BACHELOR OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION (BBA)

FIRST YEAR

COURSE-II :: CONCEPTS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND

OPERATING SYSTEMS
SYLLABUS

Computers can no longer be termed as a mere invention - they are a

revolution. And the way we live now is an evidence of this revolution, so much so
that it hard to imagine a world without them. There is no area in the field of work,
learning, play or leisure that has remained untouched by computers. Naturally, for
us to make in any of those areas, learning about computers has become quite
necessary.
The very first step towards this is to possess a basic knowledge of computer
fundamentals.
Unit - 1 of this book deals with basics of computer fundamentals and various
area of its application. The basic concepts of data and information are dealt in
detail.
Unit - 2 deals with various peripherals and use of data storage devices and the
role of software in application developments
Unit - 3 deals with the internals of Computers and various measures of
software maintenance.
Unit - 4 deals with Number Systems arid the arithmetic involved in
computations.
The last Unit deals in detail with the concepts of operating systems and
Windows 95, the GUI Operating System and its features.
However, while designing this course, we have presumed that a person doing
this course has the basic awareness of computer knowledge would be helpful, but
not entirely necessary.
The knowledge and information in this book the result of a concentrated effort
of the Design Team, which is continuously striving to bring you the best and the
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latest in Information Technology. The process of Design has been apart of the ISO
9001 certification for Aptech - IT Division, Education Support Services. As a part of
Aptech's quality, drive, this team does intensive research and curriculum
enrichment to keep it in line with the industry trends.
We will be glad to receive your suggestions. Please send us your feedback,
addressed to the Design Head at Aptech’s Corporate Office, Mumbai,
Design Team, H.O. Mumbai
 BACHELOR OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION (BBA)
FIRST YEAR

COURSE-II :: CONCEPTS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND

OPERATING SYSTEMS
CONTENTS

Unit Title Page No.

Unit-1 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS 1
1.1 Application of Computers
1.2 Advantages of Computers
1.3 Limitations of Computers
1.4 What is Computers
1.5 Concepts or Data and Information
1.6 Typical Computer System
1.7 Memory Concepts
1.8 History of Computers
1.9 Types of Computers
1.10 Keywords
1.11 Summary
1.12 Assignments
1.13 Reference
Unit - II HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE 21
2.1 Input-Output Devices
2.2 Data Storage Devices
2.3 Software
2.4 Keywords
2.5 Summary
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2.6 Assignments
2.7 Reference
Unit-III HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE MAINTENANCE 41
3.1 The Computer Internals
3.2 Typical PC Configuration
3.3 Booting a Computer
3.4 Virus, Anti-Virus, Vaccines
 3.5 Data Compression Techniques
3.6 Software Manuals, Versions and Upgrades
3.7 Software Copyright
3.8 Keywords
3.9 Summary
3.10 Assignments
3.11 Reference
Unit-IV NUMBER SYSTEMS 55
4.1 Number Systems
4.2 Binary Arithmetic
4.3 Unit of Information
4.4 Keywords
4.5 Summary
4.6 Assignments
4.7 Reference
Unit-V Operating System 66
5.1 Functions of the Operating System
5.2 Classification of Operating Systems
5.3 Introduction to Windows 95
5.4 Desktop and Desktop Icons
5.5 Browsing with Windows Explorer
5.6 Managing Windows Explorer
5.7 Setting
5.8 Windows 95 Versus Windows 3.1
5.9 Keywords
5.10 Summary
5.11 Assignments

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5.12 Reference
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UNIT-I

Introduction of Computers
Content
1.1 Application of Computers
1.2. Advantages of Computers
1.3. Limitation of Computers
1.4. What is a Computer
1.5. Concept of Data and Information
1.5.1. Data
1.5.2. Information
1.5.3 Processing
1.6 Typical Computer System
1.7 Memory Concept
1.7.1 Memory
1.7.2 Computer Memory
1.7.3 How is Memory Measured
1.7.4 Types of Computer Memory
(A) Primary Memory
(B) Secondary Memory
1.8 History of Computers
1.9 Types of Computers
1.9.1 Analog Computers
1.9.2 Digital Computers
1.9.3 Hybrid Computers
1.9.4 Micro Computers
1.9.5 Mini Computers
1.9.6 Mainframe Computers
1.9.7 Super Computers

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1.10. Key words
1.11. Summary
1.12. Assignment
1.13 Reference
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1. INTRODUCTION
Man is truly an amazing being. He is very good at inventing things. He is
usually starts off making things to ease his life. Then some wonderful idea occurs to
him and that same invention quickly gets converted to something far more
interesting).
Let us take the example of the wheel. It was m the stone-age that cavemen
thought of using a round or a circular object that would roll on slopes very easily,
and on plain surfaces it would require minimum of effort. They started using this
'invention' to move heavy load from one place to another.
This same quality of invention which man has that led him to invent a machine
to help him add numbers quickly, that eventually led to the development of a very
interesting device called a computer.
2. OBJECTIVE
After studying this lesson you should be able to understand
 Basics of computer fundamentals and various area of its applications
 Concepts of data and processing
 Memory management
 Type of computers
1.1 APPLICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computers have made their presence felt in the following areas:
1. Electricity bills that we receive in our homes every month are generated by the
computer.
2. Railway and airline tickets for various places can be booked from different
places.
3. Telephone bills are generated by the computer.
4. Telephone complaints are entered into computers to have better control on how
many complaints are attended to in a day.
5. Most universities have computerised the process of gathering examination marks
for printing mark sheets.
6. Telephone inquiries have been computerised so that instant information is
available to the customers.
7. Banks use computers to make their job of keeping accounts much easier. This

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process also helps them to give better customer service.
8. Large and busy department stores have computers to keep a record of all the
goods that they keep and sell.
9. News readers keep computer terminals on their desk to receive urgent and
important news.
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10. During elections, the latest news is made available to viewers almost
immediately.
11. Cricket scores get analysed instantly for the benefit of the viewers.
12. Hotel room bookings are done on the computer. This enables the person dealing
with bookings to get quick information on the availability of rooms.
13. Computerised - games have become more popular than video games because of
their high quality visual.
14. Kids in school are now being equipped with computer knowledge to enable them
to face the world more confidently.
15. Apart from all these areas, there are offices and organisations that use the
computers most, to increase their productivity and profits.
16. The advertisements that we see have a plethora of graphics in them. All these are
computer generated.
The uses of the computer presented above are just a fraction of the actual tasks
that this wonderful machine has been used for. Some other uses are:
 In space technology
 In the field of medical research
 In applied science and technology
 In industrial research.
1.2 ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTERS
Our understanding of what a computer is now almost complete with all the
parts of the computer being covered. At this stage, the one last final definition of
computers win be:
The computer is a digital electronic machine that processes data to give information
Let us now sit back and examine how the computer has actually made our life
simple over the years. These are the advantages:
1. Speed: Computers are able to do all tasks at amazing speeds. Although the
speed of the computer will depend on how powerful the computer is, it can still
process a lot of data at high speed.
2. Accuracy: The computer does not make mistakes. Once the right instructions
have been given to it, the chances of the computer making errors are almost zero.
3. Consistency: The computer never tires. This leads to it giving a consistently

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good performance hour after hour;
4. Storage: The greatest gift that the computer offers us is that of storage. Storage
of data and information on the computer allows reduction of paper filing and
other mundane tasks.
5. Versatility: It is the memory of the computer that allows it to be used as several
different machines for several different functions.
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6. Automation: Computers have mad automation of many complicated processes

possible. Not only complicated processes but also some dangerous processes that
pose health risks to human beings have been computerised.
1.3 LIMITATIONS OF COMPUTERS
It is only fair that after studying all the advantages that the computer has, we
also take stock of the limitations that a computer has. It is after all a machine, and
the first thing that happens typically to a machine is that the machine breaks down.
Certain other limitations are discussed below:
1. Data Correctness: All the data that is processed into information is usually
correct. However, we all have heard stories or seen movies that tell us how the
computer has made mistakes. Actually, it is not the computer that makes the
mistakes. Perhaps the data that is entered contains the mistakes. Data is
entered by people and people do make mistakes. Most computer programs have
built in checks for ensuring that data entry errors do not happen. However, there
are cases where this is not possible. Such cases do occur and the blame of the
wrong information being churned out does fall on the computer.
2. Program Correctness: After data correctness, the question of program
correctness comes up. If the data entered is correct and the program written to
process this data has mistakes, once again the information obtained will be
incorrect.
3. Computers Cannot Think: Unlike the human brain the computer cannot think
but can effortlessly execute all instructions given to them any number of times
without errors.
4. Experience: Computers cannot learn from experience.
5. Alternatives: Human beings know how to try out a new option when one
alternative to do a job fails. Computers lack this ability.
1.4 What is a Computer?
To quickly answer the question the computer is a machine. Is that it? Well, yes.
The computer is another machine invented by man to make his life simpler.
Some machines have been made to reduce our workload, whereas some
machines have been made entirely for our pleasure and enjoyment. E.g.: the
television the video cassette player etc.
Why then, is the computer so special? This machine called the computer is
special because unlike all the other machines in the world, it can do a variety of
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jobs. A typewriter can only type letters. A cassette player can only play and record
songs. A video game can be used only for playing games. A television can only show
movies. But here is the computer, that writes your letters, plays songs for you,
makes you play games and shows you movies. Amazingly, it also does office work
and can teach foreign languages.
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Now that we have understood what the computer is, let's take a look at it. Look
at the diagram given below:

Figure 1
This diagram emphasises the fact that the computer is a collection of several
parts, which work in smooth co-operation with one another.
1.5 Concepts or Data and Information
Now that we know, that a computer is a machine, let us go a step further and
understand the basic underlying principle on which it works. To do that, let's step
out of our computer Class for five minutes and step into mummy's kitchen. Like the
good food that comes out of mummy's kitchen, good understanding of a very
important and basic concept on which computers work, will come out of the same
place.
In almost all kitchens, a gadget called the food processor is present which
grinds spices, blends juices and makes batter. Doing this by hand, without the help
of a machine would be a tiring and long job. Let us now see the food processor in
action, making mayonnaise to put in a salad:
 First the raw material for the mayonnaise is put together.
 Next, this material is put in the blender jar.
 After switching on the electric power, the food processor is switched on.
 Once the mayonnaise is blended, our work is done.
This machine is called a food processor because it helps us in the process of
making food. For example, the way it converted raw material of the mayonnaise into
mayonnaise. This small trip to the kitchen was necessary to understand what type
of a machine the computer is. Time to step out of mummy's kitchen and come back
to our computer class.
The computer can also be called an information processor. This is so because
the computer processes data to give information. Before we try to understand this

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definition, it is important that we understand the terms, data and information.
1.5.1 Data:
Data is a collection of numbers, alphabets or some facts and numbers. Some
very typical examples of data are:
 Ron scored 515 marks out of 600.
 My house is at a 10 minutes walking distance from my college.
 John was born on 30th Nov 1979.
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 The Eastern Express leaves Central Station at 7:45 PM.

Data on its own is not that useful unless it is arranged or combined with some
more data. Take the example of Ron's marks. It’s nice to know that Ron scored good
marks. But when this data-is combined with some more data like:
 Ron scored 515 marks out of 600.
 Sam scored 300 marks out of 600.
By comparing both the sets of data, now we know something more about Ron,
which is that
 He scored 515 marks
 He scored higher than Sam did.
Further, if we had the marks of all the students in Ron's class, we would know
a lot more about his rank in the class. So data is useful when some work is done on
it. To make our understanding of this more clear, let us take another example.
 John was born on 30th Nov 1979.
If we combine this data with some other data, like say today's date:
 Today is the 12th of July 1997.
Now we know something more about John's age.
1.5.2 Information:
When data has been worked upon to give something more useful to the user, it
is called information. Information on its own is useful, but data may not be.
Normally information is obtained only from data. Some common examples of
information are:
 Ron scored a higher percentage than Sam did.
 The train is delayed by 30 minutes.
 The distance between here and Pennsylvania is 450 kilometers.
 John is 18 years old now
1.5.3 Processing:
The work that is done on data is a process. This process could be anything like
addition, subtraction or a comparison. It is this processing that converts data into
information.
Now that all the terms have been clearly defined, let us define a computer to
say:

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The computer is a machine that processes data to give information.
To get information from the computer:
 Data is input into the computer
 Computer processes the data as per our instructions
 Computer gives us information
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Just the way we have:

Raw material Food Processor Mayonnaise

Similarly we have:

Data Processing Information

Input Processing Output

Figure 2

To summarise, the way raw ingredients are 'worked' upon to give a finished
product like mayonnaise, data is 'processed' to give information.
What Is Information-For One, Is Data For Another:
A finished product like mayonnaise can become the raw material for making
salads. In that case he sequence will look like this:
Boiled Potatoes + mayonnaise  Put together  Potato Mayonnaise
Salad
The same way, even information can become data for obtaining some other form
of information.
Data (Previously information)  Further processing  Information
(New info)
To clearly understand the data and information, study the comparison table
given below:

Data Information
1. A collection of facts and numbers 1. Organised and arranged data
2. Not of much use 2. Is always useful
3. Gets converted to information 3. Can also get converted to data

Table 1
1.6 TYPICAL COMPUTER SYSTEM
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In the picture of the computer that we saw earlier, a metallic box can be seen
on which the small TV is kept. This box houses some of the most important and
delicate parts of the computer. The part of the computer that does all the 'work', all
the 'thinking' or all the 'processing' is called the processor. It is called the Central
Processing Unit or a CPU instead of just a processor because it is the main
processing unit of the computer. This CPU is the 'heart' of the computer. All the
functions that a computer is capable of are due to the CPU. If, we take a look at the
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picture of the computer w5lltet; that we saw earlier, the CPU is the big box in the
centre.
To understand the working of the computer better, we will have to visit three
more parts of the CPU, which are inside the CPU.

ALU CU
Memory

Figure 3
ALU: The Arithmetic and Logic Unit or the ALU takes care of all the
mathematical and logical (is 4>2?) functions done by the computer.
The Control Unit: This unit controls all the, other parts of the computer like
the input and output device and the processor.
The Memory Unit: This unit is very important. Consider the following example.
As children (even as grown-ups infact) we added numbers as follows:
34
19
51
+12
116
This adding is done as follows: First of all the numbers on the right are added,
starting with 4. 4+9 is 13. The number 13 is added to 1. Now the number 13 has to
be stored somewhere temporarily so that the third number i.e. 1 can be added to it.
The total now is 14. Once again 14 is stored in the same place (where 13 was stored
earlier) so that a new number i.e. 2 can be added. This is how all the numbers on
the right are added to each other.
The space where we store the temporary figures in is called the memory unit of
the CPU.
1.7 MEMORY CONCEPTS
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In the previous session we learnt how the computer has made its presence felt
in all walks of life. Right down from printing a simple electricity bill to helping the
Voyager spacecraft land on the moon, the computer can handle it all. We understood
the different parts of the computer and their individual functions. Next we also
examined the various components of the computer system. After all this, our
understanding of the computer is still very peripheral until, we go on to understand
the concept of computer memory. It is the memory of the computer that has made it
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the most versatile instrument or machine that man has ever developed. (Memory
enables the computer to 'learn' and 'rememb97 different types of functions, thereby
making it a very efficient machine.
1.7.1 Memory
Once again, to fully understand what computers and memory have to do with
one another, first let us see what memory is in the first place. Memory is what allows
a person to remember things.
The term memory, although used in our daily lives very freely and extensively,
is a comprehensive subject by itself. For understanding computers, we will limit
ourselves to the definition that memory is just a measure of an individual’s capacity
to remember. Let us now understand what computer memory is.
1.7.2 Computer Memory
Computers were primarily made to ease repetitive tasks. For example, one of
the earlier machines, Mark-I, developed by Howard Aikens and Grace Hopper of
Harvard University in 1930 was used for multiplying 20 digit numbers. Naturally a
program to carry out this multiplication was developed. This program was a long
and complicated jumble of several numbers. Now every time some complicated
multiplication had to be carried out, it would not make sense to type that program
first. Then one might as well make use of the manual method of multiplication to get
the answers.
This is where the role of memory in computers can be appreciated. It is because
the computer has a memory, that it is able to store many such programs that allow
it to perform tasks as varied as writing letters or launching the Voyager!
What Does This Memory Look Like?
When we talk about our own memory, we know that it not a physical entity.
However, in the case of the computer, memory does have a physical appearance. The
types of memory are covered in the subsequent section of this session. However,
first, we will proceed to understand how memory' looks' from a concept level.
Data is stored here before the processing takes place, and is stored here after it
is converted into information. For example, in order to bake a cake, we would
require a tin to hold the batter. Only then can the cake be baked. Computer memory
is like the tin that physically holds the batter, for the cake that is going to be baked.
After having understood what computer memory is, let us see what the
computer memory looks like.

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Imagine a large sheet, with vertical and horizontal lines drawn on it. The little
squares formed by the intersection of the lines are called cells. Each cell is capable
of holding or 'remembering' some piece of data or information. Quite like tiny baking
tins, each holding a small cake.
When some data is entered in the computer, every small unit of data is placed
in these tiny cells. During the process and even after it, the data that is converted
into information remains stored in these tiny cells.
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1.7.3 How is Memory Measured?

In the case of human beings, it is very difficult to measure memory. How is it
possible to say how much one can remember? One very rough and imperfect way to
do so is to say how many pages of text one person can remember. Some one may be
able to remember two pages of text while someone else may be able to remember 10
pages of text. Individual capacities can vary. That's fine. Nevertheless, how is the
computer's memory measured? It can also be measured the same way we measure
our memory. But in order to bring some consistency, a slight variation has been
made here. Instead of calling one page of text as the unit of measure, the smallest
part of the page has been called the unit of measure. The smallest part of the page
can be broken down as:
Page full of text
Text consists of sentences
A sentence is made up of words
A word is a collection of alphabets.
Therefore, as can be seen from above, the smallest part of a page is the
alphabets that make up that page.
In Computers Everything is Binary
In the previous session, we learnt about data, information and processing. We
also learnt about how the CPU is at the heart or the centre of all the important
processes that happen in a computer. The ALU in the CPU carries out the main
mathematical and logical processes that the computer does. Since the ALU can only
do addition, subtraction and comparison1, it can deal only with numbers. It is not
possible to add or compare alphabets or any of the other special characters. Hence,
as far as the computer is concerned all data is always numeric. Information is also
numeric, but the computer can convert this into a form that we as users want and
give it to us as text, numbers or even pictures. However, all this is internal and the
process is transparent to us as users.
Although the computer is dealing with text, it first gets converted to numbers,
gets processed as numbers and then gets displayed again as text. This sort of a
conversion is done by using a standard coding procedure called - ASCII (pronounced
as 'aski', rhymes with 'passkey'). ASCII stands for American Standard Code for
Information Interchange. ASCII is used as a standard by the computing world to
enable easy exchange of information between different countries or even different

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types of computer systems.

