MODULE 4

Firefighting services - classification of fire - class A, class B, class C, class D, class E - Classification of buildings according to fire load -
causes and effects of fire-important considerations in fire protection - limiting fire spread - fire resistant construction-fire protection
systems - alarm, extinguishers, escape routes Lifts and escalators - lifts - types of lifts - traction, hydraulic - passenger lifts, bed lifts, dumb
waiters - structural provision for lift installation - lift pit, lift well, machine room, hoist way - arrangement of lifts - escalators parts - truss,
landing platform, steps, tracks - arrangement - parallel, cris - cross, multiple parallel Acoustics - acoustics of buildings - characteristics
of audible sound - frequency, loudness, tone - behavior of sound transmission, reflection, absorption - acoustical defects, causes and
remedies - echo, reverberation, sound foci and dead spots, insufficient loudness, noise nuisance-Sabine’s formula - general principles
and factors in acoustical design - site selection and planning, volume, shape, treatment of interior surfaces, reverberation, seat, seating
arrangement and audience, sound absorption - acoustical materials - porous absorbents, resonant panel absorbent, cavity resonators,
composite type resonators - recommendations for good acoustical design of buildings like open air theatre, cinema theatre, radio
broad casting stations, concert halls, class lecture rooms, public lecture halls and multi - purpose theatres

FIRE FIGHTING SERVICES

FIRE SAFETY

 Reduce the destruction caused by fire.

 Fire safety measures prevent ignition of an uncontrolled fire.
 Fire safety measures include those that are planned during the construction of a building, or implemented in structures that are
already standing, and those that are taught to occupants of the building
 Threats to fire safety is commonly referred to as fire hazards.
 Fire hazard increases likelihood of a fire or may impede escape in the event a fire occurs.
 Fire safety is a component of building safety.

CLASSIFICATION OF FIRE

 CLASS A - These are fires that involve solid materials like paper, wood or textiles
 CLASS B – These are fires that involve liquids, like oils, petrol or diesel
 CLASS C – These are fires that involve flammable gases , such as propane, butane or methane.
 CLASS D – These are fires that involve metals, like aluminium, magnesium, titanium or swarf.
 CLASS E – These are fires that involve live electrical equipment, like computers, or phone chargers.
 CLASS F – These are fires that involve cooking oils and fats, such as in deep fat-fryers.

CLASSIFICATION OF BUILDINGS BASED ON OCCUPANCY ( FOR FIRE)

All buildings, whether existing or hereafter erected shall be classified according to use or the character of occupancy in one of the
following groups:

GROUP A – Residential
GROUP B – Educational
GROUP C – Institutional
GROUP D – Assembly
GROUP E – Business
GROUP F – Mercantile
GROUP G – Industrial
GROUP H – Storage
GROUP J – Hazardous

FIRE LOAD

It is defined as calorific value of all contents of building materials in kilocalories per square meter of floor area. These are classified as:

 Low Fire Load: Not exceeding 2750000 kilo calorie, per m sq. and as applying generally to domestic buildings, hotels, offices and
similar buildings.
 Moderate Fire Load: Between 2750000 to 5,50,000 k-cal/m sq and as applying generally to trading establishments and factories.

 High Fire Load : exceeding 5,50,000 k-cal/m sq but not exceeding 1100,000 k cal/m sq and as applying generally to buildings like
gowdowns, etc.
CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF FIRE

 Fire is a chemical reaction that occurs when a fuel source and an oxidizing agent, such as oxygen, react, releasing heat, light,
and various reaction products.
 The flame is the visible portion of the fire and primarily consists of carbon dioxide, water vapor, oxygen, and nitrogen.
 Fires can be caused by natural factors like lightning or man-made sources, such as naked flames, cigarettes, electric sparks, or
any source of ignition coming into contact with inflammable material.
 Human activities, such as land clearing, agricultural activities, maintenance of grasslands, extraction of non-wood forest products,
industrial development, resettlement, hunting, negligence, and arson, can also cause fires.
 fire can be a hazard to life and property, cause atmospheric pollution, water contamination, and soil erosion.
 When fire removes protective vegetation, heavy rainfall can contribute to increased soil erosion by water.
 The burning of vegetation releases nitrogen into the atmosphere, unlike elements such as potassium and phosphorus, which
remain in the ash and are quickly recycled into the soil.
 This loss of nitrogen caused by a fire produces a long-term reduction in the fertility of the soil, which can be recovered as
atmospheric nitrogen is fixed and converted to ammonia by natural phenomena such as lightning or by peas and green beans.
 The effects of house fire damage include property damage, emotional stress, and financial loss.
 Control and prevention measures for house fires include ensuring heaters are plugged in with enough space, keeping children
and pets away from fire sources, using gas stoves carefully, keeping candles in a safe space and switching them off when done,
using an ashtray for cigarettes, and checking every room in the house for any possible fire risk before going to sleep.

IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS IN FIRE PROTECTION

The structures should offer sufficient resistance against fire so as to afford protection to the occupants in the event of fire. This objective
is achieved by
i) adequate planning,
ii) use of fire-resisting materials and construction techniques and
iii) by providing quick and safe means of escape in the building.
1. Planning :-
 The building should be so planned or oriented that the elements of construction or building components can withstand
the fire for a given time depending upon the size and use of building to isolate various compartments so as to minimize
the spread of fire.
 Suitable separation is necessary to prevent fire, gases and smoke from spreading rapidly through corridors, staircases, lift
shafts etc.
 Adequate separation from adjacent buildings should also be planned.
2. Use of fire- resisting materials and construction techniques:-
 All the structural elements, such as floors, walls, columns, beams, etc., should be made of fire-resisting materials so that
the life, goods or contents and activities within the building can be protected.
 The construction of structural elements, viz., walls, floors, columns, lintels, arches, etc. should be made in such a way that
they should continue to function at least for the time, which may be sufficient for the occupants to escape safely in times
of fire.
3. Escape elements,
 like stairways and staircases, corridors, lobbies and entrances should also be constructed out of fire-resistant materials
and be well separated from rest of the building.
 Adequate means of escape are provided for the occupants, to leave the building quickly and safely in times of
outbreak of fire.
 This objective is attained by providing an exit from within a building by way of definite escape ways, corridors and stairs,
to a street or an open space or roof or adjoining building from where access to escape may be found.
 The desired degree of fire resistance largely depends upon the use of buildings.
 In India, the types of building construction and fire zones in a city are classified on the basis of fire resistance and fire
hazard characteristics respectively.
The assessment of a building with regard to fire resistance is made on the basis of fire load, possible means of escape, fire-fighting
provisions, type of occupancy, building dimensions and the contents of the building.
In multi-storeyed officebuildings suitableequipment for detecting, extinguishing and warning of fire should be installed in the nicheson
all the floors for fire-fighting purposes.
It should be remembered that severity of a fire depends largely upon the amount, nature and distribution of combustible materials in a
building.
The nature of hazards associated with the fire is offollowing three types in order of importance:
(i) Personal. The hazard to the occupants of the building
(ii) Damage. The hazard to the structure andcontents.
(iii) Exposure. The hazard due to the spread of fireto other buildings.

