Programme Leader Dr. Ajibola S. O.

National Open University
of Nigeria
Lagos
 PHY 409

ELEMENTARY PARTICLE PHYSICS

MODULE 1

UNIT 1 1.0 INTRODUCTION

This module is a study of elementary particles, what they are, how they are
produced, how they behave and how they fall into families depending on
their various properties. Each of the families has its own spin which is a
major instrument in grouping the particles. The particles possess some
properties which are usually referred to as quantum properties. The
properties allow us to group them into the various families that exist. In this
module we will see how these sub-atomic particles can be produced,
observed and grouped into families.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this study are:
i) to know what elementary particles are
ii) to know how they are produced
iii) to identify equipments to detect particles
iv) to know the properties of the particles and
v) to be able to group particles into their various families
 3.0 TYPES OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES
Elementary particles are numerous and they belong to groups and families
depending on their spin quantum numbers and other properties. Shortly, you
will get to know the families, their properties and you will be able to group
them. However, it is worth noting that some of these particles have integer
spins; others have half- integer spins while some others possess fractional
charges.
3.1 ELEMENTARY PARTICLES
There are many elementary particles known, all of them are termed
elementary because they are assumed to be the basic building blocks of
matter in understanding the properties of matter. More than 200 subatomic
particles have been discovered so far, all detected in sophisticated particle
accelerators.
These particles are studied because their study can lead to a deeper
understanding of nature.

3.1.1 DEFINITION OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES

An elementary particle is one that is not known to have a substructure; that
is, it is not known to be made up of smaller particles. If an elementary
particle truly has no substructure, then it is one of the basic building blocks
of the universe from which all other particles are made. Elementary particles
therefore, are particles with no measurable internal structure; that is, they are
not composed of other particles. They are the fundamental objects
of quantum field theory. Many families and sub-families of elementary
particles exist. Elementary particles are classified according to
their spin. Fermions have half-integer spin while bosons have integer spin.
 3.1.2 ORIGIN / PRODUCTION OF ELEMENARY
PARTICLES
Some of the particles were first observed in cosmic rays and this discovery
opened the way to many other new particles discovery. A good example is
the muon. Elementary particles are high energy particles, hence they are
produced in high energy chambers like the accelerators where fast –moving
particles collide to generate other lighter particles.
One good example is the collision of a proton with another proton in an
accelerator. This collision will produce a neutron, a positive pion and
another proton as shown below.

p + p → p + n +π +

p
p
n
p
π+

3.1.3 DETECTION OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES

These particles can be detected using any of the particle detectors in physics.
The particle detectors can be the Gaseous ionization detectors like:
Cloud chamber

Ionization chamber

Proportional counter

Multi-wire Proportional Chamber

 Drift chamber

Time projection chamber

Geiger-Müller tube

Spark chamber.

Apart from these, there are also Solid-state detectors like:

semiconductor detectors

solid-state track detectors

Cherenkov detector

Scintillation counter

Photo multiplier or Photodiode / Avalanche photodiode

3.2 PARTICLE FAMILIES

Elementary particles are grouped into families according to their properties
and behavior / interactions with other particles. They can be either fermions
(with half- integral spins) or bosons ( with integer spins). The families
include :
i) the quarks and the leptons which are fermions
ii) the hadrons ( which are the mesons and the baryons)
iii) the hyperons
The last two families here are bosons.
 3.2.1 QUARKS
Quarks are elementary particles with fractional charges. They also possess
half- integer spins and so they are fermions. There are six quarks and six
corresponding anti-quarks . There are no free quarks in nature, i.e. quarks do
not exist by themselves. All quarks must be bound to another quark or anti-
quark by the exchange of gluons. This is called quark confinement. Let us
look at them on a table below with their properties.

Name Symbol Charge e Mass (MeV/c2)

up u u +2⁄3 1.5–3.3
charm c c +2⁄3 1,160–1,340
top t t +2⁄3 169,100–173,300
down d d −1⁄3 3.5–6.0
strange s s −1⁄3 70–130
bottom b b −1⁄3 4,130–4,370

3.2.2 LEPTONS

There are 12 fundamental fermions, made up of six quarks and six leptons.
Three of the leptons are neutrinos, and the remaining three have electric
charge of −1 each .These are the electron, the muon and the tauon. The table
below shows the lepton family with some properties.

Charge Mass
Name Symbol Antiparticle
e (MeV/c2)

Electron e− e+
−1 0.511
 Charge Mass
Name Symbol Antiparticle
e (MeV/c2)

Electron
νe νe 0
neutrino

µ− µ+
Muon −1 105.7

Muon neutrino νµ νµ 0 < 0.170

τ− τ+
Tau −1 1,777

Tau neutrino ντ ντ 0 < 15.5

3.2.3 HADRONS
These are particles that interact by the strong interaction and the general
classification includes mesons and baryons. The class of hadrons is further
described by the two families below.

