Editorial
Advances in Wood-Based Composites
Lubos Kristak 1, * , Roman Reh 1 , Marius Catalin Barbu 2,3 and Eugenia Mariana Tudor 2,3
1 Faculty of Wood Sciences and Technology, Technical University in Zvolen, T. G. Masaryka 24, SK-960 01 Zvolen,
Slovakia; [email protected]
2 Forest Products Technology and Timber Construction Department, Salzburg University of Applied Sciences,
Markt 136 a, 5431 Kuchl, Austria; [email protected] (M.C.B.);
[email protected] (E.M.T.)
3 Faculty of Furniture Design and Wood Engineering, Transylvania University of Brasov, B-dul. Eroilor nr. 29,
500036 Brasov, Romania
* Correspondence: [email protected]
1. Introduction
The significance of wood-based composites has grown substantially in recent years
due to their enhanced material efficiency, sustainability, and versatile applications. These
composites are engineered by integrating lignocellulosic wood elements, such as fibers,
particles, or veneers, with thermoplastic or thermosetting polymeric adhesives through
various manufacturing processes, including hot pressing, extrusion, or injection molding.
Recent advancements in wood-based composites have focused on multiple facets,
including processing techniques, product innovations, surface and color treatments, and
the examination of key properties. Furthermore, bio-based layered hybrid composites
are being researched to provide sustainable alternatives in structural applications,
alongside a focus on diversifying the sourcing of raw materials. To optimize performance
characteristics, specific additives such as hardeners, coupling agents, plasticizers, and
fillers are incorporated into the composite formulation. These additives play a critical
role in improving interfacial adhesion, mechanical strength, dimensional stability, and
resistance to environmental degradation, thereby enhancing the overall durability and
functionality of the material. Additionally, energy efficiency is critical; therefore, improved
manufacturing effectiveness and sustainability are targeted. Finally, significant insights
have been gained into the acoustic properties of wood through the analysis of sound
propagation velocity, combined with impacting design choices. In addition, the evaluation
of cellulose macromolecular properties after chemical treatment helps us understand the
Received: 1 April 2025
Accepted: 11 April 2025
changes that affect the performance of wood composites, indicating a comprehensive
Published: 18 April 2025 approach to enhancing wood-based materials.
Citation: Kristak, L.; Reh, R.; Barbu,
To optimize the structural integrity and performance of wood-based composites,
M.C.; Tudor, E.M. Advances in specific additives are incorporated into their formulation. These additives include
Wood-Based Composites. Polymers hardeners, coupling agents, plasticizers, flame retardants, fungicides, and fillers, each
2025, 17, 1104. https://doi.org/ serving unique roles in modifying the physical and chemical properties of the polymer
10.3390/polym17081104
matrix [1–4]. Hardeners improve curing efficiency, leading to superior bonding strength,
Copyright: © 2025 by the authors. while coupling agents enhance interfacial adhesion between hydrophilic wood components
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. and hydrophobic polymer matrices. Plasticizers increase flexibility, reducing brittleness,
This article is an open access article
whereas fillers such as calcium carbonate, talc, or nanocellulose enhance dimensional
distributed under the terms and
stability and mechanical resilience. Additionally, flame retardants and fungicides improve
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license
fire resistance and biological durability, respectively, extending the material’s service life
(https://creativecommons.org/ in demanding environments [5–9]. Wood-based composites have gained widespread
licenses/by/4.0/). acceptance in both structural and non-structural applications, making them integral
Polymers 2025, 17, 1104 https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17081104
Polymers 2025, 17, 1104 2 of 8
to various industries. In the construction sector, they are used for load-bearing and
non-load-bearing elements such as beams, wall panels, sheathing, and formwork due to
their high strength-to-weight ratio and resistance to warping. In interior applications, they
are commonly utilized in furniture manufacturing, cabinetry, flooring, decorative panels,
and moldings, offering aesthetic appeal combined with functional benefits [10–14]. Exterior
applications include decking, fencing, cladding, and doors, where enhanced weather
resistance and UV stability are critical factors. The automotive and aerospace industries
also incorporate wood–plastic composites in lightweight, durable components to improve
fuel efficiency and reduce environmental impact [15]. Advancements in wood-based
composite technology continue to drive improvements in mechanical performance,
moisture resistance, biodegradability, and recyclability. Emerging trends focus on the
development of bio-based and eco-friendly adhesives derived from renewable resources,
reducing reliance on synthetic petrochemical-based binders. Additionally, nanotechnology
and fiber modification techniques are being explored to further enhance composite strength,
thermal stability, and fire resistance. With increasing emphasis on sustainable materials
and circular economic principles, wood-based composites are expected to play a crucial
role in reducing deforestation, minimizing waste, and promoting green construction
practices in the coming decades [16–18]. One of the ways to reduce deforestation is to
use alternative raw materials from which composites can be made [19–25]. In the case of
particleboards, a promising method is the use of alternative, lesser-known wood species in
particleboard production.