1 Any mathematical function is a complement of addition and subtraction. Whether you multiply,
divide, integrate or calculate percentages. The basic process is that of either addition or
subtraction. The only other mathematical operation that does not require these two processes is
that of comparison.
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So, which are the numbers that the computer data is converted to? Well
actually there are just 2 numbers that a machine can understand, 0 and 1. The2
circuits that the computer is made up of can either have current running through
them (i.e. they are 'on') or no current running through them (i.e. they are 'off). The
state of these circuits being 'on' or 'off can be denoted easily by the numbers 1 and 0
respectively.
Since these are the only two numbers that the heart of the computer can
understand, the computer uses the binary number system.
In the present day computers, the binary digits that form a character are
usually 8, 16 or 32 bits long. A collection of such bits is - Called a byte. This is the
sma1lest unit of memory. Therefore, now when we talk about how memory is
measured, it's referred to in bytes. Now, byte is too small a unit to talk about the
n1cmory of modem day computers. The modern day computers have a large
memory. So using bytes to measure this huge memory would require a very long
number. It's like describing the salary of the chief executive of a company in cents or
pennies. So the concept of counting bytes in thousands and its multiples has been
applied here. Therefore:
1024 bytes = 1 Kilobyte (Kb or KB for short)
1024 kilo bytes = 1Megabyte(lMb or MB for short)
1000 Kilobytes
1024 mega bytes = 1 Gigabyte (Gb or GB for short)
1000 Megabytes
= 10,00,000 Kilobytes
1.7.4 Types of Computer Memory:
Most of us have always heard our parents and elders speaking about the
importance of saving money. Saving money certainly is a good idea. But one requires
money for the daily needs. So naturally, part of the money earned is saved for future
use and the other part is used for day to day purchases.
Similarly in computers, memory is required for two separate purposes - one for
the immediate use in processing and one to store various programs for long term
use. Based on these two different needs, the memory in computers is classified into
two types:
 Primary, also called internal storage and

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 Secondary also called external storage

2 When electricity comes from a source, it usually travels through some length of wire before it
reaches the appliance that requires it. This path traveled by the electricity is called a circuit.
Computers and other electronic devices have many such complicated circuits inside it.
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The reason for using the terms primary and secondary are understood when we
look at what they mean:
Primary - something that is of first importance, fundamental or basic.
Secondary - something that is of second importance, something that is
dependent.
Storage here refers to the 'safe-keeping' of data, information or programs, for
future use. With reference to the above example check the following table:
Type of use Type of memory
Money for daily needs Memory for immediate processing (Primary
(Primary need) memory)
Money for future use Memory for storing data, information and
(Secondary need) programs (Secondary memory)

Table 2
Since this memory is found inside the box where the CPU too is found, it is
sometimes also called the internal memory. Each type of memory has different
characteristics. These are explained in detail below.
A. Primary Memory
As mentioned earlier, primary memory is of most importance to the immediate
processing needs of the computer. The term 'immediate processing needs' simply
means that when the computer is first switched on, there is an immediate
requirement of memory, which is supplied by the primary memory. Primary memory
is of two types -
 Random Access Memory or RAM
 Read Only Memory or ROM
Let us understand both these terms: ~.
RAM is essentially a read/write memory Information can be written into and
read from a RAM. It is volatile in nature, i.e., it retains the stored information as long
as power supply is not switched off. It is usually sold and installed to a standard
adding board called a Single In-line Memory Module or SIMM. RAM can be bought
separately in case you want to expand the primary memory of your computer.
RAM chips may be classified as:
 Dynamic
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 Static
Dynamic RAM chips - The storage cell circuits contain:
 a transistor (functions like a mechanical on-off light switch)
 a capacitor used to store an electric charge
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Depending on the switching action of the transistor, the capacitor may have no
charge (0 bit) or hold a charge (1 bit). The charge on the capacitor must be
periodically refreshed or recharged. In the event of power loss dynamic RAM loses its
contents. It is thus called volatile storage.
Static RAM chips - are also volatile storage devices. However, as long as they
are supplied with power, they do not require special regenerator circuits to retain the
stored data. More transistors and other devices are needed to store a bit in static
RAM. These chips are more complicated than dynamic RAMs. Static RAMs are used
in specialised applications. Dynamic RAMs are typically used on the primary storage
section.
ROM is a permanent type memory. It's contents are not lost when power supply
is switched off. Data is hardwired onto these chips at the time of manufacture. They
cannot be changed by the user.
While both RAM and ROM are storage devices and can be accessed randomly,
they differ in that data can be written onto RAM while ROM does not permit the user
to write onto it.
ROM retains the data in it even in the absence of power and is this non-volatile
storage. Though data is hardwired, the user is able to program the following types of
ROM:
 PROM Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM) allow microprograp1s to be
fused into them. These microprograms consist of critical or lengthy operations
that are slowly carried out by software. Once they are in hardware form these
tasks take a fraction of the time. Each bit can be individually programmed to a
"1" or "0" by burning put a fusible link within the selected cells. A fused link
cannot be restored. Operations once written cannot be erased. PJ3.0M can be
programmed only once.
 EPROM The Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory makes it possible for
the user to repeatedly erase and reprogram the ROM. Erasing is done by
exposing the. EPROM to Ultra Violet rays of a specific frequency.
 EEPROM An Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory can be
programmed through the use of special electrical pulses. It is possible to
integrate the circuitry into the computer, so that the EPROM does not have to be
removed from its socket for programming.
Devices such as PROMs, EPROMs, EEPROMs are all used in computers, with
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the later versions being used in newer models. A ROM is used when its contents are
thoroughly debugged through the use of EPROMs and do not require changes.
EEPROMs on the other hand, are especially useful in process control equipment, in
which a real-time response is necessary, but when the software is being
continuously modified.
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B. Secondary Memory
The secondary memory is found outside the CPU box and hence sometimes
called the external memory or the external storage. Examples of secondary storage
devices include floppy disks, tapes, cartridges, compact discs, etc.
1.8 HISTORY OF COMPUTERS
The earliest computers were mechanical computing devices. However, over
generations the computer has developed from a huge mechanically operated device
to convenient, portable desk tops and lap tops that function on the basis of small
chips and integrated circuitry.
The first generation computers used vacuum tubes to store data and
programming instructions. Data was represented in l's and 0's or states of "on" and
“off”.
However, vacuum tubes consumed a large amount of electricity, produced large
amounts of heat, and were relatively unreliable. They were soon replaced by solid-
state transistors.
The second generation of computers was thus characterised by the use of
transistors in place of vacuum tubes.
In the third generation of computers integrated circuits on chips (thin wafers of
silicon) were used to store data and process instructions. These computers could
handle more than one operation simultaneously.
The more the circuits on a single chip, the greater is the amount of data that
can be stored on that chip. While the technique of integrating circuits on a single
chip was established during the third generation of computers, it was in the fourth
generation of computers that Large Scale Integration (LSI) and Very Large Scale
Integration (VLSI) of transistors on a single chip were used.
It was now possible to put the entire processor of the computer on a single chip.
Intel Corporation developed the first Intel 4004 microprocessor chip. A
microcomputer is built using a microprocessor chip, along with some other chips
and circuitry.
A whole range of "personal computers" that could be used for generalised
applications became popular'. The PC, PC-XT and-the PC-AT are some of the
personal computers to be popularised by IBM (International Business Machines).
While the PC and the PC-XT differ only in the disk storage supported by them, the
PC-AT differs in the processor itself.
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The Intel 8088 microprocessor chip is used in PC’s and PC-XT’s. PC-AT’s use
the Intel 80286 chips as their microprocessor.
There are other chips like the Motorola 68020, Motorola 68030, Zilog 8000 etc.
used to build other microcomputers.
 15

Figure 4 - Microprocessor
The fifth Generation of computers are conceived as a knowledgeable
information processing system. It incorporates Artificial Intelligence. Modeled on
human intelligence, they are self learning systems, which can store experiences and
take decisions based on the information and logic stored in the computer. They can
also process non-numeric information e.g. graphs, pictures etc.
1.9 TYPES OF COMPUTERS
Although a clear cut classification of computers is difficult, computers can be
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broadly classified on the basis of purpose, components and size and processing
power.
Purpose
 Analog Computers
 Digital Computers
 Hybrid Computers
 16

1.9.1 Analog Computers

Analog computers are computers that measure physical quantities (e.g.
pressure, temperature, length etc.) and convert them to numeric values. For example
a thermometer does not perform any calculations but measures the temperature of
the body by comparing the relative expansion of mercury. .
 Uses: Analog Computers are used mainly for scientific and engineering purposes
because 'they deal with quantities that vary constantly. They give only
approximate results.
1.9.2 Digital Computers
 Most computers are digital devices i.e., they process information using numbers,
which is essentially in a binary or a two state format.
 Uses: Special purpose 'digital computers can be fixed permanently into the
machine. For e.g. processors that are installed in automobiles to control fuel,
braking systems etc.
General purpose digital computers can be used in different applications since
they can store different sets of instructions and programs.
1.9.3 Hybrid Computers
The features of analog and digital machines are combined t2 create a hybrid
computing system. For e.g. analog devices measure a patient's vital signs like
temperature, heart functions, etc. These are then converted to numbers and
supplied to the digital components that monitor the patient's vital signs. Any
fluctuation can thus be noticed immediately.
Size and Processing Power
Modem computers vary in size and processing power from large computers that
fill entire rooms to the CPU that is smaller as compared to the nail of the little finger.
Computer can thus be classified as Supercomputers, Mainframe computers,
Minicomputers and Microcomputers, according to their size and processing power.

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Figure 5- Classification of computers on the basis of size and processing power
While large systems have greater processing speed, possess greater storage
capacity and are able to handle a large number of powerful input and output
devices, the smaller processors generally cater to single users. They may be
 17

1. Special purpose devices performing a single, task. For e.g. controlling the
ignition system in an automobile.
2. Personal computers ranging from the desktop model to the laptop, or to the
notebook.
1.9.4 Micro Computers
The microcomputer is the smallest type of computer available. Inside a
microcomputer, the arithmetic and control unit are combined on a single chip called
a microprocessor. Micro computers contain two types of storage or memory.
 Random Access Memory (RAM)
 Read Only Memory (ROM).
Microcomputers are used as home computers for the family, or as personal
computers by business executive or by small businesses where volumes of data
processing and speed requirements are small.
These computers are popular as home computers, having a small memory,
which uses the household TV as the display device and a cassette player or a small
capacity floppy for backing storage.
Personal computers have slightly better capabilities. They are single user
systems, having a separate monitor for display and floppies or Winchester drives for
backing storage. They are generally used for business applications. Currently, the
IBM PC (Personal Computer) in various configurations and IBM-PC "Compatibles"
are the most popular small-business computers.
 A microcomputer may also be used by individual professionals like:
 a doctor to maintain records of his patients.
 a chartered accountant to keep the financial records of his clients.
 a small to medium size retail store for maintaining financial as well as stock
accounts.
 Managers in large corporations for their MIS and decision support needs.
 organisations as a part of a network linked to other computers.
Microcomputer workstations are also extensively used for Computer Graphics,
Computer Aided Design (CAD) and Computer Assisted Manufacturing (CAM)
applications. Graphics workstations can manipulate lines, curves, figures and
engineering or architectural drawings efficiently.

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1.9.5 Mini Computers
Minicomputers are more powerful than the microcomputers and can support
several users. They have large RAM and backing storage capacity and can process
data more quickly.
The first popular minicomputer was the PDP-8, launched in 1965.
Minicomputers were basically developed for use in process control systems. The
minicomputer has been diversified to handle common applications also. A medium
 18

sized organisation may use it for applications like processing of payrolls and
financial accounts, handling costing, sales analysis, production planning and a host
of other similar activities. Minicomputers may also be used for systems like
reservation or banking.
Examples of popular minis are the PDP-11, the VAX 7500 and the AS 400.
1.9.6 Mainframes

The earliest computers were called mainframes due to their large size. The
term is still used for the large computers today. The capacities of the earlier
mainframe and the mainframes today are enormously different. Today's
mainframes are far more powerful, so much so, that a microcomputer today
comes close to the processing power of an earlier mainframe.

Mainframes are very large computers with a very high capacity of main store.
Because they can process large, amounts of data very quickly, they are used by big
companies, banks and government departments as their main computer. They can
be linked into a network with smaller departmental computers, microcomputers or
with each other. They act as hosts of large national and international
communication networks, handling hundreds of users.
A further development in mainframe computing has been that of distributed
systems. In a distributed system, some processing power is provided at the local end
of a company's communication network, and the other end is linked to a (usually
larger) central computing facility.
Some examples of mainframes are the IBM 4381, ICL 39 series and CDC Cyber
series.
1.9.7 Super Computers
Complex scientific applications like weather forecasting require a large amount
of data to be manipulated within a very short period of time. Supercomputers, which
allow faster processing by using multiple processors and superior technology are
used for complex tasks, which require a lot of computational power.
The traditional design of a single processor handling data and instructions in a
single stream is called the "Yon Neumann design". Supercomputers typically, use
"non-von Neumann designs". They have multiple ALUs (Arithmetic and Logical Unit).
Each ALU is specialised for a particular operation, and all capable of performing
simultaneous or "parallel" processing of different tasks. Control is maintained at
several points, with an overall controller in charge.
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 Examples of supercomputers are CRA Y XMP-24 and NEC-500.
Check your Progress
1. A Computer can be called a _____________________ processor.
2. The components of a computer system are _________________, _____________ and
______________
3. The CPU is an input device (True or False).
 19

4. The computer works on ________________

5. The computer is a ______________ machine.
6. Computer process information using numbers which is essentially in a binary or
a two state format.
7. Memory is essentially divided into _________________ and ______________ memory.
8. Memory is volatile in nature.
9. The features of ______________ and __________________ machines are combined to
create a hybrid computing system.
10. The capacity to remember is called _______________
11. Bit stands for __________________
12. A collection of 8 bits is called ________________
13. List the advantages of Computer.
14. The two types of memory are _________________ and _______________
15. State examples of each type of memory.
16. RAM stands for ______________
17. ROM stands for ______________
1.10 Key words
CPU - Central Process Unit
ALU - Arithmetic Logic Unit
ASCII - American Standard Code for Information Interchange
RAM - Random Access Memory
ROM - Read Only Memory
SIMM - Single In-line Memory Module
PROM - Programmable Read Only Memory
EPROM - The Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
EEPROM - Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
CAD - Computer Aided Design
CAM - Computer Assisted Manufacturing
1.11 Summary
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 Computers are used for various application and also for science and technology
 In computer is a machine that process data and to give information
 In advantages for using computers are speed, accuracy, automation and storage
 Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) takes care of all the mathematical and logical
function and control unit controls all the parts of the computer
 20

 Memory enables the computer to ‘learn’ and ‘remember’ different types of

function
 Primary memory for internal storage whereas secondary memory for external
storage.
 Information can be written into and read form RAM but ROM does not permit to
write into it.
 Computers are classified into Analog, Digital and Hybrid, on the basis of
purpose, components, size and processing power.
1.12 Assignments
1. State two reasons for using computers
2. What is meant by data
3. How are computers classified
4. Explain the application of computers
5. Explain the typical computer system
6. Compare data with information
7. What is hybrid computer
8. Define ROM and RAM
1.13 Reference
1. Introduction to computers by C-Xavier II edition
2. Introduction to Information Technology, IIT solution Limited.
3. Computer Information system for business by Mark G. Sionkin

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 21

UNIT- II

Hardware and Software

CONTENT
2.1 Input - Output devices
2.1.1 Keyboard
2.1.2 Mouse
2.1.3 Printers
2.1.4 Monitor
2.2 Data Storage devices
2.3 Software
2.3.1 Definition
2.3.2 Sample application
2.3.3 Role of Software
2.3.4 House keeping
INTRODUCTION
Let us take another look at our friend the computer. We already know that a
computer is a collection of several different parts, each having its own function. To
understand computers better, let us now look at those parts and study about them
in detail.
A computer takes in data, processes it and gives out information. So when we
speak of the parts of a computer. There should be parts where we can:
 put in data
 process this data and
 get the information out.
The computer parts therefore, have been named exactly according to the
function that they do. Look at the table below:

The Function The Part

1. To put in the data 1. The input device
2. To process the data 2. The processor
3. To get the information out 3. The output device

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2. OBJECTIVE
Table 1

After studying this lesson you should be able to understand

 Types of input, output devices
 Use of data storage devices
 Role of software in application developments
 22

2.1 Input - Output Devices

The word 'input' means something that the user of the computer will ‘put in’.
Similarly the word 'output' means something that the computer will 'put out' after
doing some work or 'processing' on the data. The word 'device' simply means a
'thing' or a 'gadget' that helps input and 'output'.
Parts of the computer can be broadly classified into the following:
 Input devices
 The Central Processing Unit
 Video Display Unit or The Monitor ~ Output devices
 Motherboard
 Power supply unit
 Memory
Just the way the definition of the computer kept on changing every time a new
topic was added, even our understanding of the parts of the computer will change as
we learn more. For now, this is sufficient. Let's discuss each of these parts in more
detail in the following section:
A. Input Devices
As mentioned earlier, a 'thing' or a 'gadget' that allows the user of the computer
to enter data and instructions inside the computer is called an input device. The
most commonly used input devices are what we will learn about now.
2.1.1 Keyboard
A small flat piece of plastic board with several buttons arranged on it is called a
keyboard. These buttons are marked with capital alphabets from A to Z. Another set
of buttons has numbers from 0 to 9. More buttons with mathematical signs like:
+ for addition
- for subtraction
* for multiplication and
/ for division
are present. Then there are some buttons that have some special signs like:
, . “ “ ? / @ $ ! % & * ( ) etc.
All these buttons are called keys. And the entire plastic board along with the
keys is called a keyboard. The arrangement of the keys on the keyboard is the same,
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as you would find on an ordinary typewriter. Only difference is that whenever a key
is pressed on the typewriter, that alphabet appears on the paper, whereas here it
appears on a small screen like a TV.
Most computers have keyboards with 101 keys. All the data is given to the
computer by typing out the keys on the keyboard.
 23

2.1.2 Mouse
Keyboards were and are still very popular for typing data. For giving short
instructions to the computer, the mouse has become very convenient. In the recent
computers, all the instructions are present on the TV screen of the computer. The
user of the computer just has to point at the instruction that he wants the computer
to carry out. For this purpose, the mouse has gained popularity. A computer mouse
looks like this:

Figure 1
The computer mouse, like his real life friend has a head, a body and a tail. The
head does not have any eyes, just some buttons, maybe 2 or 3. The body of the
computer mouse is where you can hold it. The tail is the wire that connects it to the
rest of the computer. Moving the mouse, makes a point on the computer TV move
towards the instruction that is required.
The mouse has become a very important input device now because some of the
latest computers have become difficult to operate without the mouse.
Other Input Devices:
Some other input devices have been built to allow the user of the computer to
take in data with ease. They are the:
 Magnetic Ink Character Recognition or MICR reader: used for
authenticating cheques
 Bar Code reader: present in most departmental stores, used for uniquely
identifying articles
 Readers based on Optical Character Recognition or OCR: used for validating
examination papers and application forms.
 Compact Disk Drives - Similar to audio CDs but stone about 650 MB of
data.
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B. Output Devices
The device that will give the processed data or information to us is called the
output device. The person who uses the computer often likes to see his result on the
small computer TV or the result may be required on paper. Therefore, another
output device that we need to study is the printer.
 24

2.1.3 Printers
Printers take the data that has been processed or information from the insides
of the computer and print it on paper. There are many types of printers available
now. Printers are classified on the basis of how they work. If you have seen the
typewriter work, it is seen that the key containing the letter hits a ribbon. This
ribbon is coated with ink on one side. This side that is coated with ink, in turn, hits
the paper. Thus an impression of the letter is formed. Computer printers use this
same principle to print information on paper.
This 'hit' is called an 'impact'. And printers that use this principle are called
impact printers. There are some printers however, where there is no contact between
the key, the ribbon and the paper. The technology used is quite different and such
printers are called non-impact printers.
Examples of impact printers are:
 Dot Matrix Printers
 Daisy Wheel Printers
 Line Printers
Examples of non- impact printers are:
 Laser printers
 Ink-jet printers.
2.1.4 The Monitor
The monitor that everybody had in the class in school went and told the teacher
if there was any mischief happening. In effect, a check was being kept on what was
going on in class. This little TV screen that we have on the computer also does just
that. It helps the user of the computer check whether all the instruction and data
that are being typed, are correct or not.
All the data that is entered from the keyboard, first appears on the small TV
(now that we know what it is, we will call it the monitor!): This allows the user of the
computer to see if what he has typed is correct. For example if the user wanted to
type 290 + 988, and by mistake, he typed 290 + 9888, he would not know this if he
did not see it on the screen. And all the blame for the incorrect answer would fall on
the poor computer!
It is therefore clear why the little TV is called the monitor. It is called so because
it allows the user of the computer to keep a check on the things that are being
typed.

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Another very important use of the monitor is that after the processing has been
done by the computer and the result is obtained, it is flashed on the monitor.
Imagine if the computer took in the data, processed it and kept the information to
itself. How tragic that would be? It is the monitor that flashes the result, thus
allowing the user of the computer to see the information that has just been obtained.
Most of the monitors measure 12 inches diagonally. It's 'most' and not all
because with the advancement of technology, larger screens are getting popular.
 25

Monitors that measure 14 and 15 inches across the screen are also available now.
They even come equipped with controls like brightness, contrast and screen
adjustments, very similar to our television.
Comparing monitors with the television again, the way there are 'black and
white' and colour televisions, there are two types of monitors available:
a. Monochrome: These monitors have a dark background and the letters appear in
either green or white colour. Since there is only one colour being used, they are
called monochrome (mono - single, chrema - colour) monitors.
b. Colour: These monitors can display text and pictures in all colours. Such
monitors are called colour monitors. Some of the monitors developed recently
can have as many shades as your television set at home.
2.2 Data Storage Devices
The meaning of the term secondary, suggests that it is second to primary
memory. However, the versatility of computers, its worldwide popularity and wide
use of the computer in all walks of life is because of the secondary storage.
Like the part of earnings that we keep for future use, secondary memory or
secondary storage helps the user to store data, information and various software for
later use. It is because of secondary storage that the user can use the computer to
 type letters
 paint
 do accounts and
 play games
amongst many of the numerous functions that the computer can perform.
This is because the software for each of these functions can be separately
stored for use as and when required by the user. This secondary memory is found
outside the CPU box. Therefore it is sometimes cal1ed external memory or just
external storage. The most popular term used however is data storage device. The
word 'device' is used to maintain sameness' with the earlier learnt terms, input and
output device. Although the term 'data storage device' has the word' data' in it, even
information and software can be stored on it. Just to summarise the various terms
used for secondary memory are
 external memory
 external storage

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 storage device
 magnetic storage device
Primary memory actually is nothing but a small chip with complicated circuits
on it. The secondary storage device in turn is a disk made of flexible plastic,
therefore also called floppy disk. This disk is coated with a magnetic compound.
Data, information, or programs is actually nothing but magnetised 'dots' on the
surface of the disk that the computer will interpret. This technology, that scores data
 26

on such disks, is borrowed from the world of music. It is exactly the way long
playing records are created.
This form of secondary storage is called a disk. Earlier computers had storage
in the form of magnetic tapes, similar to the video cassettes that we have now. The
evolution of these low capacity disks to the present day high capacity diskette is
shown below:
Disk - 8”, data recordable on one side only, 120 KB
Disk - 8”, data recordable on both sides, 240 KB
Disk - 5.25”, double sided, 320 KB
Disk - 5.25”, double sided, double density (magnetic coating is doubled), 640 KB
Disk - 5.25”, double sided, quadruple density (also called high density), 1.2 MB
Disk - 3.5”, 1.44 MB
The use of these disks was not very easy, because the storage was limited. The
disks were also not very durable. This led to the loss of data, which was on the
disks. This damage was caused due to
 excess heat
 humidity
 dust
 placing of S9me heavy object on the disk
This led technologists to develop a high storage disk, which could be installed
inside the computer box in a vacuum case. This would allow them to make a large
capacity disk with almost zero chances of damaging it. This led to the development
of the hard disk. This was called hard disk just because it was not made out of
flexible plastic and was actually hard when compared to tile floppy.
The hard disk capacities range from 20 MB (least) to about 20 GB (maximum).
A comparison table of the two types of disks is given below:
Hard Disk Floppy
1. Large capacity 1. Limited capacity
2. Very durable 2. Very delicate
3. Access of data is fast 3. Access of data very slow
4. Not Portable 4. Portable
5. Housed inside the computer 5. Is external
Table 2
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2.3 Software
Software is as important to the computer as television serials are to televisions.
Would you use a TV if no one made any serials, if there was nothing called 'News'
every night? Certainly not! Similarly, you would not need computers if there were no
software to make the computer work. That is exactly how important software is to
computers. It is the software that eventually converts data into information.
 27