3.2.4 MESONS AND BARYONS

Mesons are intermediate mass particles which are made up of a quark and an
anti-quark pair. On the other hand, three quark combinations give rise to
baryons.
Mesons are bosons, with integral spins. They include the pi-mesons (pions),
the k-mesons (or kaons) and the eta ( η ). The pions are positive- , negative-
and neutral - pions. The neutral pion decays to an electron, positron, and
gamma ray by the electromagnetic interaction on a time scale of about 10-16
seconds, but the positive and negative pions have longer lifetimes of about
2.6 x 10-8 s.
The baryons include the nucleons which are protons and neutrons; as well as
the hyperons that are strange baryons ( the lambda, the sigmas, the chis and
the omega).

3.2.5 HYPERONS
A hyperon is any baryon containing one or more strange quarks, but no
charm quarks or bottom quarks. Being baryons, all hyperons are fermions.
That is, they have half-integer spin and obey Fermi-Dirac statistics. They all
interact via the strong nuclear force, making them types of hadrons. They are
composed of three light quarks, at least one of which is a strange quark,
which makes them strange baryons. They include three Sigma hyperons, Σ+,
Σ0 and Σ− . They possess rest mass of ~1,190 MeV and lifetimes of
~1×10−10 s with the exception of Σ0 whose lifetime is shorter than 1×10−19 s.
There is also one Lambda hyperon, Λ0 with a rest energy of 1,115 MeV and
a lifetime of 2.6×10−10 s. There are two Xi hyperons, also known as the
cascades Ξ0 and Ξ-1.. They have rest energies of 1,315 MeV and 1,320 MeV
and lifetimes of 2.9×10−10 s and 1.6×10−10 s respectively. There is one
Omega hyperon, the last discovered, Ω-1, with a mass of 1,670 MeV and a
lifetime of 8.2×10−11 s.

3.2.6 DECAY OF HYPERONS

The hyperons do participate in strong interactions and the following show

their decay modes

Λ decay
 Λ0 → p+ + π−
Λ0 → n 0 + π 0

Λ0 may also decay on rare occurrences via these processes:

Λ0 → p+ + e− + νe
Λ0 → p+ + µ− + νµ

Σ decay

Σ+ → p+ + π0
Σ+ → n0 + π+
Σ0 → Λ0 + γ
Σ− → n0 + π−

Ξ decay

Ξ0 → Λ0 + π0
Ξ− → Λ0 + π−
Ξ particles are also known as "cascade" hyperons, since they go through a
two-step cascading decay into a nucleon by first decaying to a Λ0
and emitting a π±.

Ω− decay
Ω− → Ξ0 + π−
Ξ0 → Λ0 + π0
Λ0 → p+ + π−

4.0 CONCLUSION
Elementary particles are basic building blocks of matter. They help us to
understand matter and its composition. Elementary particles come in
families and they all possess spin, charge and other quantum properties.
Understanding of the elementary particles and their behavior will help us to
understand some basic laws and principles of physics.

5.0 SUMMARY
We have been able to see that the elementary particles are many in nature.
They are observable in cosmic rays. They have many families which
include: the quarks, the baryons, the mesons, the hadrons and the hyperons.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

[ MT 1.1] Draw a table showing the elementary particles ( not anti-
particles) according to their families with the following
properties: symbol, charge, and spin.
[MT1.2] Differentiate between a lepton and a meson giving names of
particles and some properties.

7.0 FURTHER READINGS

An Introduction to the Physics of Nuclei and Particles by R. Dunlap
 MODULE 2

UNIT 1 1.0 INTRODUCTION

Elementary particles interact with each other, they can also collide one with
another or even exchange some force carriers. All these can give rise to
production of new particles or energies which can be linked to other smaller
particles or resonances (ie intermediate particles).The interactions of the
particles with one another are governed by some laws which must be obeyed
before a reaction can be allowed in nature. These laws are known as
conservation laws.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this chapter are:
(i) to know about the various conservation laws
(ii) to classify the conservation laws
(iii) to describe each law using examples
(iv) to test whether a reaction will take place in nature or not

3.0 CONSERVATION LAWS

These are laws that must be obeyed before a reaction can take place in
particle physics. There are many of them ranging from the law of charge
conservation to the hypercharge conservation.
3.1 CLASSIFICATION OF LAWS
We are well aware of the fact that in a collision or a reaction, the total
momentum is always conserved. This is a fundamental law.
Similarly, the total energy in a reaction involving these elementary particles
is conserved. Elementary particles obey several such conservation laws.

