02

Chemistry of Life
Molecules of Cell
Konsep Biologi A
The
Kingdoms of
Life
 Macromolecules

Atoms Organelle
Molecules

Cell
Biosphere
Biome
Ecosystem

Tissue

Organism
Community Population Organ Organ
System
Evolution
Mitochondria and Chloroplasts

• Thought to originate from a symbiotic relationship

between a bacterium and the cell
• Contain their own DNA
• Can replicate without cell replication
The Scale
of Things
http://www.cellsalive.co
m/howbig.htm
 Matter

• The “stuff” of the universe

• Anything that has mass and occupies
space
• Mass vs. Weight (amount of matter vs.
force)
• States of Matter
• Solid – has definite shape and
volume
• Liquid – has definite volume,
changeable shape
• Gas – has changeable shape and
volume
 Elements – unique
substances that
cannot be broken Each element is
down into simpler composed of
substances by Atoms
ordinary chemical

Composition means

of Matter Physical and

Chemical Atomic symbol –
properties of an one- or two-letter
element’s atoms chemical
give the element shorthand for
its unique each element
properties
Atomic Structure
• The Nucleus consists of Neutrons and
Protons
• Neutrons – have no charge
(Neutral) and a mass of one
atomic mass unit (amu)
• Protons – have a Positive charge
and a mass of one amu
• Electrons have a negative charge and
1/2000 the mass of a proton (0 amu)
• Electrons – are located in regions
(Orbitals) around the nucleus
Atomic
Structure:
Examples of
Different
Elements
Examples
of Elements
Major Elements of the Human
Body

• Oxygen (O) – major component of organic and

inorganic molecules; as a gas, needed for the
production of ATP
• Carbon (C) – component of all organic
molecules – carbohydrates, lipids, proteins,
and nucleic acids
• Hydrogen (H) – component of all organic
molecules; as an ion, it influences pH (degree
of acidity or alkalinity) of body fluids
• Nitrogen (N) – component of proteins and
nucleic acids
Lesser and Trace Elements of the Human Body
• Other Elements
Calcium (Ca), Phosphorus (P), Potassium (K), Sulfur (S),
Sodium (Na), Chlorine (Cl), Magnesium (Mg), Iodine (I),
and Iron (Fe)
• Trace Elements
Required in minute amounts, many are found as parts of
enzymes: Selenium (Se), Zinc (Zn), Copper (Cu)
Chemical Composition
of the Human Body
• Oxygen or O – 65%
• Carbon or C – 18.5%
• Hydrogen or H – 9.5%
• Nitrogen or N – 3.2%
• Calcium or Ca – 1.5%
• Phosphorous or P – 1.0%
Chemical
Constituents of
Cells
• Inorganic Molecules do not
contain carbon and hydrogen
together, do have other important
roles (water, salts, and many
acids and bases)

• Organic Molecules contain

carbon covalently bonded to
other atoms, determine structure
and function
Chemical Constituents of Cells
Common Inorganic Compounds:
Oxygen
Water
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
In Blood: CO2 + H2 + O2 H2CO3
In Lungs: H2CO3 H2O + CO2
Carbon – “living” chemistry depends on C

What makes Carbon so special?

Carbon (C) has 4 electrons in its outer shell. Because

8 electrons are needed to fill its valence shell, it can form strong, stable
covalent bonds with 4 other atoms (usually H, O, N, S, P, or another C).
Carbon can bind to itself, which allows the
formation of different carbon-based molecules
with unique structures

Carbon atoms can form...

long chains,

branches,

and ring structures.

Carbon Bonds
Adjacent carbon atoms can also form Double and Triple bonds.

carbon-carbon double bond

carbon-carbon single bond

carbon-carbon triple bond

Organic Molecules – Monomers and Polymers
Class Monomer (subunit) Polymer
Carbohydrates Sugar Polysaccharides
Lipids Fatty Acids Lipids, Phospholipids
Proteins Amino Acids Proteins
Nucleic Acids Nucleotides (DNA, RNA)

Subunits Large Molecules

Sugars Polysaccharides

Fatty Acids Fats/Lipids/Membranes

Amino Acids Proteins

Nucleotides Nucleic Acids

Chemical Constituents of Cells

• Common Organic Substances:

• Carbohydrates – monosaccharides, disaccharides, &
polysaccharides
• Lipids – saturated & unsaturated fats
• Proteins – enzymes, antibodies, structural protein (e.g. collagen)
• Nucleic Acids - nucleotides & polynucleotides
Organic Molecules – Four Classes

Lipids
Carbohydrates

Proteins Nucleic Acids

The chemical properties of the different classes

depend on the presence of specific functional
groups.
The larger molecules in each class are formed by
joining one or more subunit molecules together.
Carbohydrates

• Contain carbon, hydrogen, and

oxygen, generally the hydrogen to
carbon ratio is 2:1 (same as water)
carbohydrate – “hydrated carbon”
• Classified as:
• Monosaccharide – “one
sugar”- exist
as straight chains or rings
• Disaccharide – “two sugars”
• Polysaccharide – “ many
sugars”
Carbohydrates – Types
of Polysaccharides
• Starch - straight chain of glucose
molecules, few side branches. Energy
storage for plant cells.

• Glycogen - highly branched polymer of

glucose, storage carbohydrate of animals.

• Cellulose - chain of glucose molecules,

structural carbohydrate, primary constituent
of plant cell walls.