Software allows us to use the computer in many different ways. We will devote this
session to understand everything about software and how it completes the computer
system.
2.3.1 The Definition
Software can be defined as a set of instructions tha1 are given to the computer,
which help the computer to process data and give information. These sets of
instructions are called 'programs'. Program is a term that we use in our daily lives
very often. Program, as we use it in our daily lives refers to a schedule of how a
certain job will be done. We normally refer to the Word program when we want to
plan our day. Computers also use the same term because of the similarity in the way
instructions are given. A typical daily program of a student would look like this:
NIGHT.
Sleep until your eyes open in the morning.
WAKEUP.
If it's not 6:00 am yet,
go back to the NIGHT routine.
If it is Saturday or Sunday
go ahead to the WEEK-END routine.
Wake up.
Eat your breakfast.
Go to college.
Go for the Aptech class
Come home.
Have dinner while watching TV.
Go back to NIGHT.
WEEK-END.
Sleep late.
Eat breakfast.
Eat more breakfast.
Sleep for sometime again.
Watch TV
Meet friends.
Have lunch.
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Meet more friends, watch more TV. Have dinner
Go back to NIGHT.
This is how a daily program is made. A computer program is made on similar
lines. Software can be considered as a collection of several such programs, which
work towards processing data.
 28

A Sample Application
To understand the meaning of software, we will consider the following example.
The college that you go to conducts exams every year. The marks that are obtained
by the student are listed on paper against the names of the students according to
the class and divisions. Normally, someone would have to sit down and use a
calculator to calculate the percentage of each student, in each and every class.
Doing this type of work is often referred to as doing a job 'manually'. When a
machine is used to do something, the job is no longer called manual, it is called
automatic.
Next, on another set of papers, some calculation would have to be done to get
information like
 which student scored the highest marks
 what is the average marks scored in each subject
 which is the class that scored the highest marks
After these calculations are done, the meaning of these marks becomes more
clear to us. Just lists of these marks do not really mean much unless some work or
processing is done on them. It is the software that will convert this list of marks into
some meaningful information. Suppose you want the following information along
with the marks:
 The percentage obtained by each student
 The average marks obtained in each class, in each subject
 The highest marks obtained in each subject
 The highest total of all the subjects
To get all the above information, programs will be required. As mentioned
earlier, programs are nothing but sets of instructions given to the computer. How
does the computer understand instructions given to it? In computers everything is
numeric or in the form of numbers. So how does the computer receive instructions
from us?
The computer receives instructions from us in the form of programs. Several
programs need to be made or written for each of the task described above.
Sometimes one program is sufficient for one task. Sometimes you need several
programs for one task. In order to accomplish each of the tasks, the concerned
program has to be used. To enable the computer to process the above information
we need to look at the following diagram:

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Figure 2
In the diagram given above, the following programs have been written:
 29

Program-I: This program allows the user to enter data, in this case the marks
into the computer.
In our example above, running the program 'Program-I' will allow the user of
the computer to see a screen on the monitor as shown below. This screen will
prompt the user to enter the following detail:

Class: _______________ Division: ___________ Professor:______________

Roll No. ___________ Name of Student: ______________________________
Chemistry: _________
Math : __________
Physics : __________
English : __________
F.C : __________

Figure 3
This screen will enable the user to enter all the marks obtained by each
student.
In the screen shown above, the user knows exactly where to enter the student's
name, student's roll number etc. This is because the screen has the exact headings,
which clearly indicates what part of the data has to be entered where.
This is what is called being friendly to the user. When the user of the software
does not have any difficulty in using the software, it is called user friendly software.
Program-2: This program calculates the percentage of each student against the
total marks that have been obtained by them.
So therefore, the user will have to run Program-2 to find out the percentage of
each student. Here the user will get a report that would look like this:
Class: Science - Year 1 Division: A Professor: Prof. Andrews
Total Marks: 500
Roll No Name Marks Percentage
1 Paddy 368 91.2
2 Ron 456 73.6
3 Anita 290 58

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Program-3: This program calculates the average marks scored in each subject
for every class. This will also give an output similar to the one shown above. The
report can look like this;
 30

Class Average- Average- Average-

Math Chemistry Physics
Science-Year 1 45 60 39
Science-Year 1 23 50 40
Science-Year 1 44 61 38

Table 3
Similarly, the average marks for other subjects can also be obtained.
Program-4: This program arranges the marks in the order, of highest to lowest to be
able to determine the ranks of all the students.
Class: Science – Year I Division: A Professor: Prof. Andrews
Total Marks: 500
Roll No Rank Name Marks Percentage
2 1 Ron 456 91.2
1 2 Paddy 368 73.6
3 3 Anita 290 58

Table 4
This type of a report generated by the computer is called the output. This can
be seen on the screen as well as be obtained on the printer.
The two advantages of having these programs here are:
 This writing of programs is a one-time effort. Once these programs are made
they can be used every year after each exam.
 The example taken here is quite, simple, but there are many complex
operations that really need to be done using the computer.
2.3.2 Explanation of the Sample Application
All along in the sessions that we have discussed so far, words like data,
information, processing, storage and files pave been used. Now we will understand
these terms, will respect to the example given above:
Program: Program refers to the set of instructions that have to be written for the
computer so that it is able to process data to give the desired information. Programs
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are written by people who have the required knowledge of how to communicate with
the computer. The tool that is used for writing the set of instructions is called a
computer language. Computer professionals who know how to use the tools
available to write programs are called programmers. These instructions are ‘stored’
on the hard disk in the computer, for use whenever required.
 31

To execute a program, first it has to be loaded. Loading is the process of copying the
program from the hard disk to the RAM. Once this is done, the program starts
functioning and performing the task it is supposed to do. This functioning of the
program is called executing or running the program.
Application: A related set of tasks is called an application. When many such
programs are written for a related set of tasks or application, then it is called
application software. When an application is carried out using the computer then
that application is said to be computerized.
Data: In the example given above, data are the marks obtained by the students of the
entire college. This data needs to be ‘kept’ somewhere, so that it can be used for
processing. In computers everything is ‘kept’ in files. Files are storage places created
on the external storage devices like the hard disk. Files that contain data, like the
marks of all the students of the college are called data files.
When the user enters the marks of the first student in the computer, a data file
gets created. This creation of data file is done by the operating system. It is not
possible for the user to enter all the data at once. So the file needs to be ‘saved’ for
future use. When a file is saved, it gets written on the hard disk. It remains there, till
the time the user wants to add more data in it. If the contents of the file are not
required the file can be closed. Thus, closing the file is the process of telling the
operating system that the contents of this file are not required for the time being.
When the user wants to use the same file again, he/she will have to open the file.
Opening the file is a process where the operating system of the computer will search
for the file and get it ready for use. As the user goes on entering the data the file
keeps on getting larger and larger as the number of students in the file increase.
This file is now said to be modified.
Summarizing, a file, in the course of its use gets
 Created
 Closed
 Saved
 opened and
 modified
Process: Once the data has been entered through the input device and stored in a
data file, it can be worked upon any time to obtain information. The process that will

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be done on the data files created in the above example, will come in the form of
Program-2. Program-2 contains the necessary instructions to take the marks of each
student and calculate the percentage. This program, like the program that allows the
marks of the students to be input in the computer also needs to be stored in the
computer. These programs are also stored it) the form of files and they are called
program files.
 32

Information: All the programs explained in the above example have some type of
output. Program-2 generates a list of all the percentages scored by each student.
This output is called information. For any information to be available, a program has
to be executed first. This information does not get stored anywhere. This is because,
if the data and the program that generates the information, are both present, there
is really no need to waste storage space in storing more data. In a case where the
information is required to be made available for future use, the information can be
printed on paper using the printer. These printed sheets can be stored for a long
time.
When simple application like a word processor is used for writing letters, the
file that gets created is called a text file because the file contains simple readable
text. Text files can also be called data files.
Summarising what has been covered above, it can be said that there are three
types of files:
 Data files
 Program files
 Text Files
How does tile Software get made?
Software is a collection of big and small programs. Programs in turn are a set of
instructions made in a sensible order. These instructions have to be written for each
program that a software is made up of. So how does this get done? Consider this
common example. All of us talk to each other using a language. People allover the
world speak in different languages. In order to communicate with one another, we
require to speak a common language. If there was no common language between two
people, there would be no communication between them. Similarly even computers
have to be ‘instructed’ by us if we require them to do our work. These instructions
are given using a tool called a ‘computer language’. This tool helps the user to
communicate with the computer to get work done.
The instructions to the computer are given-using 0's and 1’s. Can you imagine
that? If you want to say
ADD 2, 3
to the computer, separate codes will here to be written using 0 and 1 for ADD, the
and 2 and another 3. This would indeed be very difficult. However, that is the way
instructions were written earlier. Luckily for all of us, this is not the way computers
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are ‘instructed’ anymore. Things have become very easy now. To understand how
this happens, a brief discussion on computer languages and its types is given next.
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Computer Languages
As humans have languages to talk to each other, similarly there are languages
to communicate even with the computer. A language involves the use and learning of
words, sentences and grammar rules. The same is true for a computer language.
Computer languages have been classified according to the way they got evolved.
Their evolution depended a lot on the way the computers were evolved. Each type of
computer had a different type of language associated with it.
Classification of Computer Languages:
Computer languages have developed a great deal since they were first used.
Their evolution spans about four stages, which are referred to as generations. Each
generation has it’s individual characteristics.
First Generation Language: The first type of language that was used for computers
consisted of zeroes and ones as mentioned earlier. All instructions that had to be
given consisted of zeroes and ones. Not only that, some of them involved
manipulation of the machine itself by using switches and other controls. This
language was able to ‘speak’ to the machine directly. Thus it was also called
machine language. This was used on computers of the first generation, which used
vacuum tubes.
1. Second Generation Language: The computer users soon realised that to get more
out of the machine, it was necessary to make communication with the computer
easy. This led to the development of assembly languages. Assembly languages used
mnemonics (pronounced as ‘ne-monics’). Mnemonics are nothing but shortcuts to
long commands. A very common use of mnemonics in our daily lives is the way we
remember the colours of the rainbow. Using the word VIBGYOR makes it easy for us
to recall all the names very easily. In the same way, using mnemenics also made the
job of writing programs slightly easier but the bulk of the job remained very lengthy
and tiresome. Assembly languages were used in the second generation machines like
IBM 1401. These machines used transistors instead of vacuum tubes and hence
were far more reliable than the first generation machines. First and second
generation languages are also called low-level languages.
Third Generation Language: For the first time computer language was made to look
and sound similar to the English language. Almost all the codes of 0 and 1 were
converted to English commands. These languages were very easy to learn. Since they
were very close to the English language, they were called high level languages.
Several such languages got developed with this concept. BASIC, COBOL, FORTRAN
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and Pascal were some of them. Some information about each of them is given below:
 BASIC: BASIC is acronym or short form of Beginners All-purpose Symbolic
Instruction Code. It used words very similar to English language and writing
programs using BASIC was very simple. A sample program to add 2 numbers
and print the result is given below.
 34

LET A=10
LET B=30
LET C=A+B
PRINT C
The words LET and PRINT are called reserved words. They are called so because
they are reserved for use as commands in BASIC. While using BASIC, these words
cannot be used for another function. BASIC is still very popular in schools to teach
the basics of programming to children.
 COBOL: COBOL stands for Common Business Oriented Language. Developed
specifically for business applications, this language became very popular in
the 1970s and the 19805. Its only disadvantage was that it was very lengthy.
Certain types of computers, like mainframes, still use powerful versions of
COBOL as a programming tool.
 FORTRAN: FORTRAN or FORmula TRANslation was developed by scientists
to develop scientific applications on the computer.
Fourth Generation Languages: These languages are used even today with most of the
computers available. Fourth generation languages are popular because they allow a
lot of data to be collected, stored and used for extracting various types of
information. Such huge collection of data is called a database. We will be learning
more about databases in the last part of this session. Examples of these type of
languages are dBASE, FoxPro, Oracle and Ingres.
This is how languages evolved gradually over the years from being made up of zeroes
and ones to being made exactly like the English language.
But The Computer Understands only Binary
In the first part of our session we learnt that the computer understands only
zeroes and ones. Then, how does it understand all the high level languages which
are like English? This is possible because all the instruction written in high level
languages are first translated into machine language. It is like what happens when a
foreign dignitary who does not know English goes to a country where English is not
spoken. To enable communication between him and his American counterpart,
someone has to translate both the languages spoken. Suppose the Foreign Minister
of China pays a visit to the American Foreign Minister. In a situation where the
Chinese minister cannot speak a language that the American minister knows and

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the American minister cannot speak the language that the Chinese Minster knows,
the translator will bridge the communication gap between the two ministers. This
person will be someone who will know both the languages. Whatever the Chinese
Minster says will be converted to the language the American minister knows.
Whatever the American minister says will be converted to the language the Chinese
minister knows. This is how communication between two people who do not know
each other's languages gets accomplished.
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Computers cannot understand English. They only understand machine

language. So all the instructions written in a high level language have to be
converted to machine language.
2.3.3 Role of Software
A wide range of software is now available to us where many of our day to day
applications have been computerised. These software are easy to use and requires
minimum learning. One of the world’s largest software manufacturing company is
Microsoft, which is headed by Mr. William Gates, more popularly called Bill Gates.
Some of the applications for which the computer is used are discussed below:
 Letter Writing
 Publishing
 Keeping records
 Performing Mathematical Calculations
 Painting and drawing
 Telecommunications
 Games
Letter Writing: Writing any type of a letter, report, or a story for that matter can be
very difficult sometimes. A lot of mistakes can happen along the way. When all this
is done using a typewriter, the changes are difficult to make. For every mistake that
is made, a new sheet of paper has to be used. Software that allows you to do the
above is called a word processor. A word processing program allows you to write
text, just as you would on a typewriter. The only difference is that what you type is
actually in the RAM of the computer. So, if there is any mistake that you have made
in writing, it can be corrected. Once you are happy with what you have written, you
can save the document and then print it.
Even after saving the document, you still have the option of making a change,
just in case you want to add something more or remove something that is extra. A
word-processing program gives additional benefits like checking and correcting the
spelling mistakes and grammatical mistakes.
The most commonly used word processors are Word, WordPerfect, Professional
Write etc.
Publishing: Publishing refers to the collection of several pieces of text, combining it
with pictures and printing it in an attractive form. The most commonly found
published material that we read every day is the newspaper. This process used to be
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quite lengthy, messy (with all the pictures being cut and stuck in between the text).
Now, software that helps in the collection and the arrangement of this is called
Publishing Software. It is very popularly called desktop publishing because all the
work can now be done on the ‘top of your desk’. There are many such Desktop
Publishing (commonly called DTP) programs available. Some of the most popular
ones are PageMaker and Ventura.
 36

Keeping Records: All the data that we collect for processing needs to be stored. All
the information that we generate also needs to be maintained. In our house, we
generally maintain a list of addresses and phone numbers of our mends and
relatives. Some of us may have a collection of books or music cassettes or video
cassettes. All this has to be maintained. By maintaining, we mean that we need to
make a list and keep that list safely somewhere. Suppose it is a list of all the books,
you have. This list has to be made and kept handy. Every time a new book is
purchased, the name of that new book has to be added to that list. This is called
updating the list. If a book you no longer require is removed from your collection,
then that list has to be updated again, this time by removing that book name from
the list.
Sometimes you may just replace a book that you already have with the same
book but of a newer version. In this case, only the change in the name of the book
has to be made. You don't need to add or remove a book from the list.
Doing this for a collection of books at home can be simple. But suppose this
has to be done for a library at the university, the job of making a list and
maintaining it would be huge. Here, once again the computer can help, by allowing
these lists to be maintained. Database software is available to maintain this huge
base of data.
Examples of database programs are dBASE, Ingres, FoxPro and Oracle.
Performing Mathematical Calculations: Since the computer turns everything into
numbers, it is very good at handling all types of mathematical problems. The main
software that is used for doing the same on a computer is called a spreadsheet.
What a wordprocessor does to word, a spreadsheet does the same to numbers. The
spreadsheet allows you to enter a lot of numbers and perform many types of
calculations on them. It allows you to decide which numbers can be added, divided
or which are the numbers whose percentage has to be calculated.
Some of the common spreadsheets available are Excel, Lotus 1-2-3 and Quattro
Pro.
Painting and Drawing: If drawing a straight line is a bad dream, then the computer
is the right drawing toot for you. To draw straight line on the computer all you have
to do is mark on the screen wI1ere the line should start and end. The software
available for making drawings on the computer allows an artist to:
 create and edit freehand drawings

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 refine parts of those drawings
 combine two different drawings to produce a new one
 fill up a drawing with colours
 change the size of those drawings as per the user's requirements
The popular drawing packages are Paint. Paintbrush etc.
 37

Telecommunications: The term ‘telecommunication’ refers to communication done

over long distances. The telephones that we use help us to ta1lc over long distances
and even across continents. Cable television allows us to watch TV programs of
countries across the oceans. All this is possible due to telecommunications.
Computers help in this too. Specific software is now available that helps computers
‘communicate’ with each other no matter where they are in the world.
Games: Playing games on the computer .is one of the common uses of the computer.
Games have gone a long way in making the computer popular. It is one software that
thrills users of all ages. It is because of the wide variety of software that is available
to the users, very interesting games are now being created on the computers.
Software Readymade & Customised: When software is written, there is always an
objective behind it. Some software is written for a very general purpose - like letter
writing. Here the programmer (also called the author of the software sometimes)
decides that the program can be used by anyone to write letters. Then this software
is sold in computer shops and is called Readymade Software. Examples of
readymade- software are MS-Word, Lotus 1-2-3 and Paintbrush.
As against readymade software there is software that is written for a very
specific purpose. The purpose may as simple as doing accounts or very complex one
such as for scientific research. This is called Customised Software. This software
would pertain to a very special application and may not be use to anyone else. Such
software is made by programmers who are given the specifications and asked to
develop the software.
Summarising the Rule of Software
In our discussion so far the most important thing that has been conveyed is the
importance of software. Software is what makes the computer useful and can be
classified into the following two categories:
 System Software
 Application Software
System software consists of the programs that run a computer system itself or
that assist a computer in running applications programs. It also includes the
documentation that describes how these programs operate. Operation system is an
example of system software.
Application software is a software that is used to perform a set of tasks to
achieve certain results. Some application software perform specific tasks, like the
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program written to enter the student’s, marks in the computer. Some applications
are general purpose, which are used by a lot of people. The examples of this are the
games software, letter-writing software etc.
 38

2.3.4 Housekeeping
After studying what files data, software and programs are all, about, it is
impor1ant for us to know that certain methods or procedures have to be followed
after work on the computer is over. Not only computers, but any machine that you
use, needs to be taken care of. The parts of the machine have to be looked after.
Care bas to be taken about maintaining those parts. If something is not right with
one of the parts, then it bas to be repaired immediately so that other parts do not get
affected. Over .and above all this, the machine needs to be used correctly to ensure
that it continues to work for a long time, and does not give any trouble. Wb8t use
would a machine that does not work properly, be to anybody? Instead of using a
machine that works badly, it would be simpler, to do the same job manually? To
make the most out of any machine, it has to be
 used properly
 the parts have to be kept in a good condition
 any break-have to be repaired immediately
 records of all the break-downs have to be kept regularly
 sufficient training on how 10 use the machine bas to be imparted to the users
All these rules apply to computers too. This process is often called as house-
keeping. House keeping in computers, refers to the maintaining of the computer
hardware, the computer software and the data.
Maintaining Computer Hardware:
The parts of the computer that are most likely to get affected by repeated use
are:
1. The disk drives: The disk drives need to be cleaned from time to time using the
tools that are available for doing so.
2. The printer: Printers create a lot of paper dust. This needs to be cleaned once in
every 15 days depending on the usage. If the printer is used very frequently, then
it should be cleaned every week. This cleaning can be done using the thin nozzle
of a vacuum cleaner. Care should be taken in doing this because the printer has
delicate parts.
3. The hard disk: The computer should not be switched off when a program is
working.
4. Disks: The computer should never be switched off without removing the diskette

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from the drive. Doing this will cause the data on the disk to be lost or will
damage the disk altogether.
5. Mouse: The mouse has to be cleaned every month. It is best to use the mouse on
a firm and smooth pad. It becomes very easy to operate it that way.
A computer is also a machine. It is also likely to have breakdowns. Sometimes
an error may occur in the machine. This error has to be communicated to the
engineer locking after the machine. To make sure that the right thing is
 39

communicated, it makes sense to keep a record of the exact nature of the

breakdown. Whenever the computer has a problem, exact message that it displays
should be noted down. The application software that was working that time should
be noted. The date and time would also help. This would help the person repairing
the computer to have a better understanding of how the breakdown happened in the
first place.
Maintaining Computer Software:
Software or programs too have to be looked after. If a program gives some
problem while loading or running, it should be immediately brought to the notice of
the person who has developed the program. Not doing so may damage the data that
is being used by the program. All programs or software should be copied on a set of
disks to avoid problems in case the original copy on the hard disk gets erased by
mistake. This procedure is known as taking a backup. This is done is detail in the
next section.
Maintaining Data:
In the example that we covered earlier in the session it was said that the user
would have to sit and enter all the marks of the students along with their names and
roll number. To do this for an entire college would be quite a task! A lot of effort,
energy and time would have to be spent doing this. What would happen, if for some
reason the data that was entered gets lost? All the time and effort put in by the user
would be wasted. This would kill the very purpose of having computers. To avoid
this from happening, backups need to be taken.
Backups are nothing but exact copies of the data that is stored on the hard
disk. This copy is taken on floppy disks, magnetic tapes, diskettes or CD. There are
various reasons, which could lead to data loss:
 Power failure
 Surges in power (fluctuation in voltage)
 Computer break down
Backup is the most important work that needs to be carried out at the end of
your working day on the computer. That is why, this process is also called the day
end procedure.
Check your Progress
1. The monitor has_________ rows and _________ columns.
2. The mouse and the keyboard are examples of _________ device
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3. Printers are of two types _________ and _________.
4. Program is a _________
5. Software is a _________
6. What is user-friendly software?
7. What is an application?
 40