3.2 EXACT CONSERVATION LAWS

The exact or absolute conservation laws include those of:
i) Energy
ii) linear momentum
iii) angular momentum
iv) charge
v) baryon number
vi) lepton numbers and
vii) CPT (Change conjugation, Parity and Time reversal)

3.3 DESCRIPTION OF EACH LAW

Conservation of Energy and Linear Momentum
These state that in a reaction the total energy and linear momentum are
conserved.
Example: Consider a reaction where Π − meson decays into a µ − meson and
an antineutrino γ i.e,
Π− → µ + γ µ

E = E µ − + Eγ µ (t is conserved)
Π−

mΠ c 2 = Eµ + Eγ
2
(
Eµ = p µ c 2 + m 2 µ c 4 1 ) 2 = total energy of µ −
and that of γ µ will be

Eγ = p2
c
(using mγ = 0 )
Initial momentum of the Π − meson is zero because it is at rest and its rest
mass is zero.
Hence conservation of momentum gives
0 = pµ + pγ ( pΠ = 0 )
Or pµ = − p2
Substitute to get energy equation as;
(p µ
2
)
c 2 + m 2 µ c 4 1 + pµ c = mΠ c 2
2
2
( )
or pµ c 2 + m 2 µ c 4 1 2 = mΠ c 2 − pµ c

use p for the modulus pµ

i.e
p 2c 2 + m 2 µ c 4 = mΠ2 c 4 + p 2c 2 − 2mΠ pc3

(
2mΠ pc3 = mΠ2 − mµ2 C 4)
or p =
(m 2
Π − mµ2 )c
2 mΠ

Hence the energy of the neutrino is Eγ = cp =

(m
2
Π )
+ mµ2 c 2
and that of the µ − -
2 mΠ

meson is Eµ = mΠ c 2 − Eµ =
(mΠ
2
− m2 µ )
C2

2 mΠ

We have determine the energies of the particles µ − and γ µ in terms of the

masses of the pi-meson and muon (mΠ and mµ ).

This is characteristic of a two-body decay system.
In general for an n-body decay (n >2), the energies of such particles are not
fixed but constrained by the two conservation laws.
In the β -decay, the energy of the electron and the antineutrino can take
continuous values because it is a three body decay.

Conservation of Angular Momentum

This law states that if an isolated system is in a definite state of angular
momentum the initial angular momentum is the same as the final angular
momentum.
The angular momentum of a particle is the sum of its orbital angular
momentum and its spin.
Example
K + → Π+ + Π0
Decay of a K ± meson at rest.
Total angular momentum of K+ is zero because its orbital momentum is zero
(at rest ) and the spin for K+ is zero also 0+0=0.

Therefore the total angular momentum of the system (Π + Π o ) must be zero

also.
A Π -meson has a o spin, its orbital angular momentum is zero. Hence law of
conservation of angular momentum is obeyed.

Conservation law of Charge

This law states that in a reaction, the total charge is conserved.
e.g e →γ +ν
electron cannot decay into neutral particles such as photons and neutrons
because this will violate the law of conservation of charge.
The electron is the lightest particle and a particle can decay only into
particles lighter than itself so that energy can be conserved, hence the
conservation law for charge makes the electron to be a stable particle. So, an
isolated electron cannot decay.
We can show that the following reactions are possible because charge is
conserved in each case.
Π− → µ + γ µ

Π− → e + γ e

Π− → Πo + e + γ e

and also
n → p + e≈ + γ e
Conservation of Baryon number
The electron which is the lightest charged particle is stable because of
conservation of charge.
The proton is another known stable particle, but the laws of conservation of
charge, energy and momentum do not explain the stability of proton. For
example
p → e+ + Π o
p → e+ + γ

are reactions which do not take place in nature. Hence a new conservation
law must be used to explain the proton stability. This is the law of
conservation of baryon number B.
Each particle is assigned a baryon number B as follows:
B = 0 for photon, lepton and mesons
( γ ,ν, e, µ, K, η,π,τ )
+,−,0 o −
B = + 1 for p, n, Λ , Σ , ≡ ≡
o
B = - 1 for p, n, Λo Σ+,−,0 , ≡o ≡−

This baryon number is an additive number. The baryon number for a set of
particles is the sum of the baryon number of each particle in the set.
This is similar to the law of conservation of charge of a system of particles.
Conservation law of baryon number states that in a reaction, the initial
baryon number must be the same as the final baryon number.

Hence we can have the following reactions occurring in nature

p+n → p+n+Πo
p+n → p+n+γ
p+n → p+ p+Π−

But the reactions

p + n → e + + ∂ and
p + n → Π+ + Πo

are not allowed because the baryon number before (2) is not equal to the
baryon number (0) after the reaction. However, the reaction.
p + n → Π + + Π o is allowed. Hence we can conclude that the neutron and the

antineutron are very different even though they both possess same mass and
charge (charge =o).
The system (pn) cannot form two pi-mesons but the system ( pn ) can. This
shows that n and n interact with proton very differently.
The proton is the lightest baryon and hence it is stable.
A decay such as p → e + + γ is not possible, because baryon number is 1
initially and zero at the end of the reaction.