2. An Overview of Published Articles
Reh et al. (contribution 1) analyzed perspectives on using alder, larch, and birch wood
species to maintain the increasing particleboard production flow. These three wood species
represent an eco-friendly and sustainable wood alternative to the conventional wood raw
materials used. This review confirms the diversity of the use of these three species in
different fields and proves their suitability for particleboard production.
Wood-based composites have gained significant attention in the global market,
necessitating a deeper understanding of their physical and mechanical behavior, particularly
in relation to adhesive polymerization. Silva et al. (contribution 2) investigated the
effects of incorporating aluminum oxide and aluminum oxide copper nanoparticles
into a urea-formaldehyde-based polymeric adhesive using an environmentally friendly
approach. The manufactured Eucalyptus urophylla var. grandis wood composites were
analyzed for their resin properties such as viscosity, gel time, and pH, as well as
panel characteristics including density, moisture content, thickness swelling, modulus
of elasticity, modulus of rupture, and thermal conductivity. The results showed
that nanoparticle addition influenced viscosity, while all treatments exhibited a
basic pH. However, gel time could not be determined after 10 min. No significant
improvement was observed in swelling resistance, density, or moisture content. An
increase in pressing temperature from 150 ◦ C to 180 ◦ C positively affected all
physical and mechanical properties, suggesting enhanced polymerization of the
adhesive. Overall, the incorporation of 0.5% nanoparticles had a limited effect on
improving the physical–mechanical performance of the particleboards.
The modification of urea-formaldehyde adhesives involves altering its chemical
composition or incorporating additives to enhance its performance in terms of bonding
strength, durability, moisture resistance, and environmental impact, the last of which was
the goal of the research by Reh et al. (contribution 3). The potential of using ground beech
(Fagus sylvatica L.) bark as an eco-friendly additive in UF adhesives for molded plywood
manufacturing was investigated. Nine-layered, flat, and molded plywood was produced
Polymers 2025, 17, 1104 3 of 8
under industrial conditions from beech veneers bonded with a UF adhesive mixture. The
positive effect of beech bark in the UF adhesive mixture on a reduction in formaldehyde
emissions from the molded plywood was also confirmed. Beech bark, considered to be
wood-processing industry waste or a byproduct, has significant potential to be used as
a filler in UF resins for molded plywood production, providing an environmentally
friendly, inexpensive solution for the industrial valorization of bark as a bio-based
formaldehyde scavenger.
The ongoing advancements in science and technology are driving a growing demand
for environmentally friendly products derived from natural sources, as well as the enhanced
reutilization of forestry and agricultural byproducts, which are often regarded as waste. The
use of polymer blends to bond fibers for wood-based products seems an attractive
substituent because of the low cost and suitability for a wide range of applications. Natural
fiber-reinforced polymers are increasingly replacing synthetic fiber-reinforced plastics
across various industrial sectors, including automotive manufacturing, packaging, and
furniture production. These bio-based composites offer reduced weight and enhanced
thermal properties, contributing to improved sustainability and performance. Gumowska
et al. (contribution 4) elaborated on layered composites produced with different biopolymer
adhesive layers, including biopolymer polylactic acid, polycaprolactone, and biopolymer
blends of PLA + polyhydroxybutyrate with the addition of microcrystalline cellulose
and triethyl citrate for these blends, which acted as binders and co-created the five
layers in the elaborated composites. The modulus of rupture, modulus of elasticity,
internal bonding strength, and density profile were obtained, and differential scanning
calorimetry, thermogravimetric analysis, and scanning electron microscopy analysis
were performed. The results showed that among the composites in which two pure
biopolymers were used, PLA obtained the best results. The results of this study
demonstrate the feasibility of producing layered wood-based composites using various
biopolymers and their blends as specialized property layers and binders. This approach
enables the development of formaldehyde-free wood-based composites that enhance
the inherent properties of both wood and biopolymers, offering improved performance
and sustainability.