8. _____________, _____________, _____________and ___________ are examples of

application software.
9. What is housekeeping?
10. Computer languages have to be translated to ______________
11. Microsoft is headed by ______________.
2.4 Key words
MICR - Magnetic Ink Character Recognition
OCR - Optical Character Recognition
COBOL - Common Business Oriented Language
FORTRN - Formula Translation
2.5 Summary
 Computer parts are all broadly classified
 Storage device helps the user to store data information and various software
for later use
 Software is a collection on big and small programmes
 Software is a set of instruction helps the computer to process data and give
information
 The computer only understand machine language. So all the instruction
written in a high level language to be converted to machine language.
 The evaluation of computer span is about four stages which we referred to
as ‘generation’.
 The software is easy to use and requires minimum Morning
 The most commonly used word processor are word. Word perfect,
professional write etc.,
 The popular drawing packages are paint, paintbrush etc.,
 House keeping in computer refers to the maintaining of the computer
hardware, computer software and the data.
2.6 Assignment
1. Describe two output devices
2. How keyboard and mouse acts as a good input device for computer
3. Explain any two secondary storage devices
4. Explain any one question of software
5. Describe how data is stored and retriever in a computer

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6. Define software
7. Describe no role of software in Information Technology World
2.7 Reference
1. Introduction to PC Hardware and trouble shooting mike mayors, data
McGraw-Hill
2. Hardware and Computer Organization by Arnold S. Berger
3. ‘Hardware Bible’ by winn L. Rosch. 6th edition.
 41

Unit - III

Hardware and Software Maintenance

CONTENT
3.1 Computer Internals
3.1.1 Mother Board
3.1.2 Bus and Ports
3.1.3 Power Supply Unit
3.1.4 Disk Drivers
3.1.5 Hard disk drive
3.1.6 Floppy Disk Drive
3.2 Typical PC configuration
3.3 Booting a computer
3.4 Virus, Anti-Virus vaccines
3.5 Data Compression Techniques
3.6 Software manuals, versions and upgrades
3.7 Software Copyright
INTRODUCTION
If you stood on a tall building and looked around you, the city would look like a
miniature replica of itself. The first thing that Strikes you when the CPU is opened
and when you look at its internal parts is that, the whole scene resembles this
miniature city. The computer is a result of all these parts working with each other in
smooth coordination. This session is devoted to understanding these parts and it's
working for getting a better grasp of computers as a subject.
OBJECTIVE
After studying the lesson you should be able to understand.
(i) To understand computer Internal/External parts
(ii) Computer Configuration
(iii) Data Compression Technique
(iv) How to understand virus trends
3.1 The Computer Internals
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3.1.1 Mother board
Computer circuits me very complex. They also very delicate. All such complex
and delicate circuits reside in the metallic box. This box is ca11ed the CPU although
the CPU is small but important part of the circuit that is found in the box. Since the
circuits are very me and delicate they have to be held by a firm support. This firm
support is provided by the motherboard. In computers, the motherboard is where all
the computer's built-in electronic components reside.
 42

All the computer components, like keyboard, mouse, printers and disk drives
have wires or cords that are attached to circuit cards inside the CPU box. These
cards in turn, are attached to the motherboard. The CPU chip is also lodged on it.
This is why the term 'mother' is used. It provides support to all the ‘children' or the
electronic components. This is why, it is called a ‘motherboard’.
3.1.2 Bus and Pores
We look at input and output devices as the means to communicate with the
computer. That is true from our point of view. However, the computer has much
more input/output work than that. Millions of bits of data and instructions are
speeding along, through the components of your computer. This is happening even.
While your computer seems to be idle. As a busy highly with a lot of traffic has many
policemen to make sure that there are no accidents, the input/output. Work in a
computer is also controlled by controllers who work with the processor to make sure
that there is no clash of data.
On what does all this data speed along? Like the cars on the highway have the
road to speed on, the data in a computer speeds along a bus. It is the bus that
transports data between the processor and the other components: There are several
types of buses that faci1itate transfer of data. One is the data bus and the bus
which controls all the data flow is the control bus. A bus is not a single put of the
computer, but is actually a complex group of circuits. These circuits are present all
over the motherboard; on the top and the bottom.
The microchips that are seen inside the computer are also called buses. These
microchips allow the computer to include more parts. For this purpose, these buses
have slots in them in which cards can be fixed. Hence this bus which allows the
expansion of the computer is called the expansion bus.
While the transfer of data takes places through the bus the entry and exit
points of these buses are caned ports. Ports are access points for the entry or the
exit of data. Some ports allow only a single bit of data to pass through. Such ports
are called serial ports. The term ‘Serial’ is used because the entry or exit of data bits
happens in a line one after the other, similar to a line of marching soldiers.
Naturally, the time taken for data to get transferred from one place to another will be
more because only one bit is allowed to enter or exit at any point of time.
Serial ports are used mostly with the mouse. It is sometimes also called theRS-
232 port. RS-232 refers to the Electronic Industry Standard on how the connectors
in a serial port should be used.
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Some ports however, allow the passage of more than one bit, i.e 8 bits at a time.
Such ports are called parallel ports. Transfer of data through parallel ports is much
faster because 8 bits can travel together (parallel to each other) from one part of the
computer to another. The time in which the serial port can transfer the letter ‘c’ from
one part of the computer to another, the parallel port can transfer the entire word
‘computer’ from one part of the computer to another.
 43

Parallel ports are used with printers. Parallel ports are therefore also referred to
as printer ports arid sometimes caned the Centronics port. Parallel ports are also
being used for transferring data files between two computers.
3.1.3 Power Supply Unit
Can anyone of you eat red peppers? Well maybe one in a hundred, you might
find someone who can. It is just not possible for our tongue to bear the taste. The
effect of doing this would ‘burn’ us up from inside this is similar to what happens in
that work on electricity.
When electric power is given to any equipment the circuit of that equipment has
to be very sturdy or strong. This is so, because the wires that the circuit is made up
of should not get burnt because of the electricity. Most electrica1 equipment works
like this. However electronic equipment has delicate circuits in them which would
not be able to 'digest' new electric power. The computer too has many such delicate
circuits. To help make the power supply from the direct source a little easier, a
power supply unit is provided inside the metallic box. The power supply unit first
‘checks’ the quality of the electrical supply. Next it ensures that the right amount of
electricity is passed on to the right component.
3.1.4 Disk Drives
All the cassettes and records that we have are of no use if we do not have a
cassette player or a record player. The same thing applies for video cassettes. Data
storage devices like floppies and hard disks also require something that will drive
them. The component that does this is called a disk drive. There are separate disk
dives for floppies and hard disks. The hard disk drive is situated inside the computer
box. The user cannot see nor touch it at all. The floppy disk drive is also fixed in the
computer box but can be seen and can be operated upon by the users.
Just the way the cassette player needs- to be cleaned by a technician once in a
way, even the floppy drives in a computer should be cleaned once in a. while.
3.1.5 The Hard Disk Drive
The hard disk drive is the work horse of the computer system. The hard disk
can be thought of as it col1ection of many floppies or gramophone record stacked on
each other without all of them actually touching each other. These called platters.
The gap between these platters is, as thin as a human hair. These platters have data
stored on them, that may actually be-the result of years and years of work. Data is
stored or retrieved from the disk using a conducting coil called the head. During a
read/write, the head is stationary while the platter rotates at a very high speed
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beneath it.
The head can read/write from a portion of the platter rotating beneath it. Data
is organised in a set of concentric rings called tracks. Each track is the same width
as the head. The same number of bits are typically stored on each track. Thus the
density increases towards the innermost tracks.
 44

Data is stored and retrieved from the dist in blocks. Data is stored in block-size
regions called sectors. The sectors may be of fixed or variable length. Adjacent
sectors are separated by intra-track gaps. Certain control data is recorded on the
disk to identify the start and end points of a sector. This data is recorded during
formatting and is used only by the disk drive. It is not accessible to the user.
A number of characteristics are used to differentiate between disks:

The head maybe fixed or movable. In a fixed-head disk there is one read/write
head per track. The heads are mounted on a rigid arm. The arm extends across all
the tracks. In a moveable head disk there is only one read/write head. The head is
mounted on an arm which can be extended or retracted.
The disk is mounted on a disk drive. This consists of the arm, a shaft that
rotates the disk and the electronics required for the input and output of binary data.
In some disk drives, multiple platters may be stacked vertically. Multiple arms
are used and the entire unit is called a disk pack. The read/write head is positioned
at a fixed distance from the platter allowing an air gap.
A set of corresponding tracks on all surfaces of the disk pack equidistant from
the spindle is called a cylinder.
Commands to read or write are received from the computer by the disk
controller. For writing on the disk pack the computer specifies the drive number,

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cylinder number, surface number and sector number. The disk controller positions
the arm assembly so that the read/write head reaches the specified cylinder. The
time taken to reach the specified cylinder is called the seek time. Seek time varies
depending on the position of the arms assembly when the read/write command is
performed. Maximum seek time is taken when the arms assembly has to move from
the outer most track to the inner most track. Minimum seek time is taken when the
arms assembly is already positioned over the required cylinder.
 45

Switching is the process of switching the read/write head from one Sector to
another and it is an electronic and instantaneous operation. After the head is
selected there is further delay rotational latency, because the required sector must
reach the reach the read/write head.
Thus, average access time = average latency + average seek time
Once the sector is reached, data is read at the speed determined by the
rotational speed of the disk.
The full set of these platters and the read and write heads are enclosed in a
vacuumed container, to protect it from dust and electrical stocks.

When the hard disk is being accessed, it makes a peculiar groaning sound. This
indicates that the hard disk drive is an example of a device that is both mechanical
and electronic.
3.1.6 The Floppy Disk Drive
The computer would, be very incomplete without the floppy drive. A floppy disk
allows information to be exchanged between two Computers. An that needs to be
done is to insert a floppy in the drive copy the data from the hard disk to the floppy
and insert it in the machine where that data is required. It is still of the easier and
cost effective ways to exchange information or data between two computers:
The floppy is actually enclosed in a plastic jacket that protects it from heat,
dust and electrical shocks. When a floppy is exposed to any of the above, the thins
can happen:
 the floppy can be physically damaged, which can lead to loss of the data
which is on the floppy
 the floppy may remain intact, but there may still be a data loss.

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 46

Write Protect: Floppies are most commonly used for taking backups. It would
not be a very. Pleasant experience for a person to carefully take a backup, only to
have it accidentally erased by another colleague, or worse still by himself. One way is
t label the floppy correctly as a backup floppy. This would certainly avoid such an
accident. Another more correctly way would be to write protect the floppy, i.e.
protect it from being written on.
In a 5.25 inch floppy, this is done sticking a small tape on the notch that is
found on one side of the floppy. In a 3.5 inch disc, there is small square hold on the
opposite side from where the floppy is inserted. When this hole is not fully see
through to the floppy is said to be a ‘writeable’ floppy. When the hole can be seen
through, then the floppy is said to be write-protected. This is manipulated by small
push button. By pushing the small button in or out, the floppy, can be made
writeable or readable.
3.2 Typical PC Configuration
Configuration refers to the manner in which the hardware and software of an
information processing system are organised and interconnected. When a computer
is bought, it has to be configured. Configuring a computer is a process that
describes the devices and optional features and programs that the system will have.
This simply means that the user will have to decide what are the parts that he
will require to make most out of his computer. Not only the parts, the 'power' or the
capacity o( those parts is also important: Hence, the following needs to be decided.
a. The recommended PC configuration
The specifications for these will keep changing because technology is advancing
at a very rapid pace. So what is advanced today, will become the minimum
requirement of tomorrow. Let us now take a look at the configurations given below.
One needs a car to travel from one place to another. This is the basic use of a
car. However, today the market is full of different types of luxury GFS that allow the
traveler to do much more than going from one place to another. Stereo systems, air
conditioning, power steering, soft cushioned seating, glass holders and many other
luxuries that make traveling by a car seem like a dream! These are the accessories
that make driving more pleasurable. This does not mean that a car that does not
have all these will not take you from one place to another. It will, but the going will
be quite rough.
Similarly, there are computers that can process data, allow typing of letters and

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do, accounts. But they may not offer the comforts of the latest technologies like GUI
and colour.
 47

Now let us see what a recommended PC configuration would be. A PC that

would be able to make full use of the current software available in the market.
The recommended PC configuration
 A Pentium - m 700 MHz motherboard
 32 or 64MB of RAM
 A keyboard
 A mouse
 Hard disk of 10 GB
 A 3.5 inch floppy drive
 One serial port for the mouse
 One parallel port for the printer
 One SVGA colour monitor
 Windows95/98
 Office 97 suite
This configuration is meant for a stand-alone computer. If the computer is to be
a part of a network, then an additional card called the network card is required.
Apart from this, an additional network port (for the network connection) is also
needed.
Before we attempt to configure the ideal PC, let us take a peek into an emerging
technology. This technology is called - Multimedia
3.3 Booting a Computer
When you switch on a computer, it goes through a complex set of instructions.
This it does to ensure that all its components ate working properly and to warn the
user if something goes wrong. This is the first step of a very complicated process
called booting. Booting is a term derived from the word bootstrap. Bootstrap is a
process of lifting oneself up on its own. The computer also readies itself for you,
therefore this process is called booting. The process of checking itself is called power
On Self Test or POST.
POST is the first thing the computer does when it is switched on. If an error is
detected during POST, it warns the user in the form of some messages flashed on
the screen accompanied with a series of beeps.
Important: If there are no beeps, it is no guarantee that the hardware is fine,
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because there may be some errors in it that even the POST cannot detect.
The following diagram explain the process that the computer goes through
before it becomes ready for the user:
 48

POST

Are you Okay?

ROM Other
I am Fine components

System
I am not okay
Beeps

Figure 5

Next, the ROM searches for operating system and loads it to complete the
process of booting Take a look at the next schematic.

START

IS THERE A DISK Y READ DISK

Y DOES IT
IN DRIVE A AND LOAD
HAVE THE OS
COMMAND OS
N
N
IS THERE A HARD N
DISK FLASH
ERROR
Y

DOES IT CONTAIN N
FLASH
OS
ERROR

Y
LOAD OS AND
GET THE
COMPUTER
READY FOR USE

Figure 6
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The figure above describes the way the operating system is 'searched' for and
loaded in the RAM for the computer to be ready for use. After the POST, the ROM
searches for the operating system. First it checks or a disk in the floppy disk drive. If
a disk is found in drive A, ROM searches for the operating system files on it. If
found, they are loaded in the RAM and the computer gets ready for use. If the
operating system files are not found, the computer flashes an error message across
the screen.
 49

After this, the user has to replace the disk and press the 'Return' key. If the
return key is pressed without replacing the disk, the operating system files are
searched on the hard disk. If these files are not found even on the hard disk, the
computer cannot get ready to accept commands from the user. If the files are found
on the hard disk, they are copied to the RAM and the computer can be used.
Bootable Disk: It is very common and convenient to have the operating system
files on the hard disk. However, sometimes due to some error the hard disk does not
get read. This is why, a backup of the operating system files should always be
maintained. A floppy containing the backup of the operating system files is called a
'bootable' disk. A bootable disk allows the computer's operating system to get loaded.
Atleast two bootable disks should be prepared and maintained.
3.4 Virus, Anti-virus, Vaccines
Computer virus has been in the news for a long time. The amount of damage
they can cause is really tremendous. This virus has been the reason for most people
to get curious about computers. In this session we will explain what virus, anti-virus
and vaccine is?
Virus is nothing but a program written using one of the computer languages, to
cause damage to the data, the information or the hardware of the computer. In other
words it is a destructive software.
A virus can replicate itself very easily. This is because along with the
instructions it has for destroying data, it also has instructions for copying itself onto
the memory of the computer. It also has instru~ionS1o copy itself in any floppy disk
that is inserted into the floppy disk drive. It can multiply itself or make several
copies of itself.
A computer that has the virus is called an infected computer or a host.
Unfortunately, like a man who has the common cold virus and looks ill, the
computer does not look ill. There is no way of knowing that the computer's hard disk
and RAM has virus, because these program files do not show up. However, the
computer starts mal-functioning.
If a computer has a virus in its memory, the virus can get attached to the floppy
in the computer. If anyone uses this ‘infected’ floppy on another computer, then that
computer will also get infected. This is how virus spreads.
The most common damage that is done by a virus is:
 erase data from the hard disk
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 increase the file size of command files by several 1000 bytes
 affect the hardware components
The reason that the term 'virus' has been borrowed from biology is that the
computer virus also shows many similarities with the biological virus. These
similarities are given below:
 50

Biological Virus Computer Virus

1. Attached itself to the victim through 1. Attached itself to the computer
another victim through another infected computer
2. Can multiply on its own very rapidly 2. Also multiplies on its own very
3. Can be cured with a vaccine 3. Can be removed with a vaccine
4. Infection can be prevented via an 4. Infection can be prevented using a
inoculation anti-virus software

Table 1
Programs that are used for preventing virus are called anti-virus software and
programs that are used for removing the virus are called vaccines.
Some Famous Viruses:
Some of the viruses that have been discovered and fought off are

 Amoeba
 Datacrime
 Fu Manchu
 April 1st
 Saturday the 14th
 Friday the 13th
 Yankee Doodle
All these viruses attach themselves to files and increase their file size, thereby
occupying more space on the hard disk. Some viruses, like Friday the 13th attack
only on that date and destroy (i.e. delete) all the data from the hard disk.
Many people wonder why such destructive programs are written. Writing
programs to add numbers or to find out percentages can be learnt quickly. Most
people can quickly learn to write programs for commercial applications. However,
writing programs that can attach themselves to the memory of the computer and
programs that can replicate themselves, require a lot of knowledge of the hardware
as well as the language. In another words, writing these types of programs is quite
difficult. There are people who actually feel proud of being able to do this 'difficult'
task. Most of them do not realise the enormity of the damage they cause. Those who
do realise this just don't care. They are too pre-occupied with their own sense of
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feeling good to worry about other computer users. This is why people write
destructive programs.
3.5 Data Compression Techniques
Data compression is a technique that reduces the volume of the data when it
has to be copied on to the secondary storage devices. Large files, which are around 2
or 3 MB in size (or even more than that) cannot be stored on a single floppy. Thus,
they will require many floppies and handling so many floppies becomes quite
 51

difficult. The whole process also becomes expensive because more storage is
required. Data compression utilities, pack data bits close to each other and reduce
the size of a file by about 40 to 60 percent. Depending on which software is being
used for doing this, a file of size 1 MB can be compressed to about 400 to 600 KB.
There are several utilities in Windows to compress files. The most popular
utility, which is available on Windows, is called WINZIP. Here the files have to be
'zipped' first. This compresses them. But, when we need to use these files, they have
to be 'unzipped' i.e. they have to return to their normal form so that they can be
read.
File Creation
Most programs create a file, sometime or the other. The actual job of creating a
file is left to the operating system. Take a look at the following table:

User enter data through the keyboard

All the data is ‘waiting’ in the RAM

After the user is sure about the data, he 'saves' the data

Saving causes the hard disk to be accessed

The operating system searches for some free space on the hard disk

Next, the data is copied from the RAM to the free space on the hard disk

Figure 7
The program asks the user for a name that will be given to the area where the
data is stored on the hard disk. This area is called a file and the name given to this
area is the file name.
When the user wants to access that data again, he will ask the program for that
file by using the file name. Using that filename will cause the operating system to
access only that area where the required data is present. This is how a file gets
created on the computer and accessed for later use.
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3.6 Software Manuals, Versions and Upgrades
Software is the result of many people putting their heads together to churn out
a product that will cater to the needs of a wide range of users. Months are spent
writing programs, testing them and correcting them. After all the programs have
been written, tested and corrected, the software is said to be ready. This ready-made
software is sold in the market to users who range from computer professionals, to
 52

other professionals who use the computer as a tool. All these users have to be
taught how to use the software. No matter how user friendly the software is, there is
always the need to refer to some book that will tell the user how to use the software.
When we buy a new appliance like a refrigerator, or a television, we too need
some type of a documentation that will guide us on:
 how to set up the appliance
 how to maintain it
 how to use all the features available on it
 how to fix small problems that may arise while using it
This documentation is required, no matter how familiar we are with using
televisions or refrigerators. This type of documentation is known as a user's manual.
Ready-made software too comes with a user’s manual. All manuals however,
speak only about the product. There is no information regarding the knowledge that
may be a pre-requisite for using that software. This means that for a manual that
shows a user how to use PowerPoint, the manual will assume that the user has
complete knowledge of the Windows operating environment.
Next, all software keeps getting improvised by the people who develop it. This
happens because it is only after extensive use by the users, do all the mistakes in
the program become known. After the errors get noticed, they are rectified and a new
version of the software gets released. For example when the GUI based operating
environment was first released, it was just called Windows. Then there was Windows
3.1, Windows 3.11 and Windows 95. The-latest is Windows 98. Each release comes
with more and more improvisations.
Some software companies offer a free upgrade of the software to the user who
has purchased the earlier version. This happens when the difference between the
versions is not too much. When there is a big difference in the two versions, the
users of the old version are offered the new version at a discounted price. For
example, when Windows 95 was developed and released in the market by Microsoft,
all the users who had purchased Windows 3.11 were given a copy of Windows 95 at
a discounted price.
3.7 Software Copyright
All of us at one time or another have heard of terms like 'music piracy' or 'video
piracy'. Whenever, a song or a movie is made, the maker of that song or movie has to

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ensure that each and every person-who is watching the movie or listening to the
song has purchased the legal copy. Some people buy one copy, make an inferior
quality copy of it and then sell it in the market at a lower rate. This is unfair to the
maker of the movie because he does not get paid for the product which is rightfully
his. This is called piracy.
As mentioned earlier, people spend months, writing programs to create
software. Software also gets copied illegally and is distributed in the market at rates,
 53

which are one tenth or less of the original price. This is called software piracy. Large
companies life Microsoft have appointed agents all over the world to ensure that all
the copies of their product being used are legal and not pirated.
The governments of these countries also ensure that piracy is an offense that is
seriously punishable. All users of computers are urged not to use illegal copies of
software. This is why there is a copyright on software also.
Check your Progress
1. The three parts of the CPU are __________, ___________ and the _________.
2. The data in the computer travels on paths called _________________.
3. The three types of buses found in the computer are ___________,_________
and _____________.
4. ________________is an access point for the entry and exit of data.
5. A serial port is also called a ______________ port.
6. The Centronics port is called a _____________ port.
7. Technology and________________ are used for complex tasks which require a
lot of computational power.
8. The computer understands only __________and_______.
9. POST stands for ____________
10. A destructive program is called a __________.
11. What is data compression used for?
12. What is the difference between a vaccine and an anti-virus?
13. Software is illegal.
3.8 Key words
CPU - Central Process Unit
RAM - Random Access Memory
POST - Power On Self Test
3.9 Summary
 All physical parts of the computer of everything that can be touched are
known as hardware. Hardware consists of Internal devices and peripheral
devices.
 Booting computer is the first step of a very complicated process called
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booting.
 Virus is nothing but a program written using one of the computer
language.
 Data compression is a technique the reduce the volume of the data.
 54

3.10 Assignments
1. What are the function of Hard disk drive
2. Explain the PC configuration
3. Describe the requirements and working of a virility memory.
4. How virus occurs.
5. Explain the types of drives
6. Explain Data ‘Compression Technique’.
3.11 Reference
1. Arnold. S. Berger- ‘Hardware and Computer Organization’.
2. Winn L. Rosch ‘Hardware Bible’ 6th Edition.
3. Computer Information System for Business by Mark G Simkin.
4. Introduction to Information Technology, ITL Education Solution Limited
5. Introduction to Computers, by C. Xavier II Edition.