Conservation of Lepton Number

The interaction of leptons is different completely from that of baryon. Hence
as we have baryon number conservation law we also have lepton number
conservation law.
There is an associated lepton number for each kind of lepton and also a
conservation law corresponding to the lepton number.
So, we have the conservation laws for the electron lepton number (Le) and
the muon leptop number ( Lµ ).
These are:
Le = for electron e- and electron neutino
= 1 for position e+ electro-anti γ e
= o for all other particles

Lµ = 1 for muon ( µ − ) and muon neutrino

= -1 for antimuon ( µ + ) and muon antinutrino γ í
= o for all other particles.
Lτ = 1 for tauon and its neutrino ν τ
= -1 for anti tauon and tauon anti –neutrino ν τ
= o for all other particles.
The lepton number is also additive like baryon numbers. If we have two-
electron system then the electron lepton number is 2.
Conservation laws of electron-, muon- and tauon-lepton numbers state that
in a reaction, the initial and the final electron-, muon- and tauon-lepton
numbers must be the same.

Hence
µ− → e + γ µ + γe

Π+ → µ + + γ µ
Π + → e + + γ e are possible and allowed.

But
µ − → e− + γ

µ − → e + + e − + e − are forbidden since final electron lepton number is one

and initial electron lepton number is zero.

Origin of Exact Conservation Laws

The conservation laws are ultimately connected with some symmetries in
nature; they result from some symmetry the system possesses.
For example, a particle in a spherically symmetric potential will have
angular momentum that is conserved because the potential has a rotational
symmetry.
In general it can be shown that the total angular momentum of an isolated
system is conserved if the system has a rotational symmetry. That is, the
physical properties of the systems remains the same.
The law of conservation of momentum results when a system has a
translation symmetry, that is, the physical properties of the system are
unchanged when it is translated by an arbitrary displacement.

3.4 APPROXIMATE CONSERVATION LAWS

The approximate conservation laws are not obeyed by all the interactions but
are useful in cases where the contribution of one or the other interaction is
negligible.
Some of such laws are the laws of conservation of
i) Isospin (strong)
ii) Strangeness (strong & electromag)
iii) Parity (strong & electromag)
 iv) Charge conjugation (strong & electron)
v) Time reversal (strong & electromag) and
vi) Hypercharge

The law of conservation of isospin is valued only for the strong interaction.
Isospin: I-spin
The concept of isospin was used in grouping the pions together. It applies
only to strongly interacting particles like mesons and baryons.
The assumption made is that if only the strong interaction were present, the
pions world be completely alike. If however the electromagnetic interaction
is turned on, there will be mass difference between the neutral and charged
pions of about 2MeV, as well as differences in their lifetimes and magnetic
moments. Application of the magnetic field cause a splitting of the level.
This is similar to seaman splitting of a level in atomic spectral or better still,
the fine structure in atomic spectra where one cannot control experimentally
the splitting of the levels.
Isospin is designated T with its projection onto a special axis as T3. These
quantum numbers are analogous to the angular momentum J and its
projection mj respectively.
Each set of particles (or multiplet) of I-spin T possesses (2T+1) charged
states. Hence the nucleon is an I-spin doublet with T = ½ . The proton has
T3 = ½ the neutron has T3 = - ½ .
See the table for the I-spin assignments for out already listed particles.

Strangeness
Strangeness was introduced to account for inconsistency in behavior of some
particles - Λ, Σ 3 and K . They are called strange b/c they are produced at a
fast rate in high Energy collision but decay at a slow rate.
It has been discovered that a large number of reactions involving the hadrons
can be understood systematically only when a new quantum number is
assigned to each such particles. This is known as the strangeness quantum
number S.

The strangeness quantum number assigned to each hadrons is as follows:

Hadron Strangeness S
K + , K o Λo Σ + Σ o Σ − 1
−
Anti particles of Ξ Ξ
o
2

K − K o Λo Σ + Σ o Σ − -1
Ξo Ξ− -2
Other hadrons on our table 0
Observe that this strangeness quantum number is the only quantum number
that is negative for the particles and positive for their antiparticles.
The strangeness number is an additive quantum number.
In a reaction, if the strangeness is conserved, the reaction has a large cross-
section.

Consider the reactions

1 Consider the collision of a negative pion and a proton
π − + P → Σ1 + K +

and
π − + P → Σ+ + K −
Here the total strangeness of each (π − p ) and (Σ − k + ) is zero whereas that of
(Σ + k ) is – 2. thus, by the conservation of strangeness, reaction
+ −

(π p ) → (Σ K ) is possible (or allowed) but (π p ) → (Σ K ) is forbidden.

− − t − + −

Experimentally, it has been observed that reaction (π p ) → (Σ K ) has a large

− − +

cross section.