FIRE-RESISTANT CONSTRUCTION

In India, National Building Code classifies the construction into four classes, namely, type 1, type2, type 3 and type 4 on the basis of fire-
resistance offered by building components for 4-hours,3-hours, 2-hours, and I-hour respectively. All the structural components of a
building should be constructed in such a way and of such materials that they withstand as an integral member of the structure, for the
period desired according to the type of construction, in the events of fire.
To achieve this objective, due considerations should be made in design and construction of the following structural elements of a
structure, and use of combustible material should be avoided as far as possible in the construction.
1. Wall and columns;
2. Floor and roofs;
3. Wall openings; and
4. Building fire escape elements, eg, stair, staircases, corridors, entrances, etc.
1. Walls and Columns.
 The load bearing walls or columns of masonry should be thicker in section so that they can resist fire for longer time and act as
vertical barriers to the passage of heat and fire.
 If the construction is of solid bearing walls, bricks should be preferred to stones.
 If it happens to be a framed structure then R.C.C. frames are preferred to those of steel frames.
 If the use of steel only is to be made due to specific reasons then it should be protected by embedding it in concrete or by
covering it with some other fire-insulating material, such as burnt clay blocks or terraotta.
 Walls of light-weight concrete are preferred to dense concrete as far as fire-resisting qualities are concerned.
 Both load-bearing and non-load bearing walls should be plastered with fire-resistive mortar to improve fire resistance.
 The partition walls should similarly be of fire-resistant materials such as, R.C.C. or reinforced
 Brickwork, or hollow concrete, or burnt clay tiles, or reinforced glass, or asbestos cement board, or metals lath covered over with
cement plaster. In case the wooden partitions are employed, they should be covered with metal lath and plaster. Cavity wall
construction also offers good resistance against fire.
2. Floors and Roofs.
 The floors and roofs should be made of fire-resisting materials as they act as horizontal barriers to spread of heat and fire in vertical
direction.
 For fire-resistant construction, the floor such as concrete Jack Arch floors with steel joists embedded in concrete, hollow tiled
ribbed floor, R.CC.floors, etc. should be used. Flooring of material, like concrete, ceramic tiles and brick, is regarded to be most
suitable from the view point of fire-resisting qualities. The use of terrazzo, marble and slate as floor surfaces is alsoquite satisfactory.
In case usage of combustible materials, like wood, cast-iron, rubber, linoleum, cork, carpet, etc. in flooring, becomes unavoidable
due to financial or practical considerations, then the following points should be given due consideration:
 In case of wooden joist floors, joists at a great spacing should be used to limit the deflection within allowable limits in the event of
fire.
 Fire stops or barriers in wooden floors should be provided at suitable intervals.
 While using combustible materials, like cast iron, wrought iron, cork, carpet etc., they should be protected by a covering of
insulating material like ceramic tiles, plaster, terra-cotta, bricks etc.
 For the fire-resisting of roofs, the flat roof construction should be preferred to sloping roofs all the considerations made above for
floors also hold true for roofs. Ceilings should be either directly attached or suspended from the floor joists. The ceilings are made
fire resistant by fixing asbestos cement boards, fiber boards, metal lath with plaster etc., to their framework
3. Wall Openings.

 From fire-resistant construction point of view, firstly the openings in the walls should be restricted to a minimum and secondly they
should be protected by suitable arrangements in case of fire. These openings serve as means of escape in fire if properly
protected, otherwise, they provide the passage for the spread of fire in the horizontal direction. Doors and windows should be
made of steel. The following points should be given due consideration for protecting the openings:
 Solid timber doors having a minimum thickness of 4 cm should be used where some degree of fire-resistance is desired.
 All those openings which are used for communication should have double fire-proof doors and other openings may have single
fire-proof doors.
 Any window exposed to the roof of other structure should be protected by fire-proof shutters.
 If any structure has a separation less than 6meters from adjoining structure, than all doors, windows or exposed sides should be
made of fire-proof construction.
 All escape doors should be such as to provide free circulation to the persons in corridors, stairs, entrances, etc. And be made of
fire-proof materials.
 Windows if carried down the floor, should have suitable barrier, like projecting slab beyond the outer face of the building.
4. Fire Escape Element.
 (Eg. Staircases, Corridors, Lobbies, Entrances, etc.) All these fire escape elements should be constructed out of fire-resistant
materials and well separated from rest of the building. Doors to the staircases, corridors and lifts should be made of fire proofing
materials.
 Staircases should be located next to the outer walls and should be accessible from any floor in the direction of flow towards the
exits from the building.
 The fire-proof doors to these emergency staircases should be fixed in such a way as to make them close from inside only. In single
storey building, the provision of an accessible fire-proof window, which should be large enough for leaving the building, should be
ensured. In case of multi-storeyed structures the number and location of staircases should be decided so as to provide for
equitable distribution of the population of the floor over all the staircases. All internal staircases should be made of fire-resisting
material like R.C.C. and the entrances provided with automatic armored fire-doors on roller shutters or approved .types of fire-
proof doors. A straight flight type staircase should be provided where possible.
 The lift shafts connecting various floors should be surrounded with the enclosure walls of fire-resisting materials and should be
vented at the top to allow smoke and hot gases to escape. All stairs should be cut off from other parts of the building by a fire-
resisting wall, or Wire-glass partitions or such other safe enclosure.
 All external stairs like fire escape stairs, spiral stairs, steep ladders and ramps, are treated as supplementary means to the internal
staircases.
 Fire escape stairs should be of straight flight type having a width not less than 75 cm with 15 cm treads and risers not more than 20
cm. The number of risers should be limited to 16 per flight. All stairs, ladders and landings should be provided with non-combustible
hand rails ata height not less than 100cm. The gradient of ramps should not be more than 1 in 10.
 Spiral stairs should be limited in use to buildings with low density of population. The spiral stairs be made of non-combustible
material and should have diameters not less than 1.5 meters and height not exceeding 9 metres, with adequate headroom.
 Steep ladders are used in buildings having very low density of population where the use of fire-escape stairs and spiral stairs is
impracticable. The width of such ladders should not be less than 45 cm and grips projecting 100 cm above the top of the rungs
should be provided.
 Landings at approach and at intermediate stages should be provided where height exceeds 6 metres. Ladders used with height
exceeding 9 metres should be provided with guards to form an enclosure for refuge in the event of fire. Ladders should,
preferably, be located at least 10cm away from the wall and not steeper than 60° tothe horizontal.

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

1. Alarm

 These systems are installed to give warning to the occupants of a building of the fire and hence indirectly to call for assistance in
the event of fire. These fire alarm systems may be either manual or automatic.
 Manual alarm system consists of sounding devices such as sirens, hand bell, which should be distinctive in pitch and quality from
normal sounding devices. These devices are provided near all main exits and passages which are readily accessible.
 Automatic alarm systems either automatic sprinklers or portable fire extinguishers are intended for immediate use. Electrical fire
alarms are usually installed to meet specific requirements of occupancies and to provide effective warning regarding fire-
happening in any part of the premises. These automatic alarm systems are installed in large industrial or public buildings which are
generally unoccupied at night. The automatic fire alarm, on detection of fire, sends the information to the nearest control point
and at the same time, a message to the fire brigade station is also conveyed

2. Extinguishers

 The various arrangements are provided on the basis of the importance of building for extinguishing of fire. Some of the important
equipment generally used for fire-fighting purposes are as follows:

(i) Normally operated equipment.