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 55

UNIT-IV

Number Systems
Content
4.1 Number Systems
4.1.1 Decimal Number system
4.1.2 Binary Number system
4.1.3 Octal number system
4.1.4 Hexadecimal number system
4.2 Binary Arithmetic
4.2.1 Addition
4.2.2 Subtraction
4.2.3 Multiplication
4.2.4 Division
4.3 Unit of Information
INTRODUCTION
All digital computers store numbers, letters, and other characters in coded
form. The code used to represent characters is the binary code - i.e., a code made up
of ‘binary digits’. Every character is represented by a string of "0"s and "l"s… the only
digits found in the binary number system.
A sequence of 8 bits is called a byte 1024 bytes make a kilobyte. 1024 kilobytes
make a megabyte (MB). 1024 megabytes make a gigabyte. A word consists of several
bytes. Most computers have words that consist of 8 or 16 bits. However in larger
computers the number of bits could be 16, 32, 36 or 40 bits.
When data is typed into a computer, the keyboard converts each keystroke into
a binary character code. This code is then transmitted to the computer. When the
computer transmits the data to the printer, or the screen, or to the disk, each
individual character is communicated in binary code. It is then converted back to
the specific character while displaying or printing the data.
Objective
After studying this lesson you should be able to understand
 What is bit, byte and binary code
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 Different number systems
 How binary calculations are performed in to computer
4.1 Number Systems
Numbers earlier consisted of symbols like I for 1, II for 2, III for 3 etc. Each
symbol represented the same value irrespective of its position in the number. (Later
we will see what we mean by 'position in the number'). This approach is called an
 56

additive approach. As time passed, positional numbering systems were developed. In

such a system the number of symbols are few and they represent different values
depending on the position they occupy. Now we know numbers can be, represented
by arranging symbols in various positions. We will first look at the decimal system
since we are already familiar with it.
4.1.1 The Decimal Number System
In the decimal system the successive positions to the left of the decimal point
represent units, tens, hundreds, thousands etc. For example if we consider the
number 365, the digit 5 represents the number of units, 6 represents the number of
tens and 3 the number of hundreds.
(3x 100)+(6x 10)+(5x 1)=365
Thus as we move one position to the left, the value of the digit increases by ten
times. We can see that the position of the number affects its value. These kind of
number systems are therefore called positional number systems. In other words the
number of symbols used to represent numbers in the system is called the
base/radix of that system. In short we can say that the value of each digit in the
number system is determined by:
a. The digit itself
b. The position of the digit in the number itself.
c. The base/radix of the system
4.1.2 The Binary Number System
We now come to a different number system - the Binary number system. The
binary number system has a base of two, and the symbols used are 0 and 1. In this
number system, as we move to the left the value of the digit will be two times greater
than its predecessor. Thus the values of the places are :
<-- <-- 64 <-- 32 <-- 16 <-- 8 <-- 4 <-- 2 <-- 1
Converting Binary to Decimal
The decimal equivalent of 110100 is
(32 * 1) + (16* 1) +(8 * 0) + (4 * 1) + (2 * 0) + (1 * 0)
= 32 + 16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 0
= 52
This is how we convert a binary number to its decimal equivalent. Now let us see
how we can convert a decimal number to its binary equivalent.
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Converting Decimal to Binary
In conversion from decimal to any other number system, the steps to be followed
are:
1. Divide the decimal number by the base of the required number system.
2. Note the reminder in one column and divide the quotient again with the base.
Keep repeating this process until the quotient is reduced to a zero.
 57

3. Reading off the remainders in the reverse order of them being written down
will give us the required number Now let us convert the decimal number 52
to its binary equivalent.
Remainder
2 ∟52
2 ∟ 26 0
2 ∟ 13 0
2 ∟ 06 1
2 ∟ 03 0
2 ∟ 01 1
2 ∟ 00 1
Thus the binary equivalent of the decimal number 52 is 110100. All data stored
and processed in computers is in binary format. These symbols -0 and 1, are called
bits an abbreviation for binary digits. We see that 2 bits give four unique
combinations i.e. 00, 01, 10,11.
Data Storage
The string of bits needed to represent a character is called a byte, and is
commonly understood to consist of a string of 8 bits. Usually numeric data is also
stored in the same way that character data is stored - one byte per digit. When
calculations are required to be carried out, this decimal number is converted into its
equivalent in binary. After the calculations are carried out, the result is converted
back into its decimal equivalent. Thus, converting numeric data stored in character
from to its equivalent in binary form and back would be a normal part of a program.
Numeric data is also stored in its binary from. This would mean that calculations
would be faster and memory requirement would be reduced.
The Packed Decimal
There are machines that store data in a half-way house between pure binary
and one byte per digit. This method of storage is sometimes referred to as packed
decimal. It uses the fact that only four bits are required to store all the 10 symbols
that constitute the decimal number system. Thus one byte would store the
representation of two decimal digits.
For example the number 34 would have been stored in character form as:

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Byte 1
00000011
Byte 2
00000100
3 4
Using packed decimal the same number would have been stored as :
Byte
0011 0100
3 4
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4.1.3 Octal Number System

A commonly used positional system is the octal system. The octal system has a
base of 8. The values increase from right to left as 1, 8, 64, 512, 4096. The decimal
value of an octal number 1204 can be computed as:
(1 * 512) + (2 * 64) + (0 * 8) + (4 * 1)
= 512 + 128 + 0 + 4
= 644
To convert a number from binary to octal and vice-versa, the following table
must be kept in mind:
Binary Octal
000 0
001 1
010 2
011 3
100 4
101 5
110 6
111 7
Converting from Binary to Octal
The binary number must be divided into groups of three from the octal point -
to the right in case of the fractional portion and to the left in case of the integer
portion. Each group can then be replaced with their octal equivalent.
For example,
Binary 101010101010100
101 010 101 010 100
5 2 5 2 4
52524 is the octal equivalent of the given binary number.
Converting from Octal to Binary
Each octal digit is replaced with the appropriate ‘triple’ of binary digits.
For example,

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6
110
5
101
The binary equivalent of the octal number 65, is 110101
4.1.4 Hexadecimal Number System
There is another commonly used positional system, the hexadecimal system.
 59

The hexadecimal system has a base of 16, so the value increases from right to
left as 1, 16,256, 4096, 65536... We need to keep a simple table in mind before we
attempt any conversion from hexadeci11lal or vice-versa.
Hexadecimal Decimal
0 0
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8
9 9
A 10
B 11
C 12
D 13
E 14
F 15
As you would have noticed, we obtain the 16 symbols required for the
hexadecimal number system by using the alphabets A, B, C, D, E and F. Thus the
decimal equivalent of a hexadecimal number AO119 can be computed as:
(10 * 65,536) + (0 * 4,096) + (1 *256) + (1 * 16) + (9 * 1)
= 6,55,360 + 0 + 256 + 16 + 9
= 6,55,641
Converting Binary to Hexadecimal
Each hexadecimal digit is represented by 4 binary digits.
Binary Hexadecimal
0000 0
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0001 1
0010 2
0011 3
0100 4
0101 5
 60

0110 6
0111 7
1000 8
1001 9
1010 A
1011 B
1100 C
1101 D
1110 E
1111 F
To convert a binary number to its hexadecimal equivalent we split the quantity
into groups of four outwards, as before. Each of these groups of four are directly
converted into their hexadecimal equivalent. We may add zeros to the left of the
number if necessary.
e.g Binary 10101011000010
0010 1010 1100 0010
2 A C 2
Converting Hexadecimal to Binary
The conversion from hexadecimal to binary consists of writing off the binary
equivalent of each hexadecimal digit in groups of four.
e.g. hexadecimal 1901A0412C
0001 1001 0000 0001 1010 0000 0100 0001 0010 1100
Thus the required binary number can be written as :
1100100000001101000000100000100101100
The leading zeros have been omitted. This is because it has no particular
significance. It is an interesting fact that computer primary storage addressing is
usually expressed in hexadecimal notation.
4.2 Binary Arithmetic
4.2.1 Addition
Now let us see how we can do arithmetic in binary number system. We will first
consider addition in binary. The following rules of binary addition are to be
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remembered:
0+0 = 0
0+1=1=1+0
1 + 1 = 0 carry 1 to the next column to the left
1 + 1 + 1 = 1 carry 1 to the next column
 61

Consider the following example:

Carry: 11111
11011
+ 111
100010
4.2.2 Subtraction
There are a number of methods for performing subtraction, but we will consider
the complementary subtraction method. This is a more efficient method of
subtraction while using electronic circuits. We will be following three steps to
perform subtraction:
1. We have to find the complement of the number we are subtracting
2. To the complement of the number obtained in step 1, we add the number
we are subtracting from.
3. If there is a carry of 1, add the carry to the result of the addition else
re-complement the sum and attach a negative sign.
How do we find the complement of a binary number? All we have to do is invert
all the bits
e.g Number Complement
1000110 01110010
01110010 11010101
Consider the following example of subtraction:
Example 1
1010101-1001100
Step 1. Find the complement of 1001100
0110011
Step 2. Add the number you are subtracting from
1110111
1010101
+0110011
Step 3. 0001000

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+__________1 (Since there is a carry of 1)
0001001
Example 2
101100 - 11100101
Step 1.
Complement of 11100101 is 00011010
 62

Step 2.
Carry: 0111
00101100
+00011010
------------
01000110
Step 3. Since there is no carry we
a. re-complement the result
10111001
b. attach a negative sign
-10111001 - Result
4.2.3 Multiplication
Multiplication in binary follow the same rules that are followed in the decimal
system. The table to be remembered is:
0x0=0
0x1=0
1x0=0
1x1=1
For example,
10101 * 11001
10101
x 11001
10101
00000
00000
10101
10101
---------------
1000001101
4.2.4 Division
The complete table for binary division is:
0/1 = 0
1/1 = 1.
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The steps for binary division are:
1. Start from the left of the dividend
2. Perform subtraction in which the divisor is subtracted from the dividend
a) If subtraction is possible
put a 1 in the quotient and
 63

subtract the divisor from the corresponding digits of the

dividend
Else
put a 0 in the quotient
b) Bring down the next digit to the right of the remainder.
3. Execute step 2 till there are no more digits left to bring down from the dividend.
For example,
100001/110
Then,
0101 (Quotient)
(Divisor) 110 1100001 (Dividend)
110 --- Step 1
1000 --- Step 2b
110 --- Step 2a
100 --- Step 2b
110 --- Step 2a
1001 --- Step 2b
110 --- Step 2a
11 (Remainder)
4.3 Unit of Information
Most computers however do not represent characters as pure binary numbers.
They use a coded version of true binary to represent letters and special symbols as
well as decimal numbers.
In the English language there are 26 characters. If we take into consideration
the uppercase characters, lowercase characters and special symbols like *%+- etc,
the ten decimal digits and non-printable control characters like the Carriage return
etc. we have 128 characters. We would require 7 digits to uniquely represent all the
128 characters. Coding of characters has been standardised to enable transfer of
data between computers.
ASCII
The most popular and common standard is the American Standard Code for
Information Interchange (ASCII). ASCII uses 7 bits per character. With 7 bits it is
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possible to provide 128 (27) different arrangements.
Besides codes for character, codes are also defined to convey information such
as end of file, end of page etc., to the computer. These codes are called non-printable
control characters. The ASCII code is used to represent data internally in personal
computers.
 64

EBCDIC
Another code also exists called Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange
Code (EBCDIC). EBCDIC uses 8 bits per character. Thus 256 characters can be
represented using EBCDIC. The EBCDIC code is used in IDM mainframe models and
other similar machines.
Electronic Circuits are available to transform characters from ASCII to, EBCDIC
and vice-versa. We can also achieve the same results using a computer program.
Check your Progress
1. ASCII stands for _______________
2. We use the ______________ number system and the computer uses the
________________ number system
3. __________ code is used to represent numbers, letters and any other character
computer's and is made of ________________
4. A sequence of 8 bits is called a ________________
5. Hexadecimal numbers are represented with digits from 0 to ___________
6. Convert the following decimal numbers to the equivalent binary number
45
275
7. Convert the following binary number to the equivalent decimal' number
00111
10110
8. Perform the following addition
1110011+ 100111
1100111 + 111011
9. Convert the following hexadecimal number to binary number
FF
CD2
ABC
10. Convert the following binary numbers to the hexadecimal equivalent
11101000

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1100101110100001
11. How many characters can be represented by a
7-bit code
6- bit code
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4.4 Key words

Bits - Binary Digits
ASCII - American Standard Code for Information Interchange
EBCDIC - Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code
4.5 Summary
 The numbers can be represented by arranging symbols in various position
 Conversion from decimal and binary to other number system
 Methods of arithmetic operation in number system
 Coded version of binary to represent numbers.
4.6 Assignments
1. Definite Radix of a number system
2. How binary addition and subtraction taken place with example
3. Correct the following
(F3AC)16 to decimal equivalent
(1234)8 to binary equivalent
(456)10 to octal equivalent
(1010110101)2 to decimal equivalent
4. What is ASCII code, how it is used.
5. Explain Binary Arithmetic in data
6. Addition
7. Explain hexadecimal number with suitable example.
4.7 Reference
1. Introduction to computers by C- Xavier II Edition.
2. Computer fundamentals by B. Ram

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 66

UNIT-V

Operating System
Content
5.1 Functions of the Operating System
5.2 Classification of Operating Systems
5.2.1 Single user systems
5.2.2 Multi user systems
5.2.3 The graphical user interface systems (GUI)
5.2.4 Basic components of the GUI system
5.3 Introduction to Windows 95
5.3.1 Benefits of Windows 95
5.3.2 Features of Windows 95
5.4 Desktop and Desktop icons
5.4.1 Desktop
5.4.2 Desktop icons
5.4.3 My computer
5.4.4 What is a folder
5.4.5 My Briefcase
5.4.6 The Recycle Bin
5.5 Browsing with windows explorer
5.6 Managing windows explorer
5.7 Setting
5.8 Windows 95 versus windows 3.1
5.8.1 Working with windows 95
5.8.2 Working with a folder
5.8.3 Returning to DOS
5.8.4 Starting windows explorer
5.8.5 Create new documents

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5.8.6 Saving a document
5.8.7 Creating shortcuts
5. INTRODUCTION
In our daily lives, we hardly give a thought to the several conveniences around
us. We mail a letter; it reaches eventually. We use electricity and telecommunication
services without even thinking of huge organisations that are needed to support it.
Well, we do think about it occasionally when something goes wrong! But, think of
 67

what would happen if these 'silent' services did not exist! You would have to walk all
the way to your friend's house just to give him a letter.
Jokes aside, while using computers too, there is this 'silent' and 'hidden' service
that takes care of a lot of small but very important functions. This is what we will
talk about in this session.
The hardware consists of the Central Processing Unit, Input and Output devices
and Memory. These parts of the computer hardware cannot produce any results if
there is no interaction between them. Like any other machine, the computer system
also requires a force or an intermediate operator that can interact between the
hardware and the user.
A program is a task given to a computer. It contains step by step instructions to
perform a task. A simple example of a program is a stepwise procedure to find the
average of some numbers. An intermediate force is required which interprets these
instructions of the program to the hardware. The data and instructions have to be
read and executed to complete a task.
Software is a collection of programs that gives instructions to the hardware and
vice versa. It helps in user interaction with the hardware and provides different
facilities to the user to complete their tasks.
The system software is software that makes the central processing unit of the
computer coordinate with the other parts of the computer system. This is just like a
manager who is responsible for co-ordination between members of a team.
The operating system is one such type of system software. In the last session
we discussed about how information is processed from data. This is shown in
figure I.

Data Process Information

Figure 1
To understand how data is processed into information, let us consider yet
another example and look at the following figure to understand this complete
process.

Consider the addition of two numbers. The user enters the numbers (data) and
the instructions (the program) to add the numbers, through the keyboard. Let us
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call them Num l and Num2. The program reads each number from the input device
and stores it into the computer's memory. It adds these numbers and shows the
result on the output device. But, which part of the system accepts the numbers from
the keyboard, stores them in memory, processes them, stores the result, and finally
displays it on the monitor?
 68

5.0 Objective
 What is an operating system
 To understand what operating system does
 To understand the terms process, scheduling, memory and file
management
 To understand how a file in managed by operating system
 To know the feature of graphical windows operating system.
IT IS THE OPERATION SYSTEM:

Figure 2
Figure 2 shows the computer system. The operating system is loaded in the
memory when the computer is switched on. It resides in the memory of the
computer all the time the computer is working. Hence, it is able to interact with the
CPU. It provides the necessary instructions and data to the CPU by loading them
into the memory. These instructions are read by the CPU with the help :of the
operating system, which then processes data to get information. The operating
system displays this information to the user.
5.1 Functions of the Operating System:
All operating systems 'perform certain basic functions. These are listed as
follows:
 It loads itself in the memory.
The process of loading the operating system into the memory is known as
booting. Only if it is present in the memory can it allow the user to interact with the
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hardware:
 It loads the user program in the memory.
The user my have written some instructions to solve the problem of adding two
numbers. These stepwise instructions, called a program are loaded in some part of
the memory so that the CPU can access these instructions.
 69

 The data required by the program is also loaded in the memory.

The data is entered by the user through the input device (keyboard): The
operating system places this data in the memory. Each location in the memory
(RAM) has a specific address in the same way that each of the houses in a street has
a house number. The operating system identifies the data entered by the user as a
memory address. This memory address is a number. The operating system keeps a
track of these memory locations where data and programs have been stored.
For example, the user inputs the numbers 3 and 4. The operating system stores
the two numbers in some location of memory. To the user, the numbers Num! and
Num2 contain data 3 and 4 respectively. But to the operating system, the numbers
are some location in the memory say 6000 and 7000, which contain values of3cand
4.
Figure 3 shows the system layout after the programs and data are loaded in
memory. The dotted line shows the flow of data and program.

Figure 3
The user’s program in memory can be viewed as in Figure 4

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Figure 4
 70

 Interprets the program instructions one at a time.

 Gives instruction to display the result on the screen.
The operating system tells the CPU to read the memory location 8000 and
display the contents. The operating system manages the resources like memory,
input device, output device etc.
 Provides the means for the proper use of the resources like memory, input
and output devices, etc.
It stores the data at free locations in memory, uses input devices to obtain the
data and displays the result on the monitor.
 It acts as a manager of the various resources and allocates (gives) them to
various programs and users as and when required by them.
The example to add two numbers shows how the operating system assigns the
input device to read the input of the two numbers.
 The operating system software controls the computer hardware. It co-
ordinates the flow of data between the various application programs and the
users.
The CPU can read the numbers from the memory and store the result also in
the memory. The operating system helps the user to read the memory contents by
easy names like Num 1, Num2.
 The operating system software allows the user to interact with the
hardware to obtain results.

There may be many different users trying to solve different problems at

different levels. The operating system should accordingly be able to, provide
different system and application software to allow the user to complete their
jobs.

Thus, the primary goal of an operating system is the~ convenience of the user.
A secondary goal is the efficient operation of the computer system.
A simple way of defining the operating system is:
"An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the user
and the computer hardware and controls the execution of all kinds of programs ".
5.2 Classification of Operating Systems

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Many operating systems have been developed to simplify the manner in which
the user interacts with the computer. The computer system gives many benefits to
its user. Recently different kinds of user like a clerk, a designer, a student, a child, a
manager or an astronaut all love working on the computer. Different users around
the globe have now started working with the computers. It is only because of a
flexible and user-friendly operating system.
 71

5.2.1 Single User Systems

When the processor of a computer does only one job at a time, then it is called
a single user system. This means that at any point of time only one i.e. a single user
can get his work done on the computer. Systems allow only one user to work on the
machine at any instant. Such a system has a single CPU and just one set of I/O
devices. Since there is only one user at a time working on the system, only one job or
program is loaded in memory for execution. Hence, these systems are called single
user systems. The most popular example of such a operating system is the Microsoft
Disk Operating System or MS-DOS.
5.2.2 Multi-user Systems:
To understand the concept of a multi-user system, lets look at the figure, which
shows the process of addition of two numbers.
The figure shows one program in memory. This is a program written by the user
to add two numbers. If there are many users using such different programs, the
memory becomes a pool of programs. More than one program will reside in the
memory. This is because more than one user is working with the system and waiting
for the CPU to complete the execution of the program.