The physicochemical and mechanical properties of wood-based materials can be
significantly improved through impregnation, a process in which functional substances
penetrate the wood’s cellular structure, modifying its intrinsic characteristics. Impregnation
involves deep penetration of resins, chemicals, or nanoparticles into the wood structures.
Rahayu et al. (contribution 5) used TiO2 nanoparticle impregnation and analyzed their effect on
the density and dimensional stability of mangium wood and the effectiveness of the presence
of the impregnation in wood in degrading pollutants. The samples were analyzed for density,
weight percent gain (WPG), and bulking effect (BE). The samples were also analyzed via X-ray
diffraction (XRD) and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). TiO2 nanoparticles
resulted in an increase in density, WPG, and BE-treated mangium. Based on the XRD and
FTIR results, the TiO2 nanoparticle was successfully impregnated into mangium wood. A
scanning electron microscopy–energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy analysis indicated that
TiO2 nanoparticles covered the surface of the wood cells. The TiO2 -impregnated mangium
wood has a higher photocatalyst activity than the untreated wood, indicating better protection
from UV radiation and pollutants.
Wood preservation involves various methods to extend its lifespan and protect it
from decay, insects, mold, and weathering. The effect of using selected inorganic chemicals
as the main components of waterborne wood preservative systems on the degradation
of the cellulose constituent in wood from model samples was examined by Jurczykova
et al. (contribution 6). Whatman papers, as pure cellulose model samples, were impregnated
Polymers 2025, 17, 1104 4 of 8
with 10 different 5 wt% solutions of inorganic salts and distilled water and consequently
subjected to wet-thermal accelerated aging. The samples were then derivatized to cellulose
tricarbanilates through two different procedures (by precipitation in a methanol–water
mixture/by evaporation of pyridine from the reaction mixture) and finally analyzed
using size exclusion chromatography. Chemically treated and aged cellulose samples
showed different changes in their degree of polymerization and polydispersity in terms
of untreated non-aged standards caused by different ongoing degradation reactions, such
as dehydration, hydrolysis, oxidation, and cross-linking. This paper brings new insights
regarding the complex evaluation of the polymeric properties of degraded cellulose by
considering all important factors affecting the sample and the analysis itself through the
use of statistics.
Thermal modification is another environmentally friendly process that enhances the
durability, stability, and resistance of wood by exposing it to elevated temperatures, mostly
in the absence of oxygen. This treatment alters the wood’s chemical structure, reducing
its hygroscopicity and improving its resistance to biological degradation. Jurczkyova
et al. (contribution 7) examined the effect of thermal modification temperature on the
selected optical properties of six tropical wood species—Sp. cedar (Cedrala odorata), iroko
(Chlorophora excelsa), merbau (Intsia spp.), meranti (Shorea spp.), padouk (Pterocarpus
soyauxii), and teak (Tectona grandis). The CIELAB color space parameters, yellowness,
ISO brightness, and UV-Vis diffuse reflectance spectra were obtained. Subsequently,
these wood samples were extracted into three individual solvents (acetone, ethanol, and
ethanol-toluene). The yields of the extracted compounds; their absorption spectra; and
again, their L*, a*, b*, DE*, and Yi parameters were determined. The results showed that
thermal modification above 200 ◦ C causes tropical wood to lose its characteristic color,
which contributes to the unique aesthetic appeal of individual species. Although the process
results in a more homogeneous appearance, it significantly reduces the wood’s brightness
and yellowness. At temperatures above 220 ◦ C, color differences become negligible, as
confirmed by a cluster analysis within the PCA (Principal Component Analysis). This
uniformity may not always be desirable, as some consumers select wood primarily for its
decorative properties. Ultimately, the suitability of thermally modified wood depends on
its intended application and whether color consistency is a priority or if other advantages
of ThermoWood, such as enhanced durability and stability, take precedence.
Fine art coatings are typically formulated by combining metal fillers with water-based
coatings, which are then applied to the surfaces of wood structures, furniture, and
crafts for decorative purposes. However, their durability is often constrained by
limited mechanical strength. In contrast, the dispersion of metal fillers and the
mechanical performance of the coating can be significantly enhanced through the
use of coupling agents, which facilitate strong interfacial bonding between the resin
matrix and the metal filler. Han and Yan (contribution 8) examined the effect of
silane coupling agent modification and its influence on a brass powder–water-based
acrylic coating. Three different silane coupling agents, 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane,
-(2,3-epoxypropoxy)propytrimethoxysilane, and -methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane,
were used to modify the brass powder filler in orthogonal tests. The artistic effect and
optical properties of the modified art coating induced by different proportions of brass
powder, silane coupling agents, and pH were compared. The results demonstrated that
the amount of brass powder and the kind of coupling agent used had a substantial
impact on the coating’s optical characteristics. These results provide a technological
foundation for the development of artistic coatings for wood.