Consider the decay of Λ into two particles.

o
2.
Λo is the lightest baryon with a nonzero strangeness quantum number. The
laws of conservation of baryon number and energy demand that the final
products must contain a baryon lighter than Λo . This means that a proton or
a neutron must be produced by that decay.
Λo → P + K −
i.e
→ n + Ko

In each of these reactions, the energy is not conserved since the sum of the
rest masses of the products is larger that the rest mass of Λo . Therefore the
only way the decay can occur is through the violation of the law of
conservation of strangeness. In other words the decay of Λo into two
particles can take place only through the weak interaction. The possible
reactions then are
Λo → P + π −
→n + πo

Parity
In a parity transformation, the coordinates (x,yz) of a particle become
(− x, y,− z ) .
In particular if r refers to a point P in a coordinate frame, then after parity
transformation, it becomes –r. This type of transformation is related to the
transformation brought about by a reflection in a mirror.
Mirror reflection about x-y plane followed by rotation about z-axis through
1800.
Imagine that a mirror is kept coordinate system. Then the mirror image of r
is r1 where
r = iΛ + y Λj + z kΛ ,

r 1 = xiΛ + y Λj − z kΛ

Now rotate r1 about z-axis through 1800, then it will be transformed into –r,
because the x- and y- component will change sign; and the z-component
remains unchanged. Hence we can think of parity operation as a product of
reflection about the x-y plane followed by a rotation about the z-axis.
If a law governing a physical phenomenon is found to be invariant under the
transformation r → - r, the phenomenon is said to obey the law of
conservation of parity. The mirror symmetry and parity are equivalent
because an isolated system has a rotation symmetry.
Case 1
Consider force of gravity on a mass m1, located at r1 due to a mass m2
located at r2. Newton’s law states

F=
cm1 m2
(r1 − r2 )
r1 − r2
3

The motion of m1 is given by

d 2r
= − 1 23 (r1 − r2 )
cm m
m1
r1 − r2
2
dt

Under parity transformation, we have, r1 → −r1 and r2 → −r2

Hence equation of motion becomes
d 2r
m1 =−
c m1 m2
(r1 − r2 )
r1 − r2
2 3
dt

d 2r
Which is same as m1 =−
c m1 m2
(r1 − r2 )
r1 − r2
2 3
dt

Thus the law of gravitation is invariant under parity

Case 2
Consider a particle with charge e moving in a uniform electric field E.
The force on the particle is eE. If r is the position of the particle then the
motion of particle is
d 2r
m = eE
dt 2
To transform this equation of motion under parity we must know the
transformation of E under parity. The electric field due to a charge e at a
point r is given by
e
E= r3
4Π ∈0 r

Now transform r → −r means E → − E and equation of motion goes to

d 2r
−m = −eE
dt 2
Which is same as the original equation, hence Electrostatic force law is
invariant under parity.

Case 3a
Consider a particle moving in a uniform magnetic field B. the magnetic
force is
  dr  d 2r  dr 
e  xB  and the equation of motion then is m 2 = e xB 
 dt  dt  dt 
To transform under parity we must know the transformation of B under
parity.
Recall that the magnetic field produced by a current is given according to the
law of Biot and Savart as
µ 0 dl x r
dB =
4Π r
3

Under parity therefore, r → − r and dl → dl hence dB → dB or B → B

A magnetic field produced by a current does not changed under parity
transformation (opposite of case with electric field).
Using this result in equation of motion for the particle we get
d 2r  dr 
−m 2
= e − 2 x B 
dt  dt 

d 2r  dr 
−m 2
= −e − x B
dt  dt 
Hence we see that the magnetic force law is invariant under the parity
transformation

Case 3b
In the presence of a free magnetic charge 9 m usually referred to as a
magnetic monopole, how is the law affected.
Magnetic field is given as
9m r
B∝ 3
r

Sunder parity transformation B would transform as the electric field E.,

B → −B
Motion equation becomes
 d 2r  dr 
−m 2
= e− x(− B )
dt  dt 

d 2r  dr 
− m 2 = e xB 
dt  dt 
This is not the same as before, hence, in the presence of a free magnetic
monopole, the force law is not invariant under parity transformation.
It is very transformation parity is a multiplicative quantum number, the net
parity of a system of particles is the product of all the orbital and intrinsic
parities.
The dichotomy of orbital and intrinsic party is analogous to that of orbital
and intrinsic angular momenta.
The proton has intrinsic parity + 1, the pion -1, the kaon -1, the lambda -1
and so on.
The net parity of a system of particles is the product of all the orbital and
intrinsic parties.
The strong and electromagnetic interactions conserve parity but the weak
interaction does not. Since the reactions that create leptons are weak, the
leptons do not have intrinsic parities. Hence the electron in the hydrogen
atom has a well-defined orbital parity but no intrinsic parity.
Recall that a wave function is either odd or even under the operation of
changing the sing of all its coordinates.
Define P as the parity operator in the form
pψ ( x, y, z ) = ψ (− x,− y,− z )

Two cases arise

pψ = +ψ (even parity)

pψ = −ψ (odd parity)
For instance, the wave functions for the electron in a hydrogen atom have
parity P = (− 1)l
In fact any orbital angular momentum l will contribute a factor of (− 1)l .