Figure 5
The memory, in case of more than one user loading one program each, can be
viewed as:

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Figure 6
 72

These users either use different data and application software/user programs
for their tasks or use similar data and application software. Operating systems that
allow the more than one user to work on the computer, each user performing a
different task, are called Multi-user Operating Systems.
5.2.3 The Graphical User Interface (GUI) Systems
If we look around us on the road, we can see pictorial signboards signifying
parking instructions or the presence of a speed breaker or a hospital or a school in
the vicinity. These' signboards adhere to certain standards, which are followed by all
the countries of the world. These standards are followed so that drivers of vehicles
do not face any problem in any country they happen to be in.
Software developers borrowed this idea and decided to use it to make the
operating system flexible, fast and user-friendly. It was mentioned in the session
earlier, that a system that caters to the needs of a large user base becomes popular.
To achieve this the operating system design was modified. It incorporated pictorial
representations for various components of the hardware as well as software. Some
components are files, directories, different software like WORD, EXCEL etc., input-
output devices. The pictorial representations are also called graphical
representations. The software, which incorporated these picture images of various
components, have been appreciated by all classes of users of the computer. These
interact with the users with the help of pictures rather than writing long character
based commands. This operating system is called as Graphical User Interface or GUI
systems.
Some GUI Operatin2 Systems
 Windows-95
 Windows-NT
 Open Server UNIX operating system
 OS/2
 Novell operating system (NOS) version 4.1
5.2.4 Basic Components of the GUI system
The working of the GUI environment is different as compared to the character
based operating system environment. Some components of the GUI environment are
described below.
Desktop: The area on the screen, which displays the various components of a
GUI.

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Windows: Every group under a GUI operating system has a number of icons.
These are enclosed in a frame called window. Every group has its own window.
Windows separate one group from the other. A program group can also be
represented by an icon. If more than one programs are active or opened, by a user,
the number of windows on the desktop (the area on screen which shows the display
of various components) will be equal to the number of programs active. The active
window is the one on which the user is currently working. These windows can be
 73

arranged on the desktop in the form of a cascade - (the manner in which we hold a
group of cards) or tile.
Many programs or groups open other windows in their own window. This is
called a child window. The actions, which the user usually performs on windows,
include moving them round the screen (desktop), switching between different
windows that are open. Windows can be maximised, which is the entire area on
screen or can be minimised in the form of an icon.
Menu Bar: There is a menu bar at the top of the display which shows the
various menu options. The menu and the menu bar are displayed on the desktop.
Desktop is the display screen, which accommodates all menu, menu bars, different
program groups and icons.
Menu: The most common way for the user to interact in the GUI environment is
to use menu options. Every GUI environment has at least one menu containing
options or commands. These options may sometimes contain further options
displayed as a pull down menu. Menus hold a list of commands that usually are
related in some way. These relation form groups.
Menu Options: The menu options are displayed as a list when the menu is
selected by the user. These options are commands or utilities that the system
provides. To execute a command, it has to be selected from the menu. The standard
way to refer to commands is by using the menu name, followed by the menu option.
The Gill environment has an additional input device that helps the user to interact.
This is the mouse. The GUI environment activates programs only when the mouse
button is clicked on an icon, menu or a menu option. Thus, the user is saved from
typing many characters for executing a command.
Ellipse: Some menu options are followed by an ellipse (...). An ellipse indicates
that the command displays a dialog box to make additional choices and complete
the data for the command execution.
Toggle: Some commands are preceded by a check mark as
 Save settings on exit
This means that a particular command is currently active or selected. The Save
settings on exit is a menu option already selected in the option menu on the
program manager group menu-bar. Check marks are on/off indicators. They are
called toggle options.
Dialog Boxes: They are the standard way to ten the program exactly how you
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want it to act. They are used to choose options for the commands. Choices in dialog
boxes can be made in many ways like list boxes, command buttons and check
boxes. An these elements are shown in the figure below.
List Box: If an item has many choices, it becomes difficult to show all these
options on the display. The list box contains more than one option which can be
traversed by the scroll bar.
 74

Text Box: If a choice is not provided amongst the pre-defined choices in list
boxes, option buttons etc. then the choice has to be entered. The place to insert
option is caned text box. It shows an insertion point to enter the text.
Radio Buttons: When only one item from the group (generally a dialog box) is
to be selected, then these options are in the f01m of radio buttons. The radio button
which is selected by default is enclosed in a dotted circle.
Control Menu: Every window opened in the environment has a control menu
which has menu options to maximise, minimise or size a window. In addition, it has
options to close the window.
5.3 Introduction to Windows 95
Windows 95 is more than just the next release of Windows. It is the Operating
System designed to take computing into the 21st century:
Windows 95 is arguably the most flexible and powerful operating system
designed for general purpose use on a PC. It is very complex. Despite its complexity,
it is one of the most thoroughly thought-out operating systems inexistence and is
logically consistent from one subsystem to the next.

Windows 95 has lot of new utilities which were not available in Windows 3.x
and are practically very useful. These utilities are:

 Briefcase
 The Microsoft Network (MSN)
 Local-area Networking
 Microsoft Exchange
 Microsoft Fax
 Sound Recorder
 Media Player
 CD Player
 Hyper Terminal
 Phone Dialer
 DriveSpace
 Dial-up networking
 Direct cable connection
What is Windows 95?
Windows 95 is undoubtedly the next generation of operating system specifically
designed to overcome several of the limitations imposed by its earlier incarnation:
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Windows 3;1. It also adds a substantial number of new features and provides a new
and improved user interface.
Perhaps the single most important characteristic of Windows 95 is that it is a
32-bit, Operating System. By moving to a 32-bit implementation, Windows 95 has
left behind many of the quirks and problems associated with the older, 16-bit
systems.
 75

A primary design goal of Windows 95 was compatibility with both Windows 3.1
and DOS. Windows 95 was designed to be compatible with the large base of existing
PC applications. Windows 95 can run four types .of programs; those written for
DOS, those written for Windows 3.1, those written for Windows NT, and those
written specifically for Windows 95. Windows 95 automatically creates the right
environment for the type of program you run. For example, when you execute a DOS
program, Windows 95 automatically creates a windowed command prompt in which
the program runs.
5.3.1 Benefits of Windows 95
1. More intuitive interface.
2. Better multitasking; you can print, format a disk, and download files with
your modern at the same time.
3. Better multimedia is guaranteed.
4. Plug-and Play technology means that you can buy new gadgets and gizmos,
plug them in, and use them-all without the conventional headaches of
installing new devices.
5. Windows 95 also support a new capability of long filenames.
5.3.2 Features of Windows 95
Windows 95 introduces a new user interface that makes using the personal
computer easier and more efficient for users, regardless of their expertise.

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Figure 7
 76

Figure 8

2. Easier to Set Up, Add and Remove Hardware

Plug and Play technology provides a logical and consistent way for devices to
identify themselves and for their setting to be configured on the computer. With plug
and play, Windows 95 makes it easier to set up new hardware and software.

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Figure 9
3. Greater System Reliability and Performance
The 32-bit architecture and superior resource handling in Windows 95 reduces
downtime and support calls by providing a more stable operating system
environment.
 77

4. New Tutorial And Help

Windows 95 includes new task-based Help and a tutorial that assists users
in performing and managing various procedures and tasks.

On-line Help
Windows 95 Help is designed to make it easier for users to get the information
they need to perform a specific task. Most procedures have moved out of
documentation and into on-line Help, where they are easier to access while you are
working.
5.4 Desktop and Desktop Icons
5.4.1 Desktop
The desktop makes it easy to start tasks and find connections to resources. The
Network Neighborhood icon provides a single location for viewing network servers
and making connections.
When you first get to the desktop, you see a big. Welcome to Windows 95
window. The desktop is the large blank area that acts like your regular tabletop or
desktop; its always there, and this is where you put whatever you are working on at
the moment.
5.4.2 Desktop Icons
You may see a few desktop icons displayed down on the desktop. You can
double-click on any one of those icons to open it into a window or right-click on any
icon to see what other options are available.

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Figure 10
 78

Start button
The Start button provides users with an obvious starting point for the functions
they perform on their computers every day - a more intuitive approach than Program
Manager. The Start button is the way that you will start most of the things you do in
Windows 95.
Important Desktop Icons:
Let us discuss about desktop icons on Windows 95. A pea-size object on your
computer is called an icon. Initially, you win see at least three icons on your
Windows 95 desktop:
1) My Computer,
2) My Briefcase
3) Recycle Bin.
5.4.3 My Computer
You can find data that is stored in the computer in three main ways: you can
use 'My Computer' or Windows Explorer to browse around to see what's available, or
(if you happen to know the exact name of the 'file or folder you want) you can use
the Find command on the Start menu to go right to that folder or file.
My computer is a tool that lets you to browse all the disks that are physically
attached to your computer.
Organisation of Data
In Windows 95, all the objects that you can bring to the desktop are stored on a
computer disk.
5.4.4 What if a Folder?
A folder is similar to a directory (Cabinet), which can contain program and data
files and it may also contain another directory.
Many folders are created automatically when you install new programs. If you
were to double-clink on the icon for drive C, a new window would open, showing the
names of the folders (and files, if any) on that drive.

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Figure 11
The basic concept of a folder is' that it can contain many files and also other
folders.
 79

5.4.5 My Briefcase

Portable PCs are used like a virtual briefcase, many a' times. Most of the time we
work on the desktop Pc. However, to take your work on the road, you copy the appropriate
files from the desktop PC to your laptop. For a while, you edit those files on your portable
Pc. When you get back to the office, you copy the updated files from the portable PC back to
the desktop PC.
The one problem is that things can get confusing. After a while, you may lose
track of which PC - the desktop or the laptop - contains the latest version of a file.
Before long, you are comparing dates and times of files, trying to keep track of which
file to copy where and when. Fortunately, the Windows 95 'My Briefcase' utility helps
reduce the confusion and simplify the entire process. 'My Briefcase' keeps tracks of
the dates and times of multiple copies of a file and tells you which files need to be
copied and where. In fact, 'My Briefcase' even copies the files for you.
Before you use 'My Briefcase', you need to have the 'My Briefcase' icon in
Windows 95 desktop. 'My Briefcase' relies entirely on your computer's internal
calendar and' clock to determine which version of a document is the most current
version, so make sure that your clocks are coordinated.
5.4.6 The Recycle Bin
When you delete files from your local hard disk (i.e. drive. C), the files are
moved to a space called the Recycle Bin. Although they are invisible from outside
the Recycle Bin, Those files still occupy as much disk space as they did before you
delete them. The space won't become available until you empty the Recycle Bin.
Also be aware that the Recycle Bin keeps track of only the files that you delete
from your local hard disk files that you delete from removable media, including
floppy disks and network drives, are not sent to the Recycle Bin and therefore,
cannot be undeleted.
Deleting stuff from a hard disk is always a bit of a risk, because undeleting
something is not always easy - in fact, it's often impossible to undelete. So observe
the following cautions:
Recovering Files/Folders from the Recycle Bin
If you move folders and/or files to the Recycle Bin, and then change your mind
and decide to bring them back, you can restore them:
Ready Reference of Terms Used
File: A file is a collection of related information, like the contents of an office file
folder. A disk may also contain files made in different applications, Files may be of
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different types like a simple text fi1e, a program file or a system file.
Filename: Just as a file folder has a label for its identification, files also have
names for their identification.
Usually filenames are made up of two parts, a name and an extension. For
example, a text file could be called SALARY. TXT. Here, SALARY is the name of the
file and TXT is the extension. The extension usually specifies the nature of the file.
 80

The filename can be fairly long or short, depending on your operating system. But
the extension is usually only three characters long. The secondary name may also be
optional, hence can be avoided altogether.
Earlier operating systems had restrictions on the length of the filenames, but
the newer ones have done away with them. Like in Windows 95 you may have a file
name that can be upto 259 characters long!
Directory: A directory on a disk is like a catalogue of books in a bookstore. It
contains the entries of all files and sub-directories in it. Information like name of the
file, its size in bytes, the last date and time when the file was created or modified,
are also stored as its contents.
Disk Drive: To use the files or programs that are stored on a storage media, the
CPU box has a slot to insert a disk or any other storage media. These are used to
read and write data onto a storage device with the help of the operating system
software. Most commonly used are the floppy drives. They are called drives because
they' drive' the disks in it.
Command: A command is an instruction given to the computer. A computer
performs only those tasks whose commands are properly given by the user. A
command is nothing but a shortcut of invoking an entire set of programs
(application software) that performs a particular job.
Device: It simply means an instrument or a tool. An input device is an
instrument, which allows input. Output device is an instrument that provides
output.
Data is entered and information is retrieved from the hardware. Devices are the
pieces of hardware that allow user to enter data, process it, store and display
information. Keyboard, monitor, mouse and disk drives are some of the devices
attached to a computer.
Program: It is the software containing a series of instructions that tells the
computer what task to perform and in what manner. It is an independent set of
instructions.
Application: A classification of programs whose members are designed to
accomplish a single task or group of related tasks. Example: Word Processors and
Spreadsheets.
Resource: Any component of a system that contributes to its functioning, is its
resource. The computer resources are the operating system software input device,
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output device, the CPU, memory etc.
5.5 Browsing with Windows Explorer
Like My Computer, Windows Explorer is a tool for browsing around on your
hard disk (or on any disk, for that matter) to see what's available. Explorer doesn't
use the one-window-at-a-time technique. Instead, Explorer presents your drives,
folders, and files in a single window, and you navigate within that window.
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Windows 95 provides an exclusive program called 'Windows Explorer' to tackle

all file handling tasks. Explorer takes care of routine file handling tasks as well as
networking and other more complex jobs. The common-days to day tasks handled by
Windows. Explorer are:
 Copying of files
 Deleting files
 Renaming files
 Creating sub-folders
 Moving folders
 Searching for files
 Listing files in the desired order
 Changing file attributes
 Running programs and opening text documents
The Explorer eliminates the need to remember complicated DOS commands. All
the commands are available at the 'click' of the mouse, easily through drop-down
menus.

Figure 12

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5.6 Managing Windows Explorer
The term managing includes copying, moving, deleting and renaming folders
and files. Drag-and-drop is the most convenient way to copy, move and delete files.
Understanding Programs and Documents
A Document refers to something that you create, and save, by using a program.
For example, you may use your word processing program to create a text document
of a spreadsheet program to create a spreadsheet document.
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By Program, generally mean that you buy to run on your computer - for
example, a word processing, or a graphics program. Programs are also called
applications. Small programs like accessories that come with Windows are
sometimes called applets.
By opening or launching a program, means bringing it from the disk into
memory, so that you can use it. This is also called invoking the program for
execution.
5.7 Settings
Settings option in the Start menu will in turn have three sub-options as shown
in figure 13.

Figure 13
Control Panel
With the help of Control Panel, you will be able to accomplish the following
tasks:
 Change the display of your desktop.
 Change the background of the desktop
 Change the way items on the desktop look
 Change the size of the fonts of your computer displays
 Set up a screen saver

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Adjust the rate at which your cursor blinks
 Adding or Removing Fonts
 Adding a font to your computer
 Deleting a font from your computer
 Viewing a font on your computer
 Finding a similar font
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 Changing Keyboard Settings

 Change the way your keyboard responds
 Change the keyboard layout for an installed language
 Changing mouse settings
 Reversing your mouse buttons
 Adjusting the Double-click speed for your mouse
 Adjusting the speed of the mouse pointer
 Changing Multimedia Settings
 Assigning sounds to the programming events
 Adjusting the volume for multimedia devices
 Setting up MIDI instrument
 Setting up Windows for multiple users
 Enabling multiple, users to personalize settings
 Logging off your computer so others can use it
 Setting up Hardware
 Setting up a Printer
 Setting up a modem
 Setting up other hardware
Help
One of the most characteristic features of Windows 95 is the instant and
constant context sensitive help that is available. Here we shall look at the following
options:
Instant Help
You can use any of the following techniques to get brief but immediate help
with just about anything that you see on your screen at the moment:
 To get help with a command button, point to it. A ToolTip usually appears (See
figure 14).

Figure 14
5.8 Windows 95 Versus Windows 3.1
While Windows 95 is the next step in the Windows product line, which began

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with the original release of Windows in 1985, it represents a major step forward in
operating system design. The good news is that if-you are familiar with Windows 3.1,
you will have no trouble learning to use or program Windows 95. From the user's
point of view, Windows 95 adds an improved interface and has moved toward a
document - centered organization. Specifically, such fundamental items as the
Program Manager, and the File Manager have been replaced with the Start menu
and the Explorer.
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From the programmer's point of view, the more important good news is that you
program for Windows 95 in much the same way that you did for Windows 3.1. Old
Windows 3.1 programs can run fine under Windows 95, so you won't have to port all
of your applications at once.
Differences for the User
From the User's point of view, Windows 95 differs from Windows 3.1 in four
major ways:
 The desktop interface has changed.
 The style of the window has been altered.
 New control elements are available to applications.
 NOS is not required to run it.
As mentioned, the Program Manager found in Windows 3.1 has been replaced
by the Start menu. Furthermore, the desktop now contains a Task Bar. The Task
Bar displays a list of all active tasks in the system and allows you to switch to a task
by clicking on it. Most users will find the Start menu and Task Bar significant
improvements over the Program Manager.
The appearance of windows under Windows 95 has been redesigned. To most
users, the new look will seem more stylish and "snappy". One of the criticisms of
Windows 3.1 was its rather "clunky" look. The look of Windows 95 has been updated
for the better.
When you use Windows 95 applications, you will notice that several new control
elements will appear quite frequently. Some of theses are the toolbar, the spin
control, the tree, view, and the status bar. Using the new controls gives your
application the modern look that will clearly identify it as a Windows 95 program.
As noted, Windows 95 does not require DOS. You probably know that Windows
3.1 was not a stand-alone operating system, but ran on top DOS, which provided
support for the file system. Windows 95 is a complete operating system, and DOS is
no longer needed. However, Windows 95 still provides support for DOS programs. (In
fact some DOS programs run better under Windows 95 than they do under DOS)
Also, using Windows 95, you can have multiple "DOS" sessions.
Another new feature of Windows 95 is its support for long filenames. As you
probably mow, DOS and Windows 3.1 only allowed eight-character filenames
followed by a three-character extension. Windows 95 allows filenames as long as 255
characters.
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Windows 95 includes a number of accessories and administrative tools not
supported by Windows 3;1. For example, Windows 95 supports portable computing,
e-mail, pen-based computing, and remote computing. It also supports ''plug and
play" a feature that allows the easy installation of new hardware components.
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Windows 95 v/s Windows for Workgroups?

Windows for Workgroups (version 3.11) was a successor to Windows version
3.1, the major difference between 3.11 and 3.1 being that 3.11 offers built-in net
working. Versions 3.1 and 3.11 require DOS and are older 16-bit operating systems.
(see Appendix A to know more about 16-bit and 32-bit Operating systems) Windows
95 is a 32-bit operating system and does not require DOS. Windows 95 offers the
same built-in Windows networking that Windows for Workgroups network now.
Windows 95 v/s Windows NT?
Windows NT is geared toward high-end workstations that have a great deal of
RAM (at least 16 MB) and disk space (200 MB just for the operating system). The
product works with high-end processors, such as those in the DEC Alpha and MIPS
machines. NT also offers symmetric multiprocessing, which means that if your PC
has several processors, NT uses all of them at the same time.
Windows 95 is the operating system of choice for modem desktop and portable
PCs. The product runs only on PCs that support 386, 486 and Pentium -
microprocessors. The hardware requirements of Windows 95 are much more modest;
about 4MB of RAM (although 8MB is recommended) and about 40MB of extra hard
disk space (for the operating system) will do the trick.
What About the Local Area Network?
Windows 95 is compatible with most existing LAN software, including Windows
networks and Novell networks. If your PC is connected to a LAN, you should leave it
connected to the LAN when you install Windows 95. That way Windows 95 can
detect your LAN hardware and software, and adjust to it automatically. You will still
be on LAN after complete Installing Windows 95.
Check your Progress
1. GUI stands for _________________________
2. List the functions of an Operating System in brief.
3. In Windows 95 the help available is ____________________
4. ____________________ is the area on the computer that you work on.
5. An _________ is a pictorial representation of a command, in Windows 95.
6. A __________ is a set of step by step instructions to perform a task.
7. The ______________ helps the central processing unit co-ordinate with the
other parts of the computer system like a manager.
8. ___________ are software programs that allow easy interaction of user with

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the hardware.
9. What is the function of the utility 'My Briefcase'?
10. Most of the programs available on Windows 95 can be activated using the
_________ button on the task bar.
11. The three tiny buttons on the right hand comer of the screen, in an open
program can be used for ___________ ___________ and ___________a window.
12. How can the DOS prompt be activated in Windows 95?
 86

13. _________________ is a tool for browsing through the contents of the hard
disk.
14. The __________ option found in the Windows ExplOf0r menu can be used for
searching a file.
15. Shortcuts are _____________ (complete the sentence.)
16. What is the function of the 'Shutdown' option?
17. List the differences between Windows 95 and Windows 3.1
5.8.1 Working with Windows 95
Desktop
The desktop makes it easy to start tasks and find connections to resources. The
Network Neighborhood icon provides a single location for viewing network servers
and making connections - just point and click to connect to the server you want.
When you first get to the desktop, you see a big Welcome to Windows 95
window. The desktop is the large blank area that acts like your regular tabletop or
desktop; its always there, and this is I where you put whatever you are working on
at the moment.
Note: You have to right-click the mouse button on the desktop to display a
shortcut menu of commands for rearranging and customizing the desktop.
Desktop Icons
You may see a few desktop icons displayed down on the desktop. You can
double-click on any one of those icons to open it into a window or right-click on any
icon to see what other options are available. After you open an icon into a window,
you can click on the

in the upper-right comer of that window to close the window. The desktop icon for
that window remains on the desktop.