 These equipment consists of portable fire extinguishers which are intended for immediate use on an outbreak of fire.
 Various types of portable extinguishers like carbon-dioxide type (CO2); foam machines, large foam generators, etc., are used.
 The discharge from a fire-extinguisher depends upon its capacity and may last from 10 to 120 seconds. CO2 type extinguisher is
most common for small fires whereas permanent foam installations similar to automatic sprinkler system are suitable for large fire
risks.
 Sometimes, buckets of water, sand and asbestos blankets are kept ready at all the times for covering small risks of fire.

(ii) Fire Hydrants.

 These hydrants should be located in such a way (inside or outside the building) that water can be made available easily for fire-
fighting purposes.
 For large and close buildings, the fire hydrants should be located at distances 90 to 120metres, whereas at 300 m or more in case
of open areas.
 Generally, one hydrant for an area of 4,000 to10,000 m is provided based on density of the population and importance of the
region.
 Hydrants are provided at all the street crossings.
 Fire hydrants are of two types, namely, (i) Pillar or Post Hydrants, and (ii) Sunk or Flush Hydrants. Sunk types, which are commonly
used, are fixed below the road surface having a cast-iron cover, flushing with the road surface.
 A vertical pipe is screwed on the sunk hydrant when required and hose pipe fixed on it.

(iii) Automatic Sprinkler System.

 This is an arrangement, consisting of pipes and sprinklers in such away as to operate automatically by the heat of fire and to
discharge water upon that fire and which may also simultaneously give automatic audible alarm. This system is installed for the
internal protection of premises against fire and is adopted for important structures like textile mills, paper mills, etc.
 The arrangement consists of a number of overhead pipes which are fixed in the ceiling3mc/c. The sprinkler heads with fusible plugs
are fitted at regular spacing of 3 m along the pipes. The header(dia. 4 cm), from storage tanks, supplies water to the over-head
pipes (generally dia. 2 cm). In the event of fire, the sprinkler head (with fusible plugs) nearest the fire point melts and allows the
water to sprinkle on the fire itself. Hence, the fire is controlled in a short period at the source only. For making the system more
effective, it should be fitted with automatic alarm device.

3. Escape routes
  The provision of ample escape routes, particularly for important buildings like theatres, townhalls, schools, restaurants, factories,
clubs, and such other public buildings, for the population of a building in the event of fire is of the tremendous
importance.
 In case of buildings, exceeding 6 storeys or 25mheight, used for mercantile, industrial, business, assembly buildings other than
theatres, institutional and residential purposes, it has been recommended to provide at least one fire fire-tower
tower as the escape route.
 All the escape routes over roofs should be protected with railings, balustrades or parapets not less than one metre in height
height.

LIFT AND ESCALATORS

LIFT OR ELEVATOR

 An elevator or lift is a type of vertical transport equipment that efficiently moves people or g
goods
oods between floors (levels, decks) of
a building, vessel or other structures.
 Elevators are generally powered by electric motors that either drive traction cables or counterweight systems like a hoist, oro pump
hydraulic fluid to raise a cylindrical pistonn like a jack.
 There are three types of convoying methods in buildings, Elevators & Escalators & Ramps, and they have different dimensions and a
uses according to building type & number of users in it.

TYPES OF LIFTS

TRACTION ELEVATORS

 Traction elevators
ors are the most popular form of elevator designs used widely across
the world.
 These consist of the elevator car and a counterweight held together by steel ropes
looped around the sheave.
 The sheave is a pulley with grooves around its circumference.
 The sheave is driven by the AC or DC motor.
 The sheave grips the hoist ropes so that when it rotates, the ropes move,too.
 This gripping is due to traction.

HYDRAULIC ELEVATORS
 Hydraulic elevator systems lift a car using a hydraulic ram, a fluidfluid-driven piston
mounted inside a cylinder.
 All the weight of the elevator cab is supported on the piston.
 The cylinder is connected to a fluid-pumping
pumping system .
 The hydraulic system has 3 parts:
 i) A tank (the fluid reservoir)
ii) A pump, powered by an electric motor and
iii)A valve between the cylinder and the reservoir
 The pump forces fluid from the tank into a pipe leading to the cylinder.
 When the valve is opened, the pressurized fluid will take the path of least resistance
and return to the fluid reservoir.
 But when the valve is closed , the pressurized fluid nowhere to go except into the
cylinder.
 As the fluid collects in the cylinder, it pushes the piston up, lifting the elevator car.
 When the car approaches the correct floor, the control system sends a signal to th the
electric motor to gradually shut off the pump.
 With the pump off , there is no more fluid flowing into the cylinder, but the fluid that is
already in the cylinder cannot escape.
 The piston rests on the fluid, and the car stays where it is.

PASSENGER ELEVATORS

 A passenger elevator is designed to move people between a building’s floors.

 Passenger elevators capacity is related to the available floor space.
 Generally, passenger elevators are available in capacities from 500 to 2,700 kg in 230 kg increments
increments.
 Generally , passenger elevators in buildings of 9 floors or fewer are hydraulic or electric, which can reach speeds up to 1m/
1m/s
hydraulic and upto 152m/min electric.
 In buildings upto 10 floors, electric and gearless elevators are likely to have speeds upto
upto 3m/s, and above 10 floors speeds range 3
to 10m/s.
 Sometimes passenger elevators are used as a city transport along with furniculars
 For example, there is a 3-station
station underground public elevator in Yalta,Ukraine, which takes passengers from the top of a hill above
the black sea on which hotels are perched, to a tunnel located on the beach below.
 At Casco Viejo station in the Bilbao Metro, the elevator that provides access to the station from a hilltop neighbourhood doubles
dou
as city transportation.

BED ELEVATORS

 Bed elevators are specialized elevators designed for hospitals to transport patients, beds, and medical equipment efficiently and
safely.
 These elevators are equipped with features tailored for the hospital environment, such as precise leveling ffor easy entry of
wheelchairs and beds, wide opening doors, and quiet operation to prevent disturbance to patients.
 Bed elevators have a maximum load capacity ranging from 1600 kgs to 2500 kgs and speeds from 0.4 m/s to 3 m/s, ensuring
smooth and reliable transportation within hospital facilities.
facilities

DUMBWAITER

 Dumbwaiters are small freight elevators that are intended to carry food, books or other small
freight loads rather than passengers.
 They often connect kitchens to rooms on other floors.
 They usually do not have the same safety features found in passenger elevators, like various
ropes for redundancy.
 They have a lower capacity , and they can be up to 1 meter tall.
 Control panels at every stop mimic those found in passenger elevators, allowing calling , door
control and floor selection.