C Parity and G Parity

These are two conserved quantities that are multiplicative like the ordinary
spatial parity. Both are applicable only to mesons.
C parity refers to behavior under the transformation of particles into
antiparticles while G parity refers to the behaviour under this same
transformation compounded with a rotation by 1800 in isospin space.
Strong interaction conserve C and G. The electromagnetic interaction
conserves C but not G. the weak interaction does not conserve their C nor G.
C is known as charge conjugation.
When failure of parity conservation was discovered it was at first thought
that the product CP would be conserved by the weak interaction.
The fact that the weak interaction does not conserve CP was established by
experiments on K0 mesons decay into two pions.
The violation is also rare. Violation of CP conservation carries a
consequences for time-revered invariance of reactions.
Time-reversal invariance means that reactions are equally capable of
proceeding forward and backward.
Time reversal transformation requires replacing t by –t.
A physical law that is invariant under time reversal.
It has been found that electromagnetic and strong interactions are invariant
under time reversal.
If a physical law for a set of particle also holds for the antiparticles
corresponding to the particles then the law is invariant under charge
conjugations.
A general theorem known as the CPT theorem of quantum field theory
asserts that any violation of CP conservation must be compensated by a
violation of time reversal invariance. Thus the experiment evidence for the
violation of CP conservation in the decay of K lo meson implies that nature is
not / time symmetric.
It is believed that all interactions in nature are invariant under CPT
transformation. It is exact (or absolute) conservation law. (CPT is exact).
The conservation laws are associated laws are associated with symmetry
operations, i.e.
Parity P → reflection symmetry in ordinary space
Isospin → rotation symmetry in Isospin space
C, G → with different kinds of particle – antiparticle exchange symmetries.

Hypercharge
In modern terminology the strangeness quantum number S has been largely
superseded by the hypercharge number.
The hypercharge number equals the sum of strangeness and baryon number
i.e: Y = S + B
Conservation of hypercharge is equivalent to the conservation of
strangeness.
 3.5 USES OF CONSERVATION LAWS
Conservation laws are used to ascertain which reactions will occur in nature
and which ones will not occur. Some of the exact or absolute conservation
laws are used to test for the reactions since they must be obeyed. These are
majorly the conservation laws of charge ( Q), baryon number (B), Lepton
numbers (L e, Lu and L ). Four of these must be tested to see the validity of
the laws. Violation of any of the four laws reveal that the reaction cannot
occur in nature.
3.6. TESTING REACTION EQUATIONS
We want to test for certain equations to see which ones are allowed and
which ones will not take place in nature.
The test will usually begin with the reaction or interaction equation
Then use the four different laws one after the other, check for the one that
will be obeyed . If all four laws used are obeyed then the reaction will occur
in nature.
CASE I
p+n→ p+p+π-
Charge Q: +1 + 0 = +1 +1 -1 = +1 (Q is conserved)
Baryon B: +1 +1 = +1 +1 + 0 = 2 ( B is conserved)
e-lepton number Le : 0 + 0 = 0 + 0+ 0 = 0 (Le is conserved)
µ-lepton number Lµ: 0 + 0 = + 0 + 0 +0 = 0 (Lµ is conserved)
The test shows that all the conservation laws are obeyed, hence the reaction
can occur in nature. The proton can collide with a neutron to give two
protons and a negative pion.
CASE II
p + n → π+ + π0
Charge Q: +1 + 0 = +1 +0 = +1 (Q is conserved)
Baryon B: +1 +1 = 0 +0 ( B is not conserved)
e-lepton number Le : 0 + 0 = 0 + 0 = 0 (Le is conserved)
µ-lepton number Lµ: 0 + 0 = 0 + 0 = 0 (Lµ is conserved)
In this case, the conservation law of baryon number is violated, hence the
reaction cannot occur in nature. The meaning is that a proton will not collide
with a neutron to produce positive and neutral pions.

4 CONCLUSION
It is obvious that there are two classes of conservation laws in particle
Physics; namely: absolute and approximate conservation laws. The absolute
( or exact) conservation laws only can be used to test the validity of a
reaction taking place in nature.

5 SUMMARY
The exact conservation laws include the laws of conservation of Charge,
Energy, linear momentum, angular momentum, Baryon number, lepton
numbers of the electron, muon and tauon as well as the CPT conservation
laws. The approximate conservation laws include those of Isospin,
Strangeness, C- Parity, G-parity, Charge conjugation, time reversal T and
hypercharge Y.

6 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
[TM 2.1] Test the following reactions and state which ones will occur in
nature, also identify the laws violated by any reaction that will
not occur in nature.
(a) µ − → e − + γ (b) µ − → e + + e − + e −
 (c ) µ − → e + γ µ + γ e Π+ → µ + + γ µ
(d)
p → e +
+ γ
(e)
[TM 2.2] List all the conservation laws known to you and classify them
into two major groups.
[TM2.3] Write short notes on any two conservation laws from each
group.