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Figure 1
 87

Start button
By clicking this button, novice users have access to nearly everything they
need-from starting programs and documents to changing computer settings and
getting Help. The Start button provides users with an obvious starting point for the
functions they perform on their computers every day - a more intuitive approach
than Program Manager does.
The Start button is the way that you will start most of the things you do in
Windows 95. You can click on the start button to display the Start menu; then you
can point to any option that has a right-pointing triangle next to it to see a
submenu. If the option does not have the right-pointing triangle next to it, then you
have to click (once) on the option to select it.
Taskbar
Although it appears empty in Figure 1, the taskbar eventually will contain a
button and icon for every open window on your desktop. If you want to get to a
window that's currently not visible on the desktop (because it's minimized or covered
by other windows), you can click on the appropriate button in the taskbar. You can
right-click on the taskbar to customize it, and you can drag the taskbar to any edge
of the screen.
Indicators
On the taskbar display the current time and indicators that will change
periodically. Depending on what you are doing, at the moment: You can double-click
on the current-time display to change the date and Time.
Important Desktop Icons
Let us discuss about desktop icons on Windows 95. A pea-size object on your
computer is called an icon. Initially, you will see at least three icons on your
Windows 95 desktop:
1) My Computer,
2) My Briefcase
3) Recycle Bin.
My Computer
You can find data that is stored in the computer in three main ways: you can
use 'My Computer' or Windows Explorer to browse around to see what's available, or
(if you happen to know the. exact name of the file or folder you want) you can use
the Find command on the Start menu to go right to that folder or file.

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My computer is a tool that lets you to browse all the disks that are physically
attached to your computer. To start 'My Computer', double-click on its icon, which
opens into a window.
Working with 'My Computer' is easy. -To start 'My Computer', double-click on
its icon. Then you can do any of the following things:
 To see what’s on the disk in a particular drive, double-click on that drive’s icon.
 To see what is in a folder, double-click on that folder
 88

 To see what’s in a file, double-click on that file’ icon

 To close anything that you have opened, click the Close button in the upper-
right corner of the window that you want to close.

Figure 2
Changing Your View in My Computer
When you first open a window in ‘My Computer’, the contents usually are
displayed in large Icons view. You can decide for yourself how you want the
contents to be displayed. Your choices-Large Icons, Small Icons, List, and Details-
are depicted in Figure 3 and 4 Notice that the mouse pointer in each example is
pointing to the button that clicked on to select that particular view. To choose a
view, click on View in the Window’s menu bar and then choose Large Icons, Small
Icons, List, or Details as appropriate. Alternatively, click on the appropriate button
in the toolbar.

Figure 3

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Figure 4
 89

Likewise, you can try List and Details options

Arranging My Computer Contents
In addition to deciding the size of the icons in a 'My Computer' window, you can
choose the older in which you want to see those items.
To change the order, follow these steps:
1. Choose View Arrange Icons.
2. Click on one of the following options:
 By Name: presents folders and files in alphabetical order by name (the usual
method).
 By Type: organizes the folders by type.
 By Size: organizes everything by size (smallest to largest).
 By Date: organizes files by date last modified, with most recently modified
files listed first
5.8.2 Working with a Folder:
Many folders are created automatically when you install new programs. If you
double-click on the icon for drive C, a new window will open, showing us the names
of the folders (and files, if any) on that drive. One thing that makes a folder different
from a drive or a file is that a folder can contain other folders: For example, I could
have a folder named 'Tom'. Within that folder, I could have other folders: My
Documents, which contains written documents; My Pictures, which contains photos
and drawings, and so on.

Figure 5
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The basic concept of a folder is that it can contain many files and also other
folders.
My Briefcase
The one problem is that things can get confusing. After a while, you may lose
track of which PC - the desktop or the laptop contains the latest version of a file.
Before long, you are comparing dates and times of files, trying to keep track of which
 90

file to copy where and when. Fortunately, the Windows 95 'My Briefcase' utility helps
to reduce the confusion and simplify the entire process. 'My Briefcase' keeps tracks
of the dates and times of multiple copies of a file and tells you which files need to be
copied and whore. In fact, 'My Briefcase', even copies the files for you.
Before you use 'My Briefcase', you-need to have the 'My Briefcase' icon In
Windows 95 desktop. 'My Briefcase' relies entirely on your computer's internal
calendar and 'clock to determine which version of a document is the most content
version, so make sure that your clocks are coordinated.
The general idea behind using 'My Briefcase' is simple, as the following list
explains:
 When you want to take work on the road, you simply drag that work into 'My
Briefcase'.
 To use a 'My Briefcase' document on the road, open the 'My Briefcase' and
double-click on the document name. Then perform your work, close and save the
document normally.
 When you get back to the office, unpack the Briefcase by opening 'My Briefcase'
and choosing Briefcase  Update All.
Using 'My Briefcase' is simple if your portable and desktop PC'S are connected
with a cable or LAN cards. The procedure gets a bit more complicated if the
machines aren't connected, because you have to use a floppy disk to move files from
one PC to the other.
 If the portable and desktop PC'S are physically connected via a. LAN, direct-cable
connection, or dial-up networking, skip to "Using Briefcase Without Floppies"
now.
 If the portable and desktop PC's are not physically connected by a cable, you
need to us a floppy disk to transport the My Briefcase icon between the desktop
and portable PC's. Skip to Using Briefcase with Floppies" now.
Using Briefcase without Floppies
If the desktop and portable PC's are connected via a LAN or some other cable
connection, you can use Briefcase without fumbling with floppies. When you are just
about ready to hit the road, all you have to do is pack your Briefcase.
Follow these steps:
1. On the portable computer, use Network Neighborhood, 'My Computer',
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Explorer, or Find to locate any document that you want to put into Briefcase.
2. If you want to put several documents into Briefcase, select them by Ctrl +
click and/or Shift + click.
3. Drag the documents to the My Briefcase Icon.
Alternatively, right-click on the selected documents, choose Send To, and then
choose My Briefcase.
 91

When yon are On the Road

 Double-click on the My Briefcase Icon on the desktop and then double-click on
the document you want to work with.
 If you are already in a program, choose File Open to display the Open dialog
box. In the Look in drop-down list, select My Briefcase. Then double-click on the
name of the file that you want to open.
Now you can go about your business normally. When you finish, close the
document and exit the program normally. The edited copy of your document is
stored in Briefcase automatically.
When Yon Return From the Trip
1. Reconnect the portable PC to the docking, station, LAN, or cable that hooks it
to the desktop PC. If your laptop supports hot docking, My Briefcase may
launch automatically as soon as you reconnect to the docking station.
2. Start Windows 95, and double-click on the 'My Briefcase' icon.
3. Choose Briefcase  Update All.
4. To update, click on the Update button:
Using Briefcase with Floppies
You can use Briefcase even if the portable and desktop computers are not
connected by any sort of cable. The down side to this approach is the fact that you
have to use a floppy disk as your virtual briefcase, which means that your storage is
limited to IAMB. If you work mainly with word processing and spreadsheet
documents, however, that limit may be quite roomy.
Creating a "My Briefcase" Floppy Disk
1. Grab a blank floppy disk, and label it 'My Briefcase'.
2. Go to portable PC, which has the 'My Briefcase' icon on its screen, and put the
floppy disk in drive A.
3. Open 'My Computer' so that you can see the icon for drive A.
4. Drag the Briefcase icon to the icon for drive A.
Putting 'My Briefcase' on the Desktop PC
1. Take the floppy disk labeled 'My Briefcase' to the desktop PC.
2. Put the floppy disk in drive A.

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3. Double-click on the icon for drive A.
4. Drag the My Briefcase icon from drive A to the Windows 95 desktop.
The Recycle Bin
When you delete files from your local bard disk (i.e. drive C), the files are moved
to a space called the Recycle Bin. A1thougb they are invisible from outside the
Recycle Bin, Those files still occupy as much disk space as they did before you delete
them. The space won't become available until you empty the Recycle Bin.
 92

Also be aware that the Recycle Bin keeps track of only the files that you delete
from your local hard disk. Files that you delete from removable media, including
floppy disks and network drives, are not sent to the Recycle Bin and the therefore,
cannot be undeleted.
Deleting stuff from a bard disk is always a bit of a risk, because undeleting
something is not always easy - in fact it's often impossible to undelete. So observe
the following cautions:
 Make sure that you look carefully at the files you arc about to delete, and never
delete a file unless you are sure that you know what you are deleting.
 When you are deleting a folder, be aware that you are deleting everything in that
folder, including all sub-folders.
Recovering Files/Folders from the Recycle Bin
If you move folders and/or files to the Recycle Bin, and then change your mind
and decide to bring them back, you can restore them:
1. Double-click on the Recycle Bin icon on the desktop to view its contents.
2. Select the items that you want to bring back to the desktop using Ctrl + click.
3. Choose File + Restore or drag and drop the selected items in a folder.
Starting Programs
The first thing that most people want to do when they start using a computer,
is launch an application program. An example is demonstrated below:
Click on the Start button and then point to Programs. A menu of program
groups and icons appears, as shown in Figure 6 below.

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Figure 6
Notice if you have installed Windows 95 over an earlier version of Windows, just
about every option in that menu actually is a program group from old Program
Manager.
 93

To start a program, click on its icon or point to its folder.

For example, suppose you have Microsoft Office (which includes Microsoft
Word) on your PC. To start Microsoft Word you would point to (or click) the
Microsoft Office folder and then click on the Microsoft Word icon, as shown in
Figure 6.
If a right-pointing triangle appears next to a menu item, you really don’t have to
click on that item to see what’s next; all you have to do is point to it. If an option
doesn’t have that little triangle next to it, pointing to the item does nothing, and you
have to click on the item to open it.

Figure 7
Closing Programs
When you want to close a program, you can use any of these three techniques:
 Click on the Close button (X) in the Upper-right corner of the window that you

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want to close.
 Double-click on the icon in the Upper-right corner of the window that you want
to close.
 Click on File in the program’s menu bar and then click on Exit.
Your options are illustrated in Figure 3, which uses Microsoft Word as the
example program.
 94

Figure 8
5.8.3 Returning to DOS
If you are an ex-DOS user, you may feel a little anxious about being in this new
environment. Not to fear though, because you can easily get to the Windows 95
command-line mode, which, for all purposes, is same as DOS. Follow these steps as
shown below:
1. Click on the Start button and then point to Programs to display the programs
menu.
2. Click on the MS-DOS prompt icon (near the bottom of the menu)
You go to a DOS-like screen, as shown in Figure 9. You can enter any DOS
command with which you are familiar and then press Enter, just as you do in “real”
DOS.

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Figure 9
 95

Returning to DOS
The little DOS window is pretty much like any other window. If you nm a
program with in DOS window, however, you typically have to exit that program
before you can close the DOS window. Instructions on the screen will tell you if this
is the case, other than that, to close the DOS window, you can do any of the
following things:
 Click on the Close (X) button in the upper-right corner of the DOS window.
 Double-click on the icon in upper-left corner of the DOS window.
 Type exit and press Enter at the C:\ prompt
Browsing with Windows Explorer
Windows 95 provides an exclusive program called 'Window Explorer' to tackle
all file handling tasks. Explorer takes care of routine file handling tasks as well as
networking and other more complex jobs. The common day to day tasks handled by
Windows Explorer are:
 Copying of files
 Deleting files
 Renaming files
 Creating sub-folders
 Moving folders
 Searching for files
 Listing files in the desired order
 Changing file attributes
 Running programs and opening text documents
The Explorer eliminates the need to remember complicated DOS commands. All
the commands are available at the 'click' of the mouse, easily through drop-down
menus.
Note: Windows Explorer is virtually identical to the File Manager in Windows 3.x.
The Explore Window is shown in Figure 10.

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Figure 10
 96

Starting Windows Explorer

To start Windows Explorer:
1. Activate Windows 95
2. Click on Start
3. Click on Programs
4. Click on Windows Explorer
The Exploring window opens and a button for Exploring is displayed on the
Taskbar. Following is the screen that appears on the monitor:

Figure 11
Contents of Windows Explorer
All the folders are displayed in the All Folders pane and the files are displayed
in the Contents Pane. By pressing the Tab key or the F6 key you can switch
between the left and right panes. If your PC is connected to a network, the Network
Neighborhood folder is displayed in the tree.
The contents in the All Folders pane are
Desktop
My computer
3½ Floppy (A:)

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Hard drive (C:) and/or (D:)
Control Panel
Printers
Recycle Bin
To view the contents, click on the folder. An hourglass is displayed and in a
moment, the contents are displayed in the Contents pane.
 97

Creating a Folder
Creating a folder is not a big hassle at all. A folder can be created with
whichever browser tool i.e. My Computer or Windows Explorer. Windows 95 folders
can have long file names. It allows spaces, etc. to be used for folder names. We will
see how to create a new folder with Windows Explorer.
The following steps have to be carried out to create a new folder with Windows
Explorer:
1. click on the icon for the C drive, if you want the new folder to appear at the first
level of drive C. If you want to create a folder within a folder, click on the folder
that will contain the new folder.
2. If the folder has to be created on some other drive other than the one displayed
in the Go to a different folder tool in the toolbar, use the drop-down list in that
tool to navigate to the appropriate drive i.e. A or C
3. In the left column, click one level above where the new folder has to be created.
4. Choose File  New  Folder
A new folder titled New Folder appears at the bottom of the list in the right-
hand pane, as shown in the figure below.

Figure 12
5. Type a name for the new folder.
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6. To save the folder with its new name press Enter or click on some other folder or
file icon.
To close a folder, click on the Close (X) button in its window.
Managing Windows Explorer
The term managing includes copying, moving, deleting and renaming folders
and files. Drag-and-drop is the most convenient way to copy, move and delete files.
 98

Changing the View of the Contents in Windows Explorer

To change the view of the contents in windows explorer, the following steps
have to be followed:
Click on the View  Details.
The following details are listed in the Details submenu:
Listing Objects
Choose view from the toolbar or from the View menu to view either Large icons,
Small Icons, List, or Details.
If the files have something in common, choose an option to group in the
following way:
 Choose by Name to list the items by name in alphabetical order.
 Choose by Type if the items are of a similar type: Files that have the same
extension will be grouped in the list.
 Choose by Size if the items that have to be selected are of the same size.
 Choose by Date, if the items to be selected were created or modified on a
particular date. Files with similar dates will be grouped in the list.
Choose View  Details to see the name, size, type and date modified for every
file. The files can be sorted by anyone of these columns simply by clicking the
column heading.

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Selecting Items to Move, Copy or Delete
When the items are listed, select the specific items that are to be moved, copied
or deleted. The items can be selected in the following way:
 To select one item, click on it. Any previously selected items are unselected.
 99

 To add another item to a selection, Ctrl + click on it (hold down the Ctrl key
while you click).
 To extend the selection to another item, Shift and click On where you want
to extend the selection.
 To create another extended selection without disturbing existing selections,
Ctrl + click on the first item in the range and then Ctrl + Shift + click on
the last item in the range.
 To select all the items in the window, choose Edit  Select All or press
Ctrl + A.
 To unselect a selected item without disturbing the current selections, Ctrl +
click on the item that you want to deselect.
 To invert the current selection (unselect all the selected files and select all
the unselected ones), choose Edit  Invert Selection.

Figure 14
Another way to select multiple items is to drag a frame around them. Move the
mouse pointer to just outside the first item that has to be selected. Then hold down
the mouse button and drag a frame around all of the items that have to be selected.
The items will be selected as you drag and will remain selected after you release the

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mouse button.
Moving or Copying Selected Items
To move or copy selected items, point to one of them, hold down the right
mouse button, and drag the mouse pointer to the destination's icon. When the
mouse pointer is touching that icon, release the right mouse button. Then choose
Move Here or Copy Here.
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The regular mouse button can also .be used to drag the selected file. When the
mouse button is released, the files will either be copied or moved, depending on
where the destination is in relation to the source, as given in the list below:
 If the selection is dragged to a different folder on the same disk, the selected
items are copied to that location.
 If the selection is dragged to a different disk drive, the selected items are
copied to that location.
Make a Copy in the Same Folder .
If a copy of the file has to be made within the current folder, click on the file
that has to be copied.
 Choose Edit  Copy, press Ctrl + C, or click on the Copy button in the
toolbar.
 Then choose Edit Paste, press Ctrl + V, or click on the Paste button in the
toolbar.

Figure 15
The new icons are added to the bottom of the list. Choose View  Refresh or
View  Arrange Icons  by Name, the files are updated or listed in the alphabetical
order.

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Undoing a Move or Copy
A move or copy operation can be undone as long no more moving or copying is
done. To undo a move or copy, choose Edit  Undo Copy or Edit  Undo Move.
Alternatively, right-click on the desktop and choose Undo Copy or Undo Move from
the menu.
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Deleting Selected Items

Deleting items from a hard disk is risky, because undeleting is often impossible.
Therefore, the following points have to be taken into consideration before deleting.
 The files that to be deleted are to be looked at carefully. Be sure of the files
that are getting deleted.
 If deleting a folder, all subfolders also get deleted.
 Files on floppy disks and network drives are permanently deleted, they can't
be undeleted since they are not sent to the Recycle Bin.
 If the message 'Are you sure you want to delete…..?'appears, the files are
going to be deleted immediately. i.e. the item is not sent to the Recycle Bin,
and hence cannot be recollected.
 When an icon is deleted, everything on the disk that the icon represents are
also deleted.
Only when you are sure that the selected items have to be deleted, do any of the
following:
 Press the Delete key.
 Choose file q Delete.
 Drag the items to the Recycle Bin.
 To delete a single item quickly, right-click on it and then choose Delete, or
click on it and press the Delete key.
Renaming a File or Folder
When an icon is renamed, not only the name that appears below the icon is
changed but also the name of the file on the disk is changed. To rename an icon and
its file, follow these steps:
1. Select the icon that has to be renamed. The icon can be selected in any of the
following ways
 Right-click on the icon that has to be renamed and choose Rename.
 Click on the icon that has to be renamed and choose File  Rename.
 Click on the icon to select it, then click on the text that has to be changed.
2. The text is selected, with the insertion point blinking, indicating that Windows is
ready to accept the changes.

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3. Make the necessary changes.
4. To save the changes, click on the area just outside the current icon, or click on a
different icon within the same window, before closing the current window.
Launching Programs and Documents
Opening programs and documents are two of those little tasks that you are
likely to do dozens of times a day, so Windows 95 offers many different ways to do
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them. Choosing which method you want to use is simply a matter of deciding what's
most convenient at the moment.
Understanding Programs and Documents
A Document refers to something that you create, and save, by using a program.
For example, you may use your word processing program to create a text document
or a spreadsheet program to create a spreadsheet document.
By Program, generally mean that you buy to run on your computer - for
example, a word processing, or a graphics program. Programs are also called
applications. Small programs like accessories that come with Windows are
sometimes called applets.
By opening or launching a program, means bringing it from the disk into
memory, so that you can use it. This is also called invoking the program for
execution.
Opening Documents
A great new feature of Windows 95 enables you to skip the step of opening the
program first. Instead, you just double-click on the document's icon; Windows 95
automatically invokes the appropriate program required to work on the document.
Open a Document from the Document Menu
If the desktop shows an icon for the document that you want to open, just
double-click on the icon. If no document appears on the desktop, to get the
Document menu, click on the Start button and then point to documents, as shown
figure 11. If you see the name of the document that you want to open, click on that
name. The appropriate program will launch and then automatically load the
document you want to work on.

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Figure 16
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5.8.5 Create New Documents

Create a new document was to start the program that you needed to create that
document and then either start typing or choosing File  New to start a new piece of
work.
Launching Programs
Not all programs involve documents. Games and Multimedia titles are just a
couple of examples of programs that usually don't allow you to create and edit
documents.
1. Click on the Start button.
If you see an icon for the program that you want to start, click on that icon
instead, and skip the remaining steps.
2. Point to (or click) Programs.
3. If you see the program's icon click on it.
Figure 17 shows an example in which the Paint program for painting or drawing
a diagram. To get to that icon, the Start button had to be clicked followed by
choosing Program Accessories  Paint.

Figure 17

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Launching a Program without the Start Menu
If, when you go through the start menu, you can't find an icon for the program
that you want to start, you can use any of the following techniques to start the
program:
 Use My Computer, Windows Explorer, or Find to locate the program's icon; then
double click on that icon.
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 Click on the Start button and choose Run; then type the command needed to
start the program. You can include the DOS path. For example, type
c:\wp51\wp to launch WordPerfect 5.1 for DOS, assuming that the program is
in the WP51 folder.