• Chitin - polymer of glucose with amino

acids attached, primary constituent of
exoskeleton
Lipids

• Four Types of Lipids

• Neutral Fats or
Triglycerides
• Phospholipids
• Steroids
• Other Lipoid substances –
eicosanoids, lipoproteins
Lipids

• Lipids are insoluble in water but

are soluble in other lipids and in
organic solvents (alcohol, ether) or
detergents
• Most of the structure of lipids is
non-polar, formed almost
exclusively of carbon and
hydrogen atoms.
• Contain C, H, and O, but the
proportion of oxygen in lipids is
less than in carbohydrates
Neutral Fats (Triglycerides or Triacylglyycerols)
Total Fat = 5 grams

Saturated Fat = 1 gram

What is the rest of the fat?

Unsaturated
Monounsaturated
Polyunsaturated
Hydrogenated
Cis and Trans fats
Representative Lipids Found in the Body

Steroids – cholesterol,
Neutral fats – found in Phospholipids – chief
bile salts, vitamin D, sex
subcutaneous tissue and component of cell
hormones, and adrenal
around organs membranes
cortical hormones

Lipoproteins (HDL, LDL) –

combinations of fat and
Fat-soluble vitamins –
protein that transport fatty
vitamins A, E, and K
acids and cholesterol in
the bloodstream
 Importance of
Lipids
• Long- term Energy storage - highest caloric values per weight

• Chemical messengers – steroid hormones (testosterone & estrogen)

• Cell membranes – phospholipids, cholesterol

Proteins
Protein is the basic structural material of the
body – 10 to 30% of cell mass
Many other vital functions – enzymes,
hemoglobin, contractile proteins, collagen, even
proteins that help and protect other proteins

Most are macromolecules, large (100 to 10,000

a.a.), complex molecules composed of
combinations of 20 types of amino acids bound
together with peptide bonds
Proteins
s truc tura l m ate ria l

e ne rgy s ourc e

horm one s

re c e ptors

e nzym e s

a ntibodie s

building bloc ks a re a m ino a c ids

Note: amino acids held together
with peptide bonds
 Proteins : Amino Acids
20 types of building blocks for protein molecules
Each amino acid contains an amine group, a
carboxyl group (COOH), and a functional (R) group

Differences in the R group make each amino acid

chemically unique
Structural Levels of
Proteins

• Primary
• Secondary
• Tertiary
• Quaternary
Fibrous and Globular Proteins

Fibrous proteins • Extended and strandlike proteins

• Insoluble in water and very stable
(structural • Examples: keratin, elastin, collagen, and
proteins) contractile fibers (actin and myosin)

Globular proteins • Compact, spherical proteins

(functional • Insoluble in water and chemically active
proteins) • Examples: antibodies, hormones, and enzymes
Characteristics of
Enzymes

• Most are globular proteins that act as

biological catalysts
• Enzymes are chemically specific
• Frequently named for the type of reaction
they catalyze
• Enzyme names usually end in –ase (e.g.,
amylase, protease, nuclease, triose
phosphate isomerase, hexokinase)
• Lower activation energy
Characteristics of Enzymes
Mechanism of Enzyme
Action

• Enzyme binds
substrate(s) at active
site
• Product is formed at a
lower activation energy
• Product is released
Protein Denaturation
• The activity of a protein
depends on its three-
dimensional structure.
• Intramolecular bonds,
especially hydrogen bonds,
maintain the structure.
• Hydrogen bonds may
break when the pH drops or
the temperature rises above
normal
Nucleic Acids – polymers
of Nucleotides

• Composed of carbon, oxygen,

hydrogen, nitrogen, and phosphorus
• Nucleotides are composed of N-
containing base, a pentose sugar, and
a phosphate group
• Five nitrogen bases – adenine (A),
guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymine (T),
and uracil (U)
• Two major classes – DNA and RNA
Nucleic Acids – polymers of Nucleotides
• Nucleotides are composed of N-containing base, a pentose
sugar, and a phosphate group
• Five nitrogen bases – adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C),
thymine (T), and uracil (U)

Adenine and Guanine

Purines – 2-ring structure

Cytosine, Thymine, Uracil

Pyrimidines – 1-ring structure
 Structure of DNA

Nucleotides are linked by hydrogen bonds between

their complementary bases
A always bonds to T
G always bonds to C
Structure of DNA
A coiled, double-stranded
polymer of nucleotides
The molecule is referred
To as a double helix

Alternating sugar
and phosphate?
Joined bases?
 Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
• Double-stranded helical molecule found in the
nucleus of the cell (also in mitochondria)
• Replicates itself before the cell divides, ensuring
genetic continuity - it is the genetic material inherited
form parents – it is the genetic code
• Provides instructions for protein synthesis

DNA →RNA →Protein Synthesis →

Proteins and Enzymes →Structure and Metabolism
Ribonucleic Acid
(RNA)

• Single-stranded molecule found

in both the nucleus and the
cytoplasm of a cell
• Sugar is Ribose instead of
Deoxyribose
• Uses the nitrogenous base
Uracil instead of Thymine
• Three varieties of RNA:
messenger RNA, transfer RNA,
and ribosomal RNA
 Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

• Adenine-containing
RNA nucleoside with
three phosphate groups
• Source of immediately
usable energy for the
cell

Although glucose is the

main cellular fuel, the chemical energy contained in its
bonds is not directly used, but the energy released during
glucose catabolism is coupled to the synthesis of ATP.
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