7 FURTHER READINGS
Particle Physics by B. R. Martin, G. Shaw (2nd edition).
 MODULE 3

UNIT 1 1.0 INTRODUCTION

Physics is the study of all natural phenomena and it deals with all laws of
nature. There are four fundamental forces that we are going to consider
under this study which account for the general features of known physical
processes. The weakest of the forces under consideration is also the most
familiar and the first law of physics to be mathematically described. This
happens to be the gravitational law discovered by Sir Isaac Newton which
states that the force between any two point masses is proportional to
the product of the two masses and inversely proportional to the square of
their distance apart.

i.e. F = G m1m2 / r
2

2.0 OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this module are
( i) to know which interactions exist between elementary particles
( ii) to know the carriers of each interaction
(iii) to know the properties of the carriers
(iv) to know what resonances are in particle physics
(v) to see the symmetry models employed

3.0 INTERACTIONS, RESONANCES AND

SYMMETRY MODELS
Elementary particles interact with each other by the exchange of carriers of
the interactions. The interactions differ as well as the carriers.
Resonances are intermediate particles in a reaction. Sometimes they are
transient [i.e. too short-lived to be observed].
There are also models that are used to group the particles in their various
families and the grouping will enable us to identify any missing particle with
its corresponding properties.

3.1 INTERACTIONS IN PARTICLE PHYSICS

Interactions are just the forces that are responsible for reactions to take
place. This reminds us of the reactions in Nuclear Physics. There are four
basic interactions we shall observe here in particle physics, they are known
as four forces or interactions.

3.1.1 DIFFERENT KINDS OF INTERACTIONS

The interactions in particle physics include:
(i) Gravitational interaction
(ii) Electromagnetic interaction
(iii) Weak interaction and
(iv) Strong interaction

3.1.1 THE CARRIERS OF INTERACTIONS

the fundamental forces of nature are mediated by bosons which are known
as carriers. These carriers of the interactions are the bosons which must be
exchanged between the particles themselves before the reaction can take
place. Just as there are four interactions, we also have four carriers ; one for
each interaction.
Let us look at them one after the other as listed below.

3.2 PARTICLE INTERACTIONS AND CARRIERS

It is believed that all interactions in particle Physics are carried out through
some carriers. However, the interactions each have their own carriers. In the
next sub-sections you will get to know the interactions as well as their
carriers. The carriers are bosons and their properties are also stated.

3.2.1 GRAVITATIONAL INTERACTIONS

The weakest of the interactions or forces under consideration is also the
most familiar and the first law of physics to be mathematically described.
This is the gravitational law discovered by Sir Isaac Newton.
It states that the force between two point masses is directly proportional to
the product of the masses and inversely proportional to the square of their
distance apart.
i.e. F = G m1 m 2 / r 2
. Because this force is always attractive and its affect on general theory of
relatively cannot be tested, its effect on fundamental particles and nuclear
physics is generally not considered.
CARRIER: The carriers of the gravitational interaction are known as
gravitons the quanta of gravitational field. Exchange of a virtual
graviton between two protons will lead to the gravitational attraction
between them.
Gravitons have zero mass, spin of 2 and charge is zero.

3.2.2 ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERACTION

. Electromagnetic force is the second force to be considered.
The laws used for force relations in this case are Coulomb’s law and Biot-
Savart law which are also inverse-squared laws. Light waves are examples
of electromagnetic phenomenon and we have seen that electromagnetic
forces govern the behavior of electrons in atoms and molecules.
Maxwell developed the theory of electromagnetism and his equations were
later developed by Schrödinger, Dirac and Heisenberg. Nuclear processes
can hence be thought of as electromagnetism. For example, the decay of
gamma rays involve electromagnetism.

γ → e+ + e
CARRIER:
The carriers of electromagnetic interactions are the photons. They have mass
equal to zero, spin 1 and charge zero (ie γ particles).

3.2.3 WEAK INTERACTIONS

Weak interaction is also a type of nuclear force. An example of its
manifestation is the beta decay of a nucleus. The Electromagnetic waves are
believed to be quantized with a quantum known as a photon ( γ ). About
1930, this belief was developed that a force arises from exchange of photons
between two charged particles. This development made Yukawa in 1935 to
try it for nuclear force. He tired to exchange a massive particle so as to
obtain short range of the force. i.e. Two electrons hit and came apart, there is
exchange of photons, mass is equal to zero, range = ∞
For proton there must be some particle involved and this particle cannot be a
photon because if range of force is infinity ( ∞ ), the uncertainty in force is
also ∞ and mass must be zero to keep the law invariant.
CARRIER:
The carriers of the weak interaction are the charged Wt , W- and the
neutral Z0 bosons.
Masses of Wt + W- particles are 81,800 MeV/C2 while mass of Z0 particle =
92,600 MeV/C2.
These enormous masses account for the extremely short range of the weak
interaction (or weak force).