Figure 18
Example: Create a Document with some text and numerical value using the utilities
WordPad and Calculator. Follow the steps given below:
Starting a Program
Procedure 1
1. Click on the Start button (as shown in the figure 16).
The Start menu is displayed.
2. Move the mouse pointer to Programs.
Programs highlights and a cascade menu is displayed.
3. Move mouse pointer to Accessories.
Accessories highlights and a cascade menu displays.
4. Move mouse pointer to WordPad.
The WordPad item highlights.
5. Click on WordPad.
The mouse pointer changes to an hourglass and, in a moment, WordPad starts,
the WordPad program window opens, and a WordPad button is displayed on the
Taskbar.
Opening and Closing Menus
1. Move the mouse pointer to the File menu
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2. Click on the File menu
3. Move the mouse pointer to the New command
4. Move the mouse pointer down the list of commands, select Text Document
and click OK.
5. Click on the File menu
 105

Procedure 2
Activating Word Pad
1. Click on the Word Pad button on the Taskbar.
The WordPad window opens. Now type in the following sentence: "My share
of the lunch bill is $".
Opening the Calculator
1. Click on the Start button.
2. Move the mouse pointer to Programs
3. Move the mouse pointer to Accessories
4. Move the mouse pointer Calculator
5. Click on Calculator
The calculator program opens and Ii new button displays on the Taskbar.
Switching Between Programs
1. Click on the WordPad button from the Taskbar.
WordPad becomes the active window and moves to the foreground. The
WordPad button on the Taskbar is now bright and bold.
2. Click on the Calculator button on Taskbar
The Calculator becomes the active window and moves to the foreground.
3. Click on the buttons for 36.75
The number 36.75 displays in the display box.
4. Click on the division (/) button
5. Click on the 5 button
The number 5 display in the display box.
6. Click on the equals (=) button
The result 7.35 is displayed in the display box.
Copying Information to Another Program
1. Click on the Edit menu
2. Click on the Copy command
The number, 7.35 is copied to the Clipboard.
3. Click the Minimize button in the Calculator Window

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The calculator window minimizes to the Taskbar.
4. Make sure the insertion point is at the end of the sentence you typed earlier.
5. Click on the Edit menu
6. Check on the Paste Command
The amount (7.35) pastes at the insertion point.
 106

Now your WordPad window should look similar to the one below

Figure 19
5.8.6 Saving a Document
1. Click on the File menu
2. Click on the Save As command
The Save As dialog box opens, now you specify the name to the file which is
opened currently. Only programs designed specifically for Windows 95 support long
file names. When you create a file name, Windows automatically creates an
equivalent MS-DOS filename in the 8.3 format for compatibility with programs that
don’t support long names.
3. Type Lunch Bill
4. Press the ENTER key
End of example
Setting
Setting option in the Start menu will in turn have three sub-options as shown
in the figure below

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Figure 20
 107

Control Panel
With the help of Control Panel, you will be able to accomplish the following
tasks:
 Change the display of your desktop.
 Change the background of the desktop
 Change the way items on the desktop look
 Change the size of the fonts of your computer displays
 Set up a screen saver
 Adjust the rate at which your cursor blinks
 Adding or Removing Fonts
 Adding a font to your computer
 Deleting a font from your computer.
 Viewing a font on your computer.
 Finding a similar font
 Changing Keyboard Settings
 Change the way your keyboard responds
 Change the keyboard layout for an installed language
 Changing mouse settings
 Reversing your mouse buttons
 Adjusting the Double-click speed for your mouse.
 Adjusting the speed of the mouse pointer
 Changing Multimedia Settings
 Assigning sounds to the programming events.
 Adjusting the volume for multimedia devices.
 Setting up MIDI instrument
 Setting up Windows for multiple users
 Enabling multiple users to personalize settings.
 Logging off your computer so others can use it
 Setting up Hardware
 Setting up a Printer.
 Setting up a modem
 Setting up other hardware
TaskbarANNAMALAI UNIVERSITY
We have learnt all about the Taskbar in Session I. Here we will learn how to do
the following:
Change Taskbar Settings
A. Customizing the Start menu
E.g. To add a program to the Start or Programs menu
 108

1) Click the Start button, and then point to Settings.

2) Click Taskbar, and then click the Start Menu Programs tab.
3) Click Add, and then click Browse.
4) Locate the program you want to add, and then double-click
5) Click Next, and then double-click the menu on which you want the program
to appear.
6) Type the name that you want to see on the menu and then click Finish.
If Windows prompts you to choose an icon, click one, and then click Finish.
Tip: You can also add a program to the top of the Start menu by dragging the
program's icon onto the Start button.
B. Moving the taskbar / Drag the taskbar to a different location.
C. Hiding or displaying toe taskbar
Help
One of the most characteristic features of Windows 95 is the instant and
constant context sensitive help that is available. Here we shill look at the following
options:
Instant Help
You can use any of the following techniques to get brief but immediate help
with just about anything that you see on your screen at the moment:
 To get help with a command button, point to it A ToolTip usually appears (See
figure 21).

Figure 21
 To see what options a particular button or icon offers, try right-clicking on that
button or icon. You may see a menu of options, as shown in figure 22.

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Figure 22
 109

 If you are already in a dialog box or window, you typically can press Fl for help.
Alternatively, if you see the little Question-mark button in the upper-right corner
of the current window, click on that button and then click on whatever item you
have a question about.
Your Electronic Table of Contents
For general information or background on a particular topic, try using the table
of contents for the on-line help system. Follow these steps:
1. Click on Start button, click on Help, and then click on the Contents tab.
2. Open any book by double-clicking on the book.
3. To explore a topic, double-click on it and then click on the Display button.

Figure 23
The table-of-contents technique is most useful when you want to explore a large
subject area, such as “How to use a Fax” or “Tips and Tricks for running programs”.
Your Electronic Index
The on-line help system’s electronic index is basically the same as the index in
the back of a printed book. To use it, click on the Start button, choose Help, and
then click the Index tab. Type the word or phrase you want to lookup.
Searching for a Word or Phrase
When you are in the help window, you may notice that in addition to the
contents and index tabs, the window has a tab called Find. When you use it, the
Find tab may seem to be almost identical to the Index tab, but there are some
differences.

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For one thing, the Index tab takes you to a professionally prepared index that
contains topics that the person who created the Index felt were appropriate for the
index. The Find tab, takes you to a computer prepared Index, which lists every word
that appears in the on-line document - even words such as a and the. In short, Find
provides a much broader search of the material than Index does.
 110

5.8.7 Creating Shortcuts

I. Adding a Program to the Start Menu
1. Click on the Start menu
2. Move the mouse pointer to Settings
3. Click on Taskbar
4. Click on the Start Menu Programs tab

Figure 24
5. Click on the Add button

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Figure 25

6. Click on the Browse button

7. Double- click on the Program Files folder
 111

Figure 26
8. Double –click on the Accessories folder
9. Double – click on Wordpad
10. Click on the Next button
11. Click on Start Menu folder

Figure 27
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12. Click on the Next button
13. Click on the Finish button
14. Click on the OK button
15. Click on the Start button
The Start menu displays with your shortcut to WordPad added to the top of the
menu.
 112

II. Creating a Shortcut to a Floppy, Drive

1. Double-click on My Computer
The My Computer window opens and a button for My Computer displays on
the Taskbar.
2. Position the mouse pointer on the 3 ½ Floppy (A:)
3. Click and hold down the left mouse button
4. Drag the icon to the Desktop
5. Release the mouse button
An image of the icon is displayed on the Desktop.
III. Creating a Shortcut to a Document
1. Double-click on the 3½ Floppy (A:) Shortcut. The 3½ Floppy (A:) window
opens.
2. Position the mouse pointer on any file.
3. Click on the file and hold down the left mouse button
The file highlights.
4. Drag the file to the Desktop
5. Release the mouse button
An Image of the icon displayed on the Desktop.
IV. Printing
A. Printing a Document
1. Double-click on the Shortcut to file icon.
If the file is Word file, first the Word opens, and button for Word displays on the
Taskbar.
2. Click on the File menu
3. Click on the Print command
A message box briefly is displayed, notifying you that the document is being
sent to the Printer. A Printer icon displays in the notification area of the Taskbar.
B. Creating a Shortcut to Your Printer
1. Position the mouse pointer on your printer’s icon in the Printer’s window.
2. Click and hold down on the left mouse button
3. Drag the Printer icon to the Desktop
4. Release the mouse button
The Printer shortcut will be created on the Desktop.
Erasing and Formatting Disks
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You can use My Computer to erase all information from your disks or
Formatting a disk. Follow these steps:
1. Double-click on the My Computer icon
2. Click on 3½ Floppy (A:)
3. Click on the File menu
4. Click on the Format command
 113

The Format dialog box, shown in figure 28, is displayed.

Figure 28
If you want to LABEL the disk follow these steps
i. Click on the Label input in the “Other options” pane
ii. Type Tom
The format dialog box should look similar to the one shown in figure 28
5. Click on the Start button on the format dialog box. Once the process of
formatting completed, the following figure 29 will be displayed

ANNAMALAI UNIVERSITY Figure 29

6. Click on the Close button in figure 29

7. Click on the Close button in figure 28
 114

Shutting Down Windows

1. Click on the Start button
2. Move the mouse pointer to Shut Down
3. Click on Shut Down
The Shut Down Windows dialog box opens.
4. Make sure the Shut down the computer? option is selected
5. Click on Yes
The message "please wait while your computer shuts down" is displayed. When
the message "You can now safely turn off computer" is displayed, you can turn off
your computer.

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 115

GLOSSARY
Access
To obtain the use of the computer resource, the manner (or speed) in which the
files of data are referred to by the computer.
Access time
Time taken to transfer information between the different resources of the
computer
Address
The way a particular location in the computer memory is referenced.
ANSI
(American Notational Standards Institute) An organization that develops and
approves standards in many fields.
Application
The user task performed by a computer ( such as playing a game, making an
airline reservation or processing a company's accounts). Application software carry
out the applications task.
Application language
Computer language which is used for developing commercial applications.
Architecture
Defines how the components within a computer system are interrelated.
Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU)
The part of a computer where arithmetic and logic operations take place.
Sometimes referred to as the arithmetic unit.
Artificial intelligence
The study of how computing can be applied to perform tasks that involve
intellectual, communications and sensory activities akin to those in human beings.
ASCII
(American Standard Code for Information Interchange) A standard code used to
exchange information among data processing and communication systems.
Assembler
A program that takes as input a program written in assembly language and
translates it to machine code.
Assembly language
A low-level programming language, similar in structure to machine code but
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using mnemonic instructions and symbolic addressing.
Automated office
A general term that refers to the merger of computers, office electronic devices,
and telecommunications technology in an office environment.
 116

Backing storage
Computer store (such as magnetic media) used to hold large amounts of
information as a backing to the main memory.
Back up
Alternate files or equipment used in case the original is destroyed or damaged.
Bar Code
A code made up of lines of different widths, which can be read by a special
scanner; often attached to products to provide direct input to a, computer system.
BASIC
It stands for Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code. It is popular
high-level programming language which is easy to learn. .
Binary
A two-state system which can be represented by the digits 0 and 1. Digital
computers perform information processing, store data and transmit information as
binary digits.
Bit
Abbreviation for BInary digiT. Takes the value of 0 or 1.
Bit/s or bps
Bits per second: measure of speed of digital transmission.
Bootstrap
Initialising routine which sets up the required program when a system is
started up.
Buffer
A storage device used to compensate for the difference in rates of flow of data
from one device to another.
Bus
The means of exchanging information between the components of a computer
and of providing connections to the external input, output and storage. Includes
specialised buses for data and other functions.
Byte
A group of 8 bits, generally the length of a coded character but some machines
have different bit-lengths for characters.
Cartridge
A container for a magnetic disk or tape.
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Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The main control unit is a von Neumann architecture; includes at least the ALU
and CU and, in some systems, also main memory.
Character
A basic unit of computer coded data.
 117

Chip
A piece of material (such as silicon) about a quarter-inch square containing
integrated transistor circuits.
Circuit
An interlinked set of electronic components, which creates a path through
which electrons can flow to perform certain tasks.
Clock
A device that generates the periodic clock signals used to control the timing of
all processor operations.
COBOL (Acronym for Common Business Oriented Language)
High-level language widely used for commercial applications.
Compiler
A program that translates high-level language into absolute code, or sometimes
into assembly language. The input to the compiler is a description of an algorithm or
program in a problem orientated language; its output (the object code) is an
equivalent description of the algorithm in a machine-orientated language (the source
code).
Computer
Consists of (at least) a processor, memory and ports for input/output
Computer-Aided Design (CAD)
Application that assists in the design of new products and buildings and in the
drafting of design drawings.
Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM)
Application, which covers all stages of the production process; can be linked
directly to a CAD system.
Configuration
The elements which comprise a computer system.
Control Unit
The part of a computer, which controls the sequence of actions by the program
and input/output operations; contain circuits which decode instructions and
addresses.
DASD
Acronym for direct-access storage device.
Data
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Synonymous with information but generally used for the representation and
processing of information by a computer system.
Data processing
Could apply to any type of computerised information processing but generally
used to describe administrative, accounting and commercial computing work.
 118

Database
Computerised information organised to make its storing, updating and retrieval
efficient and reliable.
Database management system
The design and software techniques used to organise the database structure
and provide access to information in it.
Desktop system
A complete computer system small enough to fit on an office desk.
Digital
Representation of information by discrete numerical quantities.
Direct access
Access to information on computer storage by going directly to the required
item wherever it is held on the medium; disks are direct access devices.
Disk
see Magnetic disk.
Diskette
see floppy disk.
EBCDIC
(Extended Binary-Coded Decimal Interchange Code) An 8-bit code used to
represent data in modem computers.
Editor
Software, which enables the user to edit information stored in a computer, such
as updating and revising the draft of a document or amending a program to correct a
bug.
End user
A term often used by computer professionals and manufacturers to refer to the
person who uses the final service or product.
End-user language
Language which enables programs to be written by an end user without any
programming expertise.
Erasable PROM
A PROM whose program can be erased, by shining an ultraviolet light onto the
ROM; the ROM can then be reprogrammed.

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Error messages
Output from a computer to warn the user that something has gone wrong and
what, if anything, i can be done about it.
Execute
To initiate and carry out an instruction or a complete routine or program.
Facsimile
Electronic transmission of the image of a document from one point to another.
 119

Field
The basic structural element in a file, a number of fields go to form a record
and records are grouped to form files.
File
Information organised into an interrelated set of records, such as a student file
or product file.
Floppy disk
Disk storage made of thin flexible material used for I/O and secondary storage
purposes.
Gallium arsenide
A semiconductor alternative to silicon chips.
Graphics
Information in the form of drawings, graphs and pictorial images rather than
alphanumeric text. These are special graphics terminals and input and output
devices.
Hard copy
See printout.
Hard disk
A rigid magnetic oxide-coated disk with a higher capacity than a floppy disk
and held in a cartridge container.
Hardware
The physical equipment of a computer system.
Hard-wired
Fixed electronic code patterns.
Hexadecimal
A number system with 16 digits used for data representation in a computer.
High-level language
A programming language designed to match the information processing needs
of the application; uses commands and statement structures similar to a restricted
form of a natural language.
Housekeeping routines
Systems software which helps organise the use of available resources,
particularly in the allocation and deployment of storage space.
Icons
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Pictures or drawings, typically displayed on a visual display screen surface, to
allow users to select program options.
Information retrieval
The use of a computer to search and extract information from a database.
 120

Information technology
The devices and techniques used, to store, process, manage, transmit and
communicate information; encompasses various' technologies such as computing,
microelectronics and telecommunications.
Input
Information entered into a computer system for processing; actual entering of
data.
Instructions per second
Measurement of the power of a processor.
Integrated Circuit (IC)
Circuits composed of many transistors, which have been reduced in size and
placed together in a single physical element, typically onto a silicon chip.
Interactive
An application where the user is involved in a continuous dialogue with the
system.
Interface
The junction between two devices. It consists of the software modules or other
elements involved ill the operation of a computer.
Interpreter
A language processor that analyses a line of code and then carries out the
specified actions, rather than producing a machine-code translation to be executed
later.
Keyboard
Means of typing input to a computer; part of a (Visual Display Unit) VDU.
Line printer
Impact printer which prints a line at a time.
Low-level language
A programming language that is dependent on the machine on which it runs.
Examples are machine language and assembly language ( see Assembly language).
Machine code
The numeric codes which form a computer's instruction set (see Low-level
language).
Magnetic disk
Disks coated with magnetic material; used to store data.
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Magnetic media
Backing storage, which stores information as bits according to the
magnetisation of tiny elements on ~e surface of the medium.
Magnetic tape
Tapes coated with magnetic material; used to store computer data:
 121

Main memory
Memory 1inked directly to the processor which holds programs and data
required for immediate processing; sometimes regarded as part of the CPU.
Management Information, System (MIS)
A range of computing services which provide management and administrative
staff with timely and accurate information and aids to assist carrying out their work.
Mass storage
Backing storage which contains large amounts of information.
Memory
Synonymous with computer storage but usually used in relation to main
memory.
Microprocessor
A CPU on a-chip; a device that provides the basic arithmetic, 'logic, and control
circuits required for processing.
Minicomputer
A relatively fast but small and inexpensive computer with somewhat limited
input/output capabilities.
Mouse
A device, which moves the cursor on a screen in the same direction that the
mouse is used on a flat surface.
Object code
The binary machine code produced by a compiler, assembler or interpreter after
translating the source program.
On-line
Activity in direct communications with a computer, say by a terminal linked to
a remote system.
Operating System
Essential systems software, which coordinates and controls the scheduling of
work on the system and the use of the system's resources.
Operator
Person who supervises and carries out the necessary physical tasks and. is
involved in processing work on a computer system.
Output
The results of computer processing, which could, for example, be presented on
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a WU display or on a printer.
Pascal
A High-level language used for a variety of applications. Named after French
mathematician and philosopher Blaise Pascal.
 122

Password
A codeword used as part of the logging-in procedure to help check that data is
accessed only by an authorised person.
Peripheral
Input, output and backing store devices which form part of a computer system.
Personal Computer (PC)
A microcomputer whose main application is for personal use rather than for
corporate problem solving.
Personal computing
A capability provided on a terminal in a computer network which offers similar
functions to a personal computer.
Pixel
A pixel is a single dot on a display screen. By turning each pixel on or off, the
processor is able to paint a graphic image.
Port
Connection where an external device can be linked to the internal bus of a
computer or where communication channels are linked to a computer system.
Portability
It is the ability to move a program from one computer to another. It is one of the
objectives of high-level languages.
Printer
Output device which prints results on paper.
Printout
Output on a printer, also called hardcopy.
Processor
Hardware unit, which performs arithmetic and logic operations, controls the
sequence of processing and coordinates input, output and storage activities.
Program
A sequence of detailed instructions stored in a computer which automatically
controls the actions of the hardware.
Programmable ROM
A read only memory which is programmed by the user rather than the supplier
but which cannot be reprogrammed (see Erasable PROM).

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Programming language
The vocabulary and rules which can be used to write programs.
Random Access
Random Access Memory (RAM)
Main memory on a chip which allows the user to read from and, Write to it, so
that programs and data in it can be changed.
 123

Read Only Memory (ROM)

Main memory on a chip with hard-wired programs and data.
Record
A data structure which forms part of a file; usually composed of a number of
fields.
Run
The act of initiating and performing a program.
Secondary key
Any key, other than the primary key used to access data.
Sector
A portion of a track on the surface of a magnetic disk used to store a specified
number of characters.
Semiconductor
A substance, such as silicon, halfway between a conductor and insulator in
allowing the flow of electronic current suited to the construction of transistors.
Serial access
Access to data by searching sequentially through a storage medium such as a
magnetic tape.
Silicon
A semiconductor material widely used to make computer chips.
Software
Generic term for computer programs which are stored in and control the
operation of hardware.
Source code
Software in the language written by the user before it has been translated into
machine-code object form.
System
All hardware and software which interact to carry out an application task.
Systems software
Software, suet vas an operating system, concerned primarily with coordinating
and controlling hardware and communication resources rather than applications
tasks.
Telecommunications

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Transmission of information from one location to another without the actual
physical transportation, for example by electronic data links.
Tele-conferencing
The electronic linking of geographically scattered people participating at their
convenience.
 124

Terminal
A device used for input, output and communications with a computer- over
telecommunication links.
Transistor
A small electronic device, which can act as a switch or amplifier and can be
built into integrated circuits for use as computer processors and memory.
User
General term for the person, group or organisation operating the computer to
perform an applications task.
User-tiredly
Appealing to a user with no previous computing expertise.
Utilities
General housekeeping systems software programs.
Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI)
Measure of the circuit density of a chip, greater than large scale integration.
Visual Display Unit (VDU)
A device with a TV-like display screen and associated keyboard.
Volatile memory
A storage device which loses its memory when its power supply is switched off.
Winchester disk
A compact, high capacity hard disk, typically of 8-inch diameter and held in a
sealed cartridge.
Word
A set of bits handled as a basic storage unit; can be of different bit lengths on
different architectures.
Written and Edited by
APTECH LIMITED
Edite Auto House,
54-A, Sir M. Vasanji Road,
Andheri (East),
Mumbai - 400 093.
5.9 Key words
MS-DOS - Microsoft Disk Operating System

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GUI
NOS
-
-
Graphical User Interface
Novell Operating System
LAN - Local Area Network
5.10 Summary
Operating systems perform basic tanks, such an recognizing input from the
keyword, sending output to the display screen keeping track to files and the
 125

directories on the disk and controlling peripheral devices such as disk drive and
printer.
Multi user operating systems refers to a computer system that supports two or
more simultaneous users. Multiprocessing operating system refers to a computer
system ability to support more than one process (program) at the same time.
Dos is an Acronym for Disk operating system. MS DOS was the standard
operating system for IBM-Compatible personal computers MS DOS uses the
standard operating system for IBM compatible personal computers.
Operating system can be grouped according to functionality: operating system
for super composing render forms mainframes, servers, construction, desk ages,
handheld devices, real time systems, or embedded systems.
5.11 Assignments
1. List the features of windows 95
2. Write note on the following
(i) LAN, MAN, WAN
(ii) www.IE
(iii) Internet and Internet
3. Write short notes on
(i) Task bars
(ii) Browsing
(iii) Speed of computers
4. What is operating system
5. What is meant by browsing
6. How to many window explorer
5.12 References
1. Introduction to computers by C. Xavier II Edition
2. Introduction to Introduction Technology, ITC Solution Limited
3. Computer fundamentals by B. Ram

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 126

PREFACE

Computers can no longer be termed as a mere invention - they are a revolution.

And the way we live now is an evidence of this revolution, so much so that it hard to
imagine a world without them. There is no area in the field of work, learning, play or
leisure that has remained untouched by computers. Naturally, for us to make in any
of those areas, learning about computers has become quite necessary.
The very first step towards this is to possess a basic knowledge of computer
fundamentals.
Unit - 1 of this book deals with basics of computer fundamentals and various
area of its application. The basic concepts of data and information are dealt in detail.
Unit - 2 deals with various peripherals and use of data storage devices and the
role of software in application developments
Unit - 3 deals with the internals of Computers and various measures of
software maintenance.
Unit - 4 deals with Number Systems arid the arithmetic involved in
computations.
The last Unit deals in detail with the concepts of operating systems and
Windows 95, the GUI Operating System and its features.
However, while designing this course, we have presumed that a person doing
this course has the basic awareness of computer knowledge would be helpful, but
not entirely necessary.
The knowledge and information in this book the result of a concentrated effort
of the Design Team, which is continuously striving to bring you the best and the
latest in Information Technology. The process of Design has been apart of the ISO
9001 certification for Aptech - IT Division, Education Support Services. As a part of
Aptech's quality, drive, this team does intensive research and curriculum
enrichment to keep it in line with the industry trends.
We will be glad to receive your suggestions. Please send us your feedback,
addressed to the Design Head at Aptech’s Corporate Office, Mumbai,
Design Team, H.O. Mumbai

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