STRUCTURAL PROVISIONS OF AN ELEVATOR

Lift installation has got 3 main structural components.
1. Hoist way or shaft or well
2. Machine room
3. Pit
1. Hoistway is the space enclosed by fireproof walls and elevator doors for the trav
travel of one or
more elevators, dumbwaiters or material lifts. It includes the pit and terminates at the
underside of the overhead machinery space floor or grating or at the underside of the roof
where the hoistway does not penetrate the roof. (Hoistway is sometimes
so called "hatchway"
or "hatch".)
Hoist way components
Guide rails for both the car and counterweight.
Counterweight.

Suspension (Hoisting) Ropes (Cables).

Landing (Hoistway) doors

1. Guide rails for both the car and counterweight.

counterweight.Guide Rails are Steel Tracks in the form of a “T” that run the length of
the hoistway, with guiding surfaces to guide and direct the course of travel of an elevator car and elevator
counterweights and Usually mounted to the sides of the hoistway.
2. Counterweight is a tracked weight
ight that is suspended from cables and moves within its own set of guide rails along the
hoist way walls.

Counterweight is used for the following:

1. Balancing the mass of the complete car and a portion of rated load, and it will be equal to the dead
weightt of the car plusabout 40% of the rated load.
2. Reducing the necessary consumed power for moving the elevator.

3.Suspension (Hoisting) Ropes (Cables).

4. Landing (Hoist way) doorsThe

The door that is seen from each floor of a building is referred to as the ou
outer or hoist way door. The
hoist way door is a part of the building (each landing). These doors can be opened or closed by electric motors, or
manually for emergency incidents.
 Safety devices are located at each landing to prevent inadvertent hoist way door openings and to prevent an elevator
car from moving unless a door is in a locked position.
Hoist way Door Types:
There are four basic types of hoist way doors used on elevators as follows:

Hoistway Door Types

 Automatic Door: Center opening doors consist of two power operated panels that part simultaneously with a brisk, noiseless
motion.
 Swing Door: Swing hall doors consists of a hoistway door that is manually opened and a single slide car door that is power
operated.
 Telescopic Door: It consists of two power operated panels that are geared together. One door moves twice as fast as the
other door so that both doors will meet concurrently in the open position.
 Collapsible Gate: Constructed from double channel rolled pickets 16mm wide x 2.5mm thick interconnected by 6mm thick
galvanized steel solid lattice bars.

Features
(a). No equipment except that forming a part of lift should be installed in lift well.
(b).All internal surface of the lift well should be kept flush
(c). Side walls of the hoist way may be made of RCC 15 cm thick so as to provide satisfactory anchoring arrangement for
guide rails.
(d). Lift well enclosure shall be extended on all side throughout its height. It shall be of fire-resistant construction with a fire
resistance of not less than 2hours.
(e).Shaft for fire lift in a lift bank shall be separated from each other by a brick masonry or RCC wall of a fire resistance of not
less than 2 hours.
(f). Exit from the lift lobby shall be through a self-closing smoke stop door of ½ hour resistance.
2. Machine room:-The machine room is meant for keeping all lift drive and control apparatus.
The machine room should as far as possible be placed immediately above the lift well, as this has several advantages such as
reduced load, lower capital cost and reduced power consumption.
A trap door for initially taking the machine inside the machine room during erection must be provided.
The machine room should be sufficiently ventilated
Safe and convenient access to machine room shall be provided from the roof of the topmost floors or by an internal stair.
The machine room floor shall be capable of sustaining a concentrated load of 1320 N on any 2500 mm 2area.
In all open areas the machine room floor shall be in RCC and thickness not less than 15cm in any case.
The beam supporting the slab which carries lift machinery,carry the entire weight and should be designed so.
Cut outs should be provided in the machine room floor i) for passing of ropes of floor selector, driving motor and governor ii)
for trap door during casting of slab
3. Lift pit:-Lift pit shall be provided at bottom of every lift for full cross sectional area of hoist way.
Pits should be soundly constructed and maintained in a dry and clean condition
When the pit depth exceeds two meters suitable access shall be provided
A light point and switch shall also be provided.
Buffers in the pit : - A Buffer is a device designed to stop a descending car or counterweight beyond its normal limit and to
soften the force with which the elevatorruns into the pit during an emergency
COMPONENTS OF AN ELEVATOR
1. Car.
 2. Hoistway.

3. Machine/drive system.

4. Control system.

5. Safety system.
1. Elevator Car Elevator Car is the vehicle that travels between the different elevator stops carryingpassengers and/or goods, it is
usually A heavy steel frame surrounding a cage of metal and wood panels.
Elevator Car Components

1. Car Sling, a metal framework connected to the means of suspension, which carries the load
2. The elevator cabin,
3. Mechanical accessories which are:
Car door and door operator.
Guide shoes.
Door Protective Device
Car Door types:
There are (4) common types of car doors as follows:

 Single slide door: consists of one power operated single panel sliding doors.
 Single speed center opening: consist of two power operated panels that part simultaneously with a brisk, noiseless motion.
faster passenger loading than side opening
 Two speed side opening: consist of two power operated panels that are geared together. One door moves twice as fast as
the other door so that both doors will meet concurrently in the open position.
 Two speed center opening doors: same as one speed center opening doors but it consist of four power operated panels.

Door operation method:

Elevator doors are normally opened by a power unit that is located on top of the elevator car. When an elevator car is level with a
floor landing, the power unit moves the car door open or closed.

Door Operator: A motor-driven device mounted on the elevator car that opens and closes the car doors.

Guide shoes:Guide shoes are Devices used mainly to guide the car and counterweight along the path of the guide rails.

Hoistway components:
3. Guide rails for both the car and counterweight.Guide Rails are Steel Tracks in the form of a “T” that run the
length of the hoistway, with guiding surfaces to guide and direct the course of travel of an elevator car
and elevator counterweights and Usually mounted to the sides of the hoistway.
4. Counterweight is a tracked weight that is suspended from cables and moves within its own set of guide rails
along the hoistway walls.
Counterweight is used for the following:
  Balancing the mass of the complete car and a portion of rated load, and it will be equal to the dead weight of the car plus
about 40% of the rated load.
 Reducing the necessary consumed power for moving the elevator.

5. Suspension (Hoisting) Ropes (Cables).

6. Landing (Hoistway) doorsThe door that is seen from each floor of a building is referred to as the outer or
hoistway door. This hoistway door is a part of the building (each landing). These doors can be opened or
closed by electric motors, or manually for emergency incidents.
Safety devices are located at each landing to prevent inadvertent hoistway door openings and to prevent
an elevator car from moving unless a door is in a locked position.
Hoistway Door Types:
There are four basic types of hoistway doors used on elevators as follows:

Hoistway Door Types

 Automatic Door: Center opening doors consist of two power operated panels that part simultaneously with a brisk, noiseless
motion.
 Swing Door: Swing hall doors consists of a hoistway door that is manually opened and a single slide car door that is power
operated.
 Telescopic Door: It consists of two power operated panels that are geared together. One door moves twice as fast as the
other door so that both doors will meet concurrently in the open position.
 Collapsible Gate: Constructed from double channel rolled pickets 16mm wide x 2.5mm thick interconnected by 6mm thick
galvanized steel solid lattice bars.
Buffers in the pit : - A Buffer is a device designed to stop a descending car or counterweight beyond its normal limit and to soften the
force with which the elevatorruns into the pit during an emergency

Elevator Machine and drive system

Driving machine, this is the power unit of the elevator, and usually located at the elevator machine room.