Polymers 2025, 17, 1104 5 of 8
The influence of coating treatments on sound propagation speeds in thin boards made
of spruce and maple resonance wood was examined by Faktorova et al. (contribution 9).
Wood samples, both unvarnished and coated with oil-based or alcohol varnish, were
exposed to UV radiation and saline fog. Lamb wave propagation was analyzed using
a semicircular test model to assess acoustic responses in the longitudinal and radial
directions. A statistical analysis revealed that oil-based varnish reduced propagation speed
mainly in the radial direction, while alcohol varnish had a greater effect longitudinally
in spruce wood. In maple wood, increasing varnish layers decreased the anisotropy ratio
between the longitudinal and radial directions, regardless of varnish type. Research showed
that surface treatments applied to wooden resonance plates affect sound propagation
speeds in both the longitudinal and radial directions. The acoustic behavior of the wood is
influenced by both the type of treatment and the wood’s anatomical characteristics, with
variations in propagation speeds observed even among samples of the same species due to
differences in their anatomical structure.
In furniture production, efforts are being made to lower energy consumption
while adopting green practices. These include using sustainable materials, optimizing
manufacturing processes, and implementing energy-efficient technologies. By reducing
energy use and minimizing environmental impact, the industry can produce eco-friendly
furniture that meets both consumer demands and sustainability goals. Pakula et al.
(contribution 10) analyzed the support of eco-design ideas and sustainable manufacturing
techniques by examining the energy consumption related to drilling holes for various
furniture connections such as eccentric joints, confirmat screws, and dowels. The energy
consumption was measured using a portable power quality analyzer. The measurement
process involved recording energy consumption at different stages of the machining
process, allowing for an analysis of specific cutting work and total energy consumption for
various joint types. The results indicate that connecting furniture with dowels consumes
the least energy but is the least user-friendly, as it does not allow for disassembly,
reassembly, or easy transport. While eccentric joints consume more energy than dowels,
they offer greater convenience for transportation and easier assembly. However, each
time the furniture is reassembled, it loses strength due to material tearing caused by the
removal of the confirmat screw. The highest energy consumption for drilling holes is
associated with the eccentric joint, which, despite requiring more energy and larger holes,
provides the best durability, ease of assembly, and ability to disassemble and transport the
furniture without compromising its strength. Ultimately, it can be concluded that enhancing
the usability of furniture increases the use of technology and, consequently, energy
consumption. This study offers valuable insights into energy consumption associated
with different furniture joints, providing critical information for eco-design and sustainable
manufacturing practices. The analysis highlights the varying energy demands of each joint
type, which can inform the development of more energy-efficient and environmentally
friendly methods for furniture production.
3. Conclusions
The collective contributions in this compilation reflect a comprehensive and forward-
looking exploration of sustainable practices and innovative technologies in the field of
wood-based materials and products. Several studies (Reh et al. and Silva et al.) focus
on alternative raw materials and eco-friendly adhesive formulations, highlighting the
potential of underutilized wood species and nanoparticle-enhanced resins to improve
performance while reducing environmental impact. Complementary research (Reh et al.,
Gumowska et al.) advances the use of biopolymers, natural fillers, and bio-based
Polymers 2025, 17, 1104 6 of 8
additives, aiming to minimize formaldehyde emissions and develop fully biodegradable,
formaldehyde-free composites.
The enhancement of material properties through physical and chemical modifications
is another recurring theme. The contributions by Rahayu et al. and Jurczykova et al.
demonstrate how impregnation and inorganic chemical treatments can improve wood’s
durability, dimensional stability, and pollutant resistance, while thermal modification
(Jurczykova et al.) offers improved structural properties at the expense of aesthetic value.
Specialized applications, such as artistic coatings (Han and Yan) and acoustic
performance (Faktorová et al.), reveal the nuanced influence of surface treatments and
additives on the visual, tactile, and auditory properties of wood, expanding its functional
and creative potential. Finally, Pakula et al. contribute practical insights into the energy
demands of furniture manufacturing, balancing environmental responsibility with user
convenience and mechanical durability.