3.2.4 STRONG INTERACTIONS

The force that holds nuclei together is strong interaction forces; which is
very strong because it must overcome the Coulomb force inside the atom.
However the strong force here must be short ranged of the order of 10-13cm
and it is known as nuclear force because it exists inside the nucleus of the
atoms. Reactions that obey this force are alpha decay, nuclear fission,
nuclear fusion and scattering of nucleons by nuclei at high energy. The
mathematical form of the strong force is not easily written.
CARRIER:
The carriers of the more fundamental strong interaction are the gluons. They
have mass zero, spin 1 and charge zero.
They have not been detected directly but they are permanently hidden from
view within the hadrons.
 3.3 RESONANCES
Physicists prefer to call certain objects resonances rather than particles
because these objects are (hypothetical) intermediate states in a reaction
chain. These particles are short-lived intermediate states.
The particles include lambda with energy 1520 meV written as Λ(1520) .
This is a [ K − P ] resonance; or a [ K 0 Λ ]resonance or a [ Σ + π -1] resonance.
This Λ(1520) was found in collisions between kaons and protons in a bubble
chamber where a variety of reactions take place.
e.g
K − + p → Λ(1520) → K − + p

→K0 + p
→ Σ− + π −
→ Σ− + π +
→ Σ0 + π 0
→ Λ +π + +π −
The reaction cross-section for each of the reactions is some function of
energy. It can be plotted as a function of the centre of mass energy. The
important feature of the curves is the local maximum in the cross sections at
a centre of mass energy of 1520 MeV. At this energy, all the cross sections
have a peak. In particle physics, a resonance is that peak located around a
certain energy found in differential cross sections of scattering experiments.
These peaks are associated with subatomic particles like nucleons, delta
baryons, upsilon mesons) and their excitations. The width of the
resonance (Γ) is related to the lifetime (τ) of the particle (or its excited state)
by the relation
Γ = ħ/τ

where ħ is the planck constant.

 3.4 SYMMETRY MODELS
The symmetry models to be studied are two types. These are Mathematical
models employed in the grouping of particles to their various families. They
are matrices that are unitary in nature with a determinant equals to 1. They
are special unitary model with a 2x2 matrix structure [ SU(2)] and special
unitary model with a 3x3 matrix structure [SU(3) ]. They described below.

Unitary Symmetry
I-spin was used to classify particles and resonances.
GelpMann + Ne’e man in 1961 independently extended the concept of I-spin
to get a new theory for pointing out regularities among many states of the
particles. Their theory is now known as the SU (3) Special Unitary Model.
To understand SU (3) we must first look at SU (2).
Su (2) is a model or mathematical structure defined by the properties of 2x2
matrices which are unitary and have determinant = + 1
SU (2) is special unitary model with 2x2 matrix structure SU (3) is special
unitary model with 3x3 matrix structure.

SU (2) Model
In this model, multiplets exist and can be portrayed by weight diagram. Each
multiplet is characterized by a quantum number I total angular momentum.
The multiplet consists of 2J+1 substates corresponding to equally spaced
values of J from value + J to – J, with no state absent.
Only one number is required to specify a multiplet.
SU(3) Model
This is an extension of SU(2) to a 3x3 matrix structure, unitary with
determinant = + 1.
Multiplets here are called super-multiplets because they contain SU (2)
multiplets. For SU(2) we require two numbers to serve the purpose of J in
SU(2) model.
Let these numbers be λ1 and λ 2 .
The number of substance is given by
 λ1 + λ 2 
(λ1 + 1) (λ 2 + 1)  + 1
 2 

Weight diagrams here are 2 dimensional with hypercharge Y on the y-axis

and third component of I-spin (T3) on x-axis.

4.0 CONCLUSION
According to the quantum theory of fields, all the interactions rely on the
mechanism of exchange of quanta. Each of the force fields has its own
quanta – analogous to photons – which act as carriers of the interaction.
Thus all the four forces are transmitted from one particle to another by
emission, propagation and absorption of their corresponding carriers. You
have also seen that resonances exist as intermediate states in a reaction.

5.0 SUMMARY
The carriers of the four interactions are bosons having integer spins. They
are referred to as intermediate bosons.
These intermediate bosons and their properties are easily put on a table
below
 Charge Mass Interaction
Name Symbol Antiparticle Spin 2 Existence
(e) (GeV/c ) mediated

Photon Γ Self 0 1 0 Electromagnetic Confirmed

W boson W− W+
−1 1 80.4 Weak interaction Confirmed

Z boson Z Self 0 1 91.2 Weak interaction Confirmed

Gluon G Self 0 1 0 Strong interaction Confirmed

Graviton G Self 0 2 0 Gravitation Unconfirmed

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

[TM3.1] Why are the interaction carriers called bosons?

[TM3.2] List the interactions on a table with their corresponding carriers

and their spin quantum numbers.

[TM3.3] The mass of the W+ boson is 80.400 MeV/c2 , Calculate the

range of the weak interaction ..

7.0 FURTHER READINGS

Particle Physics by B. R. Martin, G. Shaw (2nd edition).
An Introduction to the Physics of Nuclei and Particles by R. Dunlap