The Driving machine used to refer to the collection of components that raise or lower the elevator. These include the drive motor,
brake, speed reduction unit, sheaves and encoders.
 Types of Driving Machines:

Generally, there are three standard types of driving machines provided for elevators. These are;
1. Gearless Machine: - Generally, Gearless machines are used for high speed lifts between 2.5 m/s to 10 m/s and they can be
also used for lower speeds for special applications.
2. Geared machines: - Generally, geared machines are used for speeds between 0.1 m/s and 2.5 m/s and are suitable for loads
from 5 Kg up to 50,000 Kg and above.
3. Drum machines: - It is widely used in older passenger and freight elevator applications, though now rarely seen except for
dumbwaiters

Traction (Drive) Sheave: The powered pulley connected to either the elevator drive motor. The circumference of the sheave has a
series of “U” or “V” shaped grooves cut into it, in which sit the elevator suspension or hoist ropes. The friction loads created as the
suspension ropes pass over the grooved surface of the sheave causes motion to be transmitted from the drive motor to the elevator
cab or counterweight.

ARRANGEMENT OF LIFTS

1. Bank
The lift shall be provided in the centre of building in banks of not more than 4 lifts in one row and each bank having 2 rows.
The number of banks of lifts shall depend upon the total floor area.
Normally as many banks may have to be provided as the number of stairs.
The lift lobby space has to be sufficient enough for handling the expected numbers of passengers and it should be easily accessible.
 2. Alcove
In case of lifts more than three in number, the lifts should be arranged in alcove arrangement.
With this arrangement the lift alcove leads off to the main corridor so that there is no interference by traffic to other groups.
This arrangement permits narrowest possible corridors and some space on other floors

ESCALATORS

 An escalator is a type of vertical transportation in the form of a moving staircase

 A conveyor transport device for carrying people between floors of a building.
 The device consists of a motor-driven chain of individually linked steps that move up or down on tracks, allowing the step treads to
remain horizontal.
 Escalators are used around the world to move pedestrian traffic in places where elevators would be impractical.
 Principal areas of usage include department stores, shopping malls, airports, transit systems, convention centres, hotels, arenas,
stadiums, and public buildings.
 Escalators have the capacity to move large numbers of people , and they can be placed in the same physical space as a
staircase.

ESCALATOR PARTS

TRUSS

 The truss is a hollow metal structure that bridges the lower and upper landings.
 It is composed of two side sections joined together with cross braces across the bottom and just below the top.
 The ends of the truss are attached to the top and bottom landing platforms via steel or concrete supports.
 The truss carries all the straight track sections connecting the upper and lower sections.

LANDING PLATFORM

 These 2 platforms house the curved sections of the tracks, as well as the gears and motors that drive the stairs.
 The top platform contains the motor assembly and the main drive gear, while the bottom holds the step return idler sprockets.
 These sections also anchor the ends of the escalator truss.
 In addition, the platforms contain a floor plate and a combplate.
 The floor plate provides a place for the passengers to stand before they step onto the moving stairs.
 This plate is flush with the finished floor and is either hinged or removable to allow easy access to the machinery below.
 The combplate is the piece between the stationary floor plate and the moving step.
 It is so named because its edge has a series of cleats that resemble the teeth of a comb.
 These teeth mesh with matching cleats on the edges of the steps.
 This design is necessary to minimize the gap between the stair and the landing, which helps prevent objects from getting caught
in the gap.

STEPS

 The steps themselves are solid, one piece, die-cast aluminium, or steel. Yellow demarcation lines may be added to clearly indicate
their edges.
 In most escalator models manufactured after 1950, both the riser and the tread of each step is cleated with comb like protrusions
that mesh with the comb plates on the top and bottom platforms and the succeeding steps in the chain.
 Seeberger-or”step-type” escalators featured flat treads and smooth risers; other escalator models have cleated treads and
smooth risers.
 The steps are linked by a continuous metal chain that forms a closed loop.
 The front and back edges of the steps are each connected to two wheels.
 The rear wheels are set further apart to fit into the back track and the front wheels have shorter axles to fit into the narrower front
track.
 As described above, the position of the tracks controls the orientation of the steps.

TRACKS

 The track system is built into the truss to guide the step chain, which continuously pulls the steps from the bottom platform and
back to the top in an endless loop.
 There are actually 2 tracks: one for the front wheels of the steps and one for the back wheels of the steps.
 The relative positions of these tracks cause the steps to form a staircase as they move out from under the combplate.
 Along the straight section of the truss the tracks are at their maximum distance apart.
 This configuration forces the back of one step, to be at a 90 degree angle relative to the step behind it.
 This right angle bends the steps into a shape resembling a staircase.
 At the top and bottom of the escalator , the two tracks converge so that the front and back wheels of the steps are almost in a
straight line.
 This causes the stairs to lay in a flat sheet like arrangement, one after another , so they can easily travel around the bend in the
curved section of track.
 The tracks carry the steps down along the underside of the truss until they reach the bottom landing, where they pass through
another curved section of track before exiting the bottom landing.
 At this point the tracks separate and the steps once again assume as a staircase configuration.
 This cycle is repeated continually as the steps are pulled from bottom to top and back to the bottom again.

HANDRAIL

 The handrail provides a convenient handhold for passengers while they are riding the escalator.
 In an escalator, the handrail is pulled along its track by a chain that is connected to the main drive gear by a series of pulleys.
 It is constructed of four distinct sections.
 At the center of the handrail is a slider, also known as a “glider ply”, which is a layer of a cotton or synthetic textile.
 The purpose of the slider layer is to allow the handrail to move smoothly along its track.
 The next layer known as “ tension member” , consists of either steel cable or flat steel tape, and provides the handrail with tensile
strength and flexibility.
 On top of the tension member are the inner construction components, which are made of chemically treated rubber designed to
prevent the layers from separating.
 Finally, the outer layer , the only part that passengers see-is the cover, which is blend of synthetic polymers, and rubber.
 This cover is designed to resist degradation from environmental conditions, mechanical wear an tear, and vandalism.

OTHER PARTS

 Anti-slip floor plates

 Skirt guard safety switch (optional)
 Step chain safety device
 Emergency stop button
 Drive chain safety device
 Escalator speed governor
 Low coefficient resin or skirt guards (optional)
 Yellow demarcation comb and cleats
 Inlet guards
ESCALATORS ARRANGEMENT

Escalators have 3 typical configuration options:

1. Parallel Up and down escalators "side by side or separated by a distance," seen often in metro stations and multilevel motion picture
theaters)

2.Crisscross -Minimizes space requirements by "stacking" escalators that go in one direction, frequently used in department stores or
shopping centers
3. Multiple parallel – Two or more escalators together that travel in one direction next to one or two escalators in the same bank that
travel in the other direction.
ACOUSTICS
Acoustics is the science that deals with the study of sound and its production, transmission, effects and applications.
Sound
 Sound is a (typically audible)mechanical pressure wave which is created by a vibrating object.
 This vibrations set particles in the surrounding medium (air or water)in vibrational motion, thus transporting energy through the
medium.
 Sound also implies the reception of such waves and their perception by the brain.
 The alternating compression and rarefaction of the surrounding air produces sound waves which propagate in the form of
sinusoidal path
 The peak of a wave is called compression or crest.
 The valley of a wave is called rarefaction or trough.

CHARACTERISTICS OF AUDIBLE SOUND

1.Frequency or pitch
 The number of sound waves produced in unit time is called the frequency of sound waves.
 For example, if a source of sound produces 20 sound waves in one second then the frequency is 20 Hz.
 Time taken to calculate frequency is in second.
 Frequency is denoted by Greek letter ‘v’ (nu).
 The SI unit of frequency is ‘hertz’.
 The greater the number of cycles, the higher will be the pitch.
 The highest audible sound, such as that of a shrill whistle, has a frequency of 20,000 c.p.s, (cycles or vibrations per second), while
the lowest audible sound has a frequency of sound below 20 c.p.s. that of whispering.
 If the frequency of sound is below 20c.p.s, then effect of sound is lost.
 The frequency or pitch is a measure of the quality of sound and it does not, affects the velocity of sound.

2.Loudness or Intensity

 It is defined as flow of energy per second through unit area, the unit area being perpendicular to the specified direction.
 So the intensity is the strength of the sensation received by the human ear and is proportional to the sound energy in the sound
waves.
 In other words, loudness is a measure of the quantity of sound energy which is measured in decibels.
3.Tone or tonal structure

 The characteristic or quality of sound by which various sounds can be distinguished from one another.
 Two sounds with the same frequency and intensity, can be distinguished by virtue of their different tones.

BEHAVIOUR OF SOUND TRANSMISSION, REFLECTION, ABSORPTION

 Transmission : This happens when sound waves pass through a medium or material and continue on the other side.
 The amount of sound transmitted depends on the acoustic impedance of the two materials involved.
 Reflection : This occurs when sound waves encounter a surface and bounce back.
 The angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection.
 Reflection can lead to phenomena like echoes and reverberation , especially in small spaces.
 Absorption: When sound waves strike an absorbent material , some of their energy is converted into heat, reducing the overall
sound energy.
 The ability of a material to absorb sound is indicated by the sound absorption coefficient which ranges from 0 ( no absorption) to
1(complete absorption).

ACOUSTICAL DEFECTS

Perfect acoustic conditions in a room or in an auditorium are obtained when an average sound rises to a suitable intensity in every part
of the auditorium with no echoes or distortion of the original sound and then dies out quickly enough so as not to interfere with
succeeding sounds.
1. Formation of echoes,
2. Reverberation,
3. Sound foci and dead spots,
4. Insufficient loudness
5. Exterior noise nuisance or outdoor noise
1. Echo- Echo is said to be produced when a reflected sound wave reaches the ear just when the original sound from the same source
has already been reached. The sensation of sound persists for one-tenth of a second after the source has ceased. Thus an echo forms
when the time lag between the two sounds is about 1/17th of the second. The defect of echoes also occurs when the shape of the
reflected surface is curved with a smooth character
2. Reverberation
When the surfaces of an indoor place are hard and smooth, very small energy is lost at each impact of sound and many reflections
take place before the sound dies down. This repeated reflection of sound is called prolongation or reverberation. Then if sound exists
too long, then successive words of a speech will overlap and confuse.
The remedy for this defect is to select a correct time of reverberation known as an optimum time of reverberation. This is achieved by
suitably selecting proper absorbent or acoustical materials for different reflecting surfaces.
3.Sound Foci :
Reflecting concave surfaces cause concentration of reflected sound waves at certain spot, creating a sound of large intensity.
These spots are called sound foci. This defect can be removed by (a) geometrical designed shapes of the interior faces, including
ceilings
(b) providing highly absorbent materials on focusing areas.
4.Dead Spots:
This defect is an outcome of the formation of sound foci.Because of high concentration of reflected sound at sound foci,there is
deficiency of reflected sound at some other points.
These points are known as dead spots,where sound intensity is so low that it is insufficient for hearing. This defect can be removed
by a) installation of suitable diffuser so that there is even
distribution of sound in the hall
5.Insufficient Loudness: This defect is caused due to a lack of sound reflecting flat surface near the sound source b) excessive sound
absorption treatment in the hall. The defect can be removed bya) providing hard reflecting surface near the source, b) by adjusting
the absorption of the hall so as to get optimum time of reverberation. c) When the length of the hall is more, it may be desirable to
install loud speakers at proper places
6.External Noise: External noise from vehicles, traffic engines , factories, cooling plants etc. may enter the hall either through the
openings (such as doors, windows, ventilators etc.) or through walls and other structural elements having improper sound insulation.
This defect can be removed by a) proper planning of the hall with respect of its surroundings b) proper sound insulation of exterior walls.
SABINE’S FORMULA

 The persistence of audible sound even after the source has stopped emitting sound is called reverberation.
 The duration of time for which the reverberation exists in a hall is called reverberation time.
 According to Sabine, the reverberation time is given by

T =0.165V/𝜺𝒂𝒔

Where, T – reverberation time

V- Volume of the hall
a – absorption coefficient of a surface
s – surface area of the surface that absorbs sound

GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND FACTORS IN ACOUSTICAL DESIGN .

Some of the general planning principles and factors which play an important role in creating good acoustical conditions are as
follows:
A. Site selection and planning
B. Volume, i.e., size and height.
C. Shape.
D. Treatment of interior surfaces.
E. Reverberation.
F. Seat, seating arrangement and audience.
G. Sound absorption.
A. Site Selection and Planning :- The site selected should be in the quietest surroundings consistent with other requirements so that
intelligibility of speech and tonal quality of music are not affected .It is particularly necessary to keep the level the outdoor noise low by
proper orientation and site selection, in case where no air-conditioning is provided and doors and windows are normally kept open
during the performance.
B Volume (i.e., Size and Height). The volume of the room should be in proportion to the intensity of sounds to be generated in it. The
volume of musical concert should be quite large so the sufficient space is made available for proper distribution ofmusic. For theatres
(required for speeches), on the other hand, halls of small volumes are used for comparatively weak sounds. Where an auditorium is to
be used for both, i.e., music as well as speech,the same may be provided with an intermediate volume.In planning the volume of the
hall, height is of greater importance than either length or breadth.This is on account of the fact that a small increase in height results in
the considerable increase in the volume.
The following values may be taken as a rough guide for deciding the volume of an auditorium:
(i) Public Lecture Halls = 2.8 to 3.7 m 3/person.
(ii) Musical Concert Halls = 4.2 to 5.6 m3/person.
(iii) Cinema Theatres = 3.7 to 4.2m3/person.(for sound films)
However, the best guide for deciding the volume of a proposed auditorium would be the detailed study of an existing auditorium used
for the similar purpose.
C. Shape. The shape of the room is more important consideration in the acoustic design of an auditorium, as it is the governing factor in
correcting some acoustical defects which are due to the reflection of sound waves. For better distribution of the intensity of sound, the
shape of hall plays an important role. Shape determines the geometrical arrangement of walls, floors and ceiling. Shape is expressed in
terms of the ratio of height, width and length of the hall.
The ratios of height to width to length (H: W: L) are indicated for different types of auditoriums with
volume per seat. From the total number of seats to be provided in an auditorium, total cubical contents
can be worked out and then from the relevant ratio, length, width and height can be determined. The
height of hall used for speech and music is kept varying from 1/3rd to 2/3rd of the width of the hall. The
lower ratio should be adopted for very large halls and higher ratio for small rooms. The floor plan of
the auditorium may have many typical possible shapes, such as rectangular, fan-shaped, horse shoe,
circular, oval etc.
D. Treatment of Interior Surfaces. Alongwith the overall shape and size of the auditorium, the treatment
of interior surfaces, i.e., ceiling and side wallsalso play an influential part in the acoustical design.The
ceilings and side walls should provide favorable reflections or reinforce thesound thatreaches the rear
parts of a large auditorium. Ceiling splays or spread outs and appropriately tiltedportions of the ceilings
can be arranged or devisedto reinforce the sound. In case of long halls, all reflections of the originalsound
must reach the listener within 45 milliseconds of the direct sound. Any sound reachingafter 45
milli-seconds of the arrival of directsound will be heard as echo. In order to avoid theinterfering echoes,
reflective ceiling and wall reflectors should be within 8 m of the sound source.It should be further
ensured that the path difference between the direct and the reflected sound atno listening point should
exceed 12 m. Theside walls should also besplayed or spread outto reinforce the sound.
Plain side walls are normally found suitable. Theconcave ceiling surfaces such as domes, vaults,etc.,
must be avoided, as they result in formation ofechoes and sound foci defects. To avoid echoes further,
a smooth ceiling should not be parallel to thefloor. The convex-shaped walls are, however considered
best to reduce the echoes to greatextent.

As far aspossible, rear walls should not be provided asconcave walls, unless
treated with sound absorbent materials. To increase diffusion of sound devices such as balcony recess,
splayed ceilings, splayedside walls, small curvature of rear walls, adequateabsorption materials, etc.
can be used.
E. Reverberation.
 The sound spreads out in all directions inside a enclosed space.
 The sound waves get reflected so many times in the boundary surfaces of the enclosed area.
 Due to multiple reflection and absorption the sound gradually die down.
 As a result, even though the source of sound produced a particular sound and stopped, the sound is continuously heard
for a short interval of time, until the intensity falls below the limit of audibility.
 This phenomenon of persistence of sound inside a hall for some time even after the source of sound is stopped is called reverberation.
 However, the following general principles should be remembered by the designer.
 (i)A shorter optimum reverberation period is required for reproduced sound such as of gramophone,
sound films, etc., than that of the originone. This is on account of the fact that there isalready some
reverberation present which hasbeen introduced at the time of recording.
 (ii) For direct orchestral music, the reverberation time required is about 15% longer than that for
unaided speech, and for choral music it is about 40% longer.
 This is because of the fact that in music, blending of sounds is desirable, especially when the succeeding sounds are harmonious
whereas in speech excessive reverberation leads to a blurring effect.
 While providing absorption power in the hall,it should be considered that the reverberation timeis not uniform throughout the auditorium.
 If the average time of reverberation is 1.3 seconds,then it may be 1.5 seconds in the main hall, 1.2 seconds in balconies
and 1.l seconds below the balcony.
E Seats, Seating Arrangement and Audience:- The seat and seating arrangement, furnishings
and audience contribute to a great extent to the absorption in the room of which audience is the
largest. To ensure optimum absorption-
(i) the seats are arranged so that the heads in one row do not intercept the passage of direct sound to the
persons in the row immediately behind them.

(ii)In addition to this, seating arrangement should be such as to ensure good audibility and visibility.
(iii)The seating accommodation for this purpose should be such as to cover an angle of 90 with
horizontal and 30° with vertical.
(iv)the distance of the front row works out to be about 3.5m for drama and it should be 4.5 m
or more for cinema purposes.
(v)The width of seat should be between 45cm to 55 cm.
(vi)The back-to-back distance of chairs in successive rows of seats should be at least 85 cm but
may be more up to 105 cm depending upon the comfort desired
G. Sound Absorption. To keep the optimum reverberation time within limits, carefully located
sound absorbing materials or acoustical materials are used.Absorptive materials should be
used on the ends or one side and part on the floor and or ceiling of the hall or auditorium. The
material placed near the edge, where ceiling meets a wall, is about 2 times more effective than
the material placed near the centre of the wall. It is more economical to place the material in the
corner of the ceiling, than the centre of wall.Theabsorptive materials have a higher coefficient of
absorption than hard plaster.
Practical Cases of Some Acoustical Buildings.
The factors to be considered in the acoustical design of some of the buildings are explained here.
A. Open Air Theatres,
B. Cinema Theatres of Sound Films,
C. Radio Broadcasting Studios,
D. Concert Halls,
E. Multi-purpose Theatres,
F. Public Lecture Halls, and,
G. Class-Lecture Rooms.
A. Open Air Theatres. In an open air theatre there are no side walls or barriers and hence
there is no reverberation. The following points require special attention in acoustical design
of theopen air theatres:
(i) The selection of the site for an open air theatreshould be done very carefully considering
Thetopographical, meteorological and acoustical properties of all available locations for the
theatre.Quietness is the most important of all acousticalconsiderations in the selection of the
site.
(ii) The average noise level should not exceed 40dB for a satisfactory site of a theatre
(iii) The slope of the seating area should not be lessthan about 12 degrees for good audibility
And visibility.
(iv)A properly designed orchestra shell is a mustfor an open-air theatre. This is required for
Twopurposes, viz., (i) the reflective power of the shell raises the average sound level
throughout the areauniformly, and (ii) the shell enables the stage performers to hear each
other more easily.
(v) The simplest type orchestra shell consists of ahard reflective wall behind the stage.
An overheadinclined reflector over the vertical wall behind thestage is valuable addition,
as it imparts the reflected sound a direction which is nearly parallel tothe scope of the seating
area.
(vi) A sound amplification system should be provided, especially where the strength of
audience orauditors will be more than 600.
(vii) The direction of wind at the time ofprogramme is an important factor in either helping
or obstructing the passage of sound
B. Cinema Theatres for Sound Films. The following considerations should be made in the
acoustical design and planning of the cinema theatres for sound films.

(i)Though various shapes of floor plan have given good acoustic conditions but fan-shaped
Plan with diverging side walls has been considered to be best.
(ii) The ceiling of the auditorium should be splayed type, with a slight upward slope towards
the rear-side.

(iii) The proportion of height, width and length should be approximately as 1:2:3
(iv) The surfaces near the source of sound should be polished hard and reflecting than those
of distant or rear walls of absorbent material.
(v) The volume for a sound film theatre should be between 3.5 to 4.5 m 3 per seat.
(vi) The echo defect should be prevented at any cost, particularly by avoiding curved
surfaces and using sound absorbing materials on the rear walls.
(vii) Optimum reverberation time should be attained finally after acoustical analysis and
treatment for correction.
C. Radio-Broadcasting Studios. The term 'studio'is used to indicate a room where sound is
Pickedup by a microphone and it includes radio broadcasting station, television station, and
sound recording studio.
The basic requiremernts of a Radio Broadcastingstudio are:
(i) Perfect sound-proofing or noise insulation, and
(ii) Variable reverberation time.analysis
To meet these two requirements, the following
special considerations should be made in the acoustic design of the studios:
(i) To accomplish the first requirement, the floors,walls and ceiling must be of rigid, massive
construction to minimise transmission of sound by diaphragm-like vibrations and reduce
resonant reflection to a minimum.
(ii) To achieve variable reverberation times is veryimportant. Because, not only different
reverberation times are required for each programme, butalso for each item in it, such as
speech low and high frequency music, etc. This requirement is fulfilled by several means as
given below:
a)A Number of Studio Rooms. Each with different absorption suited to a particular type of
broadcast are provided. If there are number of studios in the same building, it is preferable to
locate all of them on the same floor.
b) In some studios, arrangement of hinged panels or shutters in the walls is adopted. One
surface of the rotable panel is made absorptive while the other one is kept reflective.

(c) In some studios, the rotable cylinders are fitted in the ceiling of studio to control the
acoustical conditions of the room. . In this arrangement, the rotable cylinders consist of
drums divided into number of parts (usually three) with different absorptive materials. One or
any number of these surfaces can be rotated or turned to expose any degree of absorption at
will to the room.
The following points should be considered while designing all types of studios, in addition to
The above said points.
(i) The noise level in the studio should be brought down to 25-30 dB.
(ii)The ratio of H:W:L should be equal to 2:3:5
(iii)The shape of studio should be rectangular with flat ceiling
(iv)Reverberation time should be correct in relation to the volume and surfaces to give
Frequency characteristics of the variety of broadcast.
(v)Provision of windows in the studio should be minimum so as to minimize the transfer of
noise from outside to inside of the building.
(vi)The studio rooms should be air tight and ventilated through air conditioners
(vii)Air conditioners installed should be insulated
(viii)To regulate time of reverberation in studios heavy curtains and draperies may be used.
D.Concert Halls :-
(i) The noise level should be brought down to 30-35dB
(ii) Reverberation time should be at least 1.6 sec. and audience factor can be assumed full.
(iii) ) The volume should be between 4.5 to 6 m 3 per seat
(iv)There should be provision for hard reflecting surfaces about the platform, flat ceiling having
Lining of reflecting material and absorbent distant walls. The rear walls should be of sound absorbing
Material,to avoid backward reflection to the platform
(v)The floor and seating should be absorbent
E. Multi-Purpose Halls :- The acoustical requirements such as noise level, intensity of sound,
Reverberation time, audience factor, volume and shape of auditorium, seats etc., are quite
Different for different purposes.It is impossible to have perfect acoustic conditions in such
Halls. Therefore compromise has to be made in acoustical design in view of sound intensity,
Reverberation time, geometrical design of the auditorium and degree of absorption.
The only possible solution is to make use of adjustable absorbents.
E. Public-Lecture Halls:- The following precautions should be taken in acoustic design of
These public lecture halls
(1)The optimum reverberation time should not exceed 1.5 seconds even for large halls
(2)The volume per seat should be between 3 and 4 m 3
(3)The hard reflecting surface on the back and around the dias or stage), inclining slightly
outwards, should be provided
(4)The rear walls facing against the dias or platform should be treated with absorbing materials.
G. Class Lecture Rooms. The following precautions and considerations should be exercised
In the acoustic design of the class lecture rooms
(1) A room with its dimensions as 7 m in length8.5 m in width and 4 m in height is considered
satistactory for a class of about 40 students. The ratio of length to width may be kept as 1.2 to
1 but wide rooms are more satistactory
(2) The noise level should be kept or brought down to 40 dB.
(3) The amount of absorptive material to be used for each classroom for achieving optimum
reverberation depends upon the room size, purpose, capacity and age of students. Hence a class the
room of children having less absorption on their account, requires more Absorptive material
(4)Optimum reverberation time should be between 0.75 seconds at frequencies of 500 to
2000c.p.s and 9 seconds at frequency of 125 c.p.s.
5) The volume per head should be kept as small as possible, usually 12 m3 or less.
6) The audience should be seated near the lecture platform and seats may be arranged
elevating upwards from near the platform.
(7)The walls and ceiling should be properly designed to give favorable reflection of sound
Sound Absorbents Or Acoustical Materials
All materials absorb sound but some to a lesser extent. For a good acoustical Design, sound
absorbents or acoustical materials, are used. The sound waves, on striking the solid material
experience greater resistance than while passing through the air. When sound waves strike
resilient and porous surface, the considerable energy willbe dissipated as heat in passing through
its pores which are interconnected through a seriesof small channels. Thus, the resultant absorption
is very high. The efficiency of the sound absorption, there-fore, depends more upon the porosity
of the material used as soundabsorbent. The term 'absorption coefficient' is used to express the
percentageof the incident sound that can be absorbed by a material. An open window is considered to
have 100% absorption as it does not interfere with the free passage of the entire sound.
Because, the open window has a coefficient of absorption as unity and hence, the absorbing
capacity of all other materials is compared with this open window unit as a Standard.
Thus, if the absorption coefficient of a material is 0.5, this would mean that material is
capable of absorbing 50% of the incident sound.

ACOUSTICAL MATERIALS

The sound absorbents or acoustical materials can be broadly classified into 4 groups.
1. Porous absorbents
2. Resonant panel absorbents
3. Cavity resonators
4. Composite type absorbents
1.Porous absorbents:- These are soft materials having large pores with interconnected
channels. When sound waves strike such surfaces ,the alternating pressure in the sound
wave forces the air particles into the narrow channels of the pore-structure.
The sound energy is dissipated by the viscosity of the air and friction against the
walls of the channels. The efficiency of the porous absorbents increases with the increase
in porosity, resistance to air flow through the material and the thickness. Generally
these absorb sound of higher frequency. Eg- rock wool, glass wool, wood wool
2. Resonant panel absorbents:- These are semi-hard materials in the form of porous
Fibre boards act as sound absorbent as well as building panels. The absorbent material
is fixed on sound framing with an air gap left out between this material and the wall
behind it.The principle is that the sound pressure waves cause sympathetic vibration
in the panels, and the absorption is obtained by damping this vibration by means of
an air space or air gap acting as diaphragm. Damping can be improved by placing a
porous material in the air space . These are effective at the lower frequencies of sound.
3.Cavity resonators:- Cavity resonators consist of a container with a small opening in
which absorption take place by resonance of the air in the container which causes
loss of sound energy. Cavity resonators can be designed to absorb sound of any
frequencies. These are considered suitable for sound absorption of a particular frequency such as
from individual machines, air conditioning plant etc
4.composite type absorbents:- Theseabsorbents combine all the above described three types.
They consist of a perforated panel fixed over an air space containing porous absorbent. The area
of perforation should form at least 10% of total area to allow the porous material to absorb sound at
the higher frequencies. Mineral wool or glass wool is commonly used as the porous material
and it should be situated close behind the perforated panel for its maximum efficiency.