The articles collectively emphasize a growing commitment to sustainability, innovation,
and efficiency within the wood-based materials industry. Across all contributions, there is
a clear shift toward eco-friendly practices, whether through the use of alternative wood
species, bio-based adhesives, or advanced material modifications.
Researchers are increasingly exploring ways to reduce environmental impact, enhance
performance, and utilize natural or waste-derived materials more effectively. This includes
the integration of nanoparticles, biopolymers, and plant-based additives, as well as process
improvements such as thermal treatments and impregnation.
Another common theme is the importance of balancing functionality, aesthetics, and
sustainability. Whether optimizing acoustic performance, durability, or manufacturing
energy use, the studies demonstrate that thoughtful material selection and processing
techniques can lead to better, greener products.
Overall, these contributions reflect a dynamic and evolving field, where science and
technology are being applied to meet modern demands for environmentally responsible,
high-performing wood-based materials across various applications—from construction
and furniture to fine arts and acoustics.
Author Contributions: All authors contributed equally to this work. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was supported by the Slovak Research and Development Agency under
contracts No. SK-CZ-RD-21-0100 and APVV-19-0269, and by the Ministry of Education, Science,
Research and Sport of the Slovak Republic under the project VEGA 1/0077/24.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
List of Contributions
1. Reh, R.; Kristak, L.; Kral, P.; Pipiska, T.; Jopek, M. Perspectives on Using Alder, Larch, and
Birch Wood Species to Maintain the Increasing Particleboard Production Flow. Polymers 2024,
16, 1532. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16111532.
2. Silva, L.C.L.; Lima, F.O.; De Araujo, V.A.; Dos Santos, H.F.; Lahr, F.A.R.; Christoforo, A.L.;
Favarim, H.R.; de Campos, C.I. Influence of Pressing Temperatures on Physical–Mechanical
Properties of Wood Particleboards Made with Urea-Formaldehyde Adhesive Containing Al2 O3
and CuO Nanoparticles. Polymers 2024, 16, 1652. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16121652.
3. Reh, R.; Kristak, L.; Sedliacik, J.; Bekhta, P.; Wronka, A.; Kowaluk, G. Molded Plywood with
Proportions of Beech Bark in Adhesive Mixtures: Production on an Industrial Scale. Polymers 2024,
16, 966. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16070966.
4. Gumowska, A.; Robles, E.; Bikoro, A.; Wronka, A.; Kowaluk, G. Selected Properties of Bio-Based
Layered Hybrid Composites with Biopolymer Blends for Structural Applications. Polymers 2022,
14, 4393. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14204393.
Polymers 2025, 17, 1104 7 of 8
5. Rahayu, I.; Darmawan, W.; Nawawi, D.S.; Prihatini, E.; Ismail, R.; Laksono, G.D. Physical
Properties of Fast-Growing Wood-Polymer Nano Composite Synthesized through TiO2
Nanoparticle Impregnation. Polymers 2022, 14, 4463. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14204463.
6. Jurczyková, T.; Kačík, F.; Čabalová, I.; Hájková, K. Evaluation of Selected Cellulose
Macromolecular Properties after Its Chemical Treatment Using Size Exclusion Chromatography.
Polymers 2023, 15, 573. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15030573.
7. Jurczyková, T.; Šárovec, O.; Kačík, F.; Hájková, K.; Jurczyk, T.; Hrčka, R. Chromophores’
Contribution to Color Changes of Thermally Modified Tropical Wood Species. Polymers 2023,
15, 4000. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15194000.
8. Han, Y.; Yan, X. Effect of Silane Coupling Agent Modification on Properties of Brass
Powder-Water-Based Acrylic Coating on Tilia europaea. Polymers 2023, 15, 1396. https://
doi.org/10.3390/polym15061396.
9. Faktorová, D.; Stanciu, M.D.; Krbata, M.; Savin, A.; Kohutiar, M.; Chlada, M.; Năstac,
S.M. Analysis of the Anisotropy of Sound Propagation Velocity in Thin Wooden Plates Using
Lamb Waves. Polymers 2024, 16, 753. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16060753.
10. Pakuła, W.; Prałat, B.; Potok, Z.; Wiaderek, K.; Rogoziński, T. Energy Consumption for Furniture
Joints during Drilling in Birch Plywood. Polymers 2024, 16, 1045. https://doi.org/10.3390/
polym16081